Gender issues in higher education in Pakistan The ACU s Women s Programme aims to work through issues faced by women and gender practitioners in institutions all over the Commonwealth. Here, Saeeda Asadullah Khan looks at the specific case of Pakistan. We would do well to remember the words of the 19th century American essayist, Henry David Thoreau If a man does not keep pace with his companions perhaps it is because he hears a different drummer. Let him step to the music which he hears, however measured or far away. The music metaphor is particularly apt for where I am going to step, because, by and large, I don t think I hear the music they do. As a woman born during the first decade of Pakistan, I think there are many aspects of the present situation which are reassuring. There has clearly been a change in the opportunities available to and availed by young women in higher education. But when I look at it from another angle, what I see is a pattern of unequal human achievement that relates to gender issues and equity. I am uneasy with the pattern of progress, which appears to be tilted to the dominance of one group at the expense of the other. Questions arise as to where this will lead us. If not addressed, it will lead to rather distressing consequences; as gender issues are about beliefs, assumptions, presuppositions, philosophies and teacher skills, and can cripple the educational process. It is relatively recently that media, NGOs and other national and international organisations have started voicing their concern on issues of gender equity, female empowerment, gender bias, gender studies, and the like, particularly in countries labelled as being predominantly patriarchal and part of the developing world. With particular reference to Pakistan, there exists considerable diversity in the status of women across classes, regions and the rural and urban divide. This lack of homogeneity in the status of woman is due to uneven socio-economic development and the impact of tribal, feudal, and capitalist social formations on women s lives. By and large, women s situation vis-à-vis men are that of systematic subordination, determined by the forces of patriarchy across classes and regions. Patriarchal values, embedded in Pakistani society, and in its local traditions and culture, predetermine the social value of gender. Women are mostly placed in reproductive roles as mothers and wives in their private lives at home, whereas men shine in a productive role on the public scene as breadwinners. This has led to a low level of resource investment in women by the family and the state. This low investment in women s human capital, compounded by negative social biases and cultural practices, restrictions on women s mobility and the internalisation of patriarchy by women themselves, becomes the basis for gender discrimination and disparities in all spheres of life. The preference for sons due to their productive role dictates the allocation of household resources in their favour. Male members of the family are given better education and are equipped with skills to compete for resources in the outside world. On the other hand, female family members are taught domestic skills how to be good mothers and wives. Consequently, their lack of professional skills, the limited opportunities available to them in the job market and social and cultural restrictions limit women s chances to compete for resources in a world outside
the four walls of their homes. This situation hence leads to the social and economic dependency of women, and the supremacy and dominance of men over them in all social relationships. It is true at the same time that the nature and degree of women s oppression or subordination vary across classes, regions and the rural and urban divide. Male dominant structures are relatively more marked in the rural and tribal setting where local customs and indigenous laws establish male authority and power over women. In this milieu, women are given little to no opportunity to create choices for themselves in order to change their condition. On the contrary, women belonging to the upper and middle classes have increasingly greater access to education and employment opportunities and can assure greater control over their lives. Social customs and traditions, illiteracy, limited facilities of technical and vocational training and lack of employment opportunities have historically hampered the integration of women in the mainstream of development activities in Pakistan. Women s development during the past five decades has suffered mostly due to a lack of political commitment as well as to growth-oriented, rather than equity-oriented, economic policies coupled with the implementation of a set of laws that are highly discriminatory against women. The UN Human Development Index, along with indicators of gender inequality, has highlighted the need to focus upon provision of opportunities for Pakistani women in all spheres of life, and the creation of a just and secure environment in terms of their legal and human rights. Pakistan is rich in human resources. Many of its highly professional workers, such as doctors, engineers and scientists, are working all across the world in the Middle East, USA, Europe, Australia, and Canada. Still, the labour force participation rate in Pakistan is comparatively low, mainly due to the low participation of females. There may be several explanations for the low rate of female participation, such as marriage at an early age, strong social and cultural influences on exposure given to women, and the absence of an organised labour market which attracts females to work. 1 It goes without saying that the progress and prosperity of a country largely depends on the choices of education made available to its people. Education is the backbone of the infrastructure of any country. It is one of the most powerful instruments of change. It is the key element which helps nations achieve their national goals through producing young minds imbued with knowledge, skills and competencies to shape its future destiny. Article 37 of the Constitution of Pakistan stipulates that education is the fundamental right of every citizen. But with the above background, where, in learning to be a woman in society, women internalise the patriarchal ideology and play an instrumental role in transferring and recreating this gender ideology through the process of socialisation of their children, the female literacy rate presents a dismal picture. Despite the overall improvement in Pakistan s literacy rate since its independence in 1947, the education sector has not made any giant leaps. The literacy rate still falls far behind most of the countries in the region. It may have risen generally; however, with the increase in population, the number of illiterate Pakistanis has more than doubled, while the number of illiterate women has tripled. 1 Federal Bureau of Statistics, Pakistan
Strong gender disparities exist in literacy and educational attainment between rural and urban areas and between the provinces. The literacy rate in urban areas has been recorded as 58.3% while in rural areas it is 28.3%, and only 12% among rural women. 2 There are also considerable inequalities in literacy rates among the four provinces, especially disparities between males and females. 3 An interesting factor in this context is that female enrolment is recorded as high at the primary level, but it progressively decreases at secondary, college and tertiary levels. It is estimated that less than 3% of the 17-23 age group have access to higher education. 4 Women in particular have limited opportunities to acquire higher education and attain professional and technical degrees. Besides the cultural prescription of gender roles, this disparity is also due to an inadequate number of vocational training and professional institutions for women. Out of around 200 professional colleges in the country, 10-15 exist exclusively for women, with the female enrolment rate half that of boys. Similarly, the gender ratio in public sector universities is recorded at 30-35%. The number of polytechnic institutes exclusively for women is also very low. This deficiency impedes women pursuing higher education, particularly those belonging to highly conservative families and where studying in a co-education environment is practically a taboo. However, it is interesting to note that, despite the meagre representation of females in the education sector, particularly at the tertiary level, the level of achievement of females is consistently far higher than that of boys. Girls generally outclass boys in examinations, and high achievers at university level are also females. It is a sad state of affairs that, despite their commitment to the cause of education, their innate skills, their competence and their will, women are either unable to scale the ladder up to the last step or, even if they do, they are faced with heavy odds. In a society where the ideal marriageable age for a girl is considered to be somewhere between 17-20 years, few would complete their education. The luckier few who would might not be allowed, after marriage, to have a profession due to family pressures exerted, mostly by the boy s family. Though the government of Pakistan stands committed to providing access to education for every citizen, its budget allocation in the education sector has been inadequate. In the 1990s, public expenditure on education was around 2.3% of GNP as against the minimum desired of 4% for developing countries. In the year 2000-2001, expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP was 1.82%; there has been a slight increase in 2006-2007, to 2.42%, though this is still the lowest compared to other sectors. 5 The dilemma is that gender concerns are not fully mainstreamed in the country s education planning and management policies. Though the situation of urban women is better compared to their counterparts in the rural sector, where parents are unable to afford the cost of education and access to schools is limited, it is far from being ideal, and higher education is no less than a dream. This lack of education is compounded by dogmatic attitudes and socio-economic factors that inhibit girls education; consequently, the tendency is to invest in boys, if at all. In the wake of these major issues related to women in higher education, the Pakistan government has nevertheless made efforts to strengthen the role of women in this sector and their contribution to social development in general. From 2000, the access of women to higher education has 2 Ibid 3 Pakistan is divided into four provinces: Balochistan, Punjab, Sindh and North West Frontier Province. 4 Federal Bureau of Statistics, Pakistan 5 Federal Bureau of Statistics/Ministry of Education, Pakistan
improved significantly. However, their participation in the scientific and technical fields is still inadequate, as it is in the decision-making process. Women who do enter universities often tend to follow courses in the arts and social sciences rather than in pure sciences. This is due to the fact that a number of cultural barriers still exist which seriously impede their development as citizens and also as professionals. In this connection, certain aspects of the courses chosen by women need to be reviewed so that they become predominant in a given profession and have their share in the decision-making process of that field. The same goes for the promotion of women in science at all levels of education, so as to allow them access to careers in this field. The past twenty years have witnessed significant, though not yet sufficient, enrolment of women in higher education. The National Education Census (2005) still does not give a very encouraging picture. The university enrolment of girls is 63,110 while that of boys 131,861. The progress has certainly been due in part to specific strategies which have focused attention on the inequalities to be redressed. Policymakers have been sensitised to the rights of women and to the need to open all levels of education to their greater numbers. In general, female enrolments have improved and in future may even exceed that of men it is earnestly hoped. Female empowerment has been assigned top priority. A number of policy measures and programmes for the education of females have been initiated, including the introduction of mixed schools, and the provision of basic facilities and services in female primary schools. Besides, in order to ensure the availability of female teachers, 70% of primary school teacher posts have been reserved for females. A non-formal education programme for rural women aged 15-25 has also been launched, in an effort to give incentives to rural females. This combines literacy skills (reading, writing and basic arithmetic) with health, hygiene, population education, productive and marketable skills and environment. Humanistic, ethical and cultural aspects have been integrated in the formal as well as non-formal education systems of the country. These aspects are also highlighted through the electronic media. The new information technologies available for rural women include electronic media. These are being extensively used for the non-formal education of the rural populace, including women even in the urban sectors. The opening of Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) in the 1970s, with its distance learning programmes from diploma to graduate and postgraduate levels, has also provided great incentives to females otherwise denied access to formal higher education. In addition to this, a major breakthrough was the establishment of the first university for females, the Fatima Jinnah Women University (FJWU), in December 1998. 6 FJWU, located in main Rawalpindi (twin city of Islamabad the capital), has introduced a new chapter in the evolution of higher education in Pakistan. Initially, the idea of a women s university was as much opposed by the liberals as it was advanced and supported by the orthodox quarters of the society. Interestingly, the outcome of FJWU s output has greatly helped reconcile these two factions: the remarkable performance of its graduates in responsible positions nationwide underscores the significance of training the young women of Pakistan to live up to the challenges of the fast-changing world of the new millennium. Indeed, rather than promoting segregation, the university equips its students with technical and social skills characteristic of human capital required for sustainable economic 6 Named after the Muslim freedom fighter and sister of the Founder of the Nation, Fatima Jinnah.
development and progressive social transformation. Based on the landmark achievements of this university, other women s universities have been instituted in the major cities of Pakistan and the model is also being replicated by other Asian countries. FJWU commenced its first academic session in December 1998, with 350 Master s degree students enrolled across eight disciplines, including business administration, public administration, Islamic studies, computer science, economics, education, English, and fine arts. Within a short span of eight years, the enrolment has increased to about 4000 and another five disciplines have been added to the Master s degree programme defence and diplomatic studies, environmental sciences, communication science, behavioural sciences and gender studies. Some of the disciplines have been pioneered in Pakistan by FJWU, specifically the Bachelor s in Computer Arts (BCA), a four-year professional degree programme introduced in 2000, along with the Bachelor s in Software Engineering. It is one of the pioneering universities implementing the vision of the Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan by instituting a four-year Bachelor s degree programme. 7 Currently, FJWU is offering Bachelor s degree programmes across all the disciplines introduced for Masters degrees. The first regular session of Bachelors General at FJWU will graduate in 2009. Efforts are also in progress to ensure the internationally competitive quality of the nascent PhD programme at the university. However, even in its infancy, the university s PhD programme is second to none in terms of theoretical clarity, research output and analytical ability of enrolled scholars. The women studying at FJWU are further empowered by the exposure provided by the university to the wider world of academia. The university s drive for women s empowerment is also highlighted by the headway its students have made in extracurricular activities. Be it interuniversity sports, literary activities, debates or performing arts, participants from FJWU have always done their university proud. Apart from ensuring the personal growth of students by promoting an interactive teaching and learning culture, the courses offered across all disciplines at the university keep pace and consistency with job market demands. The hallmark of curricula at the university is the externally evaluated mandatory research theses required at all levels. The high quality of academic research conducted at the university is endorsed by the papers appearing in international journals authored by university graduates and faculty. The university targets expansion of access to education at all levels especially higher education; improvement of the quality of education, particularly for girls and women; removal of the obstacles hampering girls and women s participation in higher education; and elimination of gender stereotyping in education. Its graduates are making significant contributions in nationbuilding and the university is destined to grow exponentially once the mega-project of its new campus is completed and the university overcomes the formidable constraint of finding qualified professionals and physical space for the expansion of academic excellence in an enabling knowledge-creating environment. 7 A Presidential Ordinance established the HEC on 11 September 2002. Its objectives include the development of universities in Pakistan to world-class centres of education, research and development.
There were no universities for females in the public sector until 1998, and none in the private sector until 1997. Bearing this in mind, there are presently four women s universities in the public sector out of a total of 49, whereas, in the private sector, the balance has remained at one against a total of 36. As for degree-awarding institutions, there is only one degree-awarding institute for females out of a total of eight in the public sector, and none out of 18 in the private sector. 8 The Prime Minister s Literary Commission has a special focus on women s and girls education with incentives of providing stipends, textbooks and nutritious food to female children. The establishment of the Educational Television Channel (ETV) in 1993 has made significant contributions in educating the masses, and is a strong source of non-formal education in the country. The programmes are largely aimed at adults who are keen to improve their knowledge and vocational skills. The National Policy for the Development and Empowerment of Women, announced by the government in March 2002, addresses all critical areas pertaining to women. The policy contains key guidelines and directions for ensuring women s participation in the socio-economic development of the country. The National Plan of Action (NPA), prepared as a follow-up to the fourth UN world conference on women held in Beijing in 1995, addresses critical areas that are vital for promoting the empowerment of women. Education and training are the major pillars of these areas. The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) is a key policy through which the government seeks to address gender disparity. The PRSP includes policy measures being adopted by the government to enhance women s capacities and opportunities in the economic and social sectors. Women s polytechnics, gender-specific programmes for greater gender equity and progress in training women in NGOs are some other steps taken in this direction. With this, the government hopes to increase higher education enrolment from 2.6% to 5%. 9 Considerable attention has been directed at higher education. Institutions of higher learning, especially universities, have played a leading role in exposing gender imbalances in general. Most of the research or gender sensitisation activities have had large inputs from universities. Indeed, programmes to correct gender imbalances at primary and secondary levels have often been initiated by higher education institutions to remove overall gender disparities in higher education systems, including enrolment, academic performance, recruitment, staff training, promotion and social relations. There is room to negotiate and to create change. Change agents need to balance agency and structure, and provide mutual support and a critical understanding of pedagogy for those attempting to form their university/school. Individual academics/teachers cannot change the system alone. Collective collaborative work is essential. A change in attitudes is not enough. There is a need to emphasise the public arena as well, with advocacy activities which target policymakers in government and external agencies. At the same time, key civil society organisations can expand 8 Federal Bureau of Statistics, Pakistan 9 ESR Action Plan (2002-07)
opportunities for members of the public to engage meaningfully in the change process as coresponsible stakeholders and act to change it. With the realisation that the entire gender issue has gained worldwide attention as a crucial component in the development process, it is hoped that these inequalities will be redressed more effectively through the strengthening of higher education institutions and increasing access to women. Thus, Pakistani women will be in a position to take their place in the world of the 21st century: through collective and collaborative work to put in position the liberating pedagogy necessary to cope with the demands of the modern globalising world. It is clear that gender equity, in all its facets, has not yet been attained in higher education in Pakistan. The problems have been articulated over the last decade of serious studies and policy discussions. Plans of action have been advanced charting out clearly what needs to be done. The action taken to date is far from adequate. It is indisputable that concerted action is required but, unless that action is contextualised within the forces of the socio-economic crises Pakistan is facing, gender equity in higher education may be a long way off. But it is our belief at Fatima Jinnah Women University that it can be done and it will be done. And in the words of Gertrude Mongella, Secretary General of the Beijing conference, The revolution has begun. There is no going back. Thus we march forward with the commitment to act rather than talk. An edited version of this article was published in the Bulletin (Issue 162 November 2007). Professor Saeeda Asadullah Khan is Vice Chancellor of Fatima Jinnah Women University, Pakistan. www.fjwu.edu.pk