ADVOCACY & LEADERSHIP IN MUSIC EDUCATION

ADVOCACY & LEADERSHIP IN MUSIC EDUCATION RICHARD HOLLY LIZ REX

Overview of Findings (Table)...1 Research Descriptions & Findings Arts & economic prosperity III: The economic impact of nonprofit arts and culture organizations and their audiences by Americans for the Arts...2 Relations among musical skills, phonological processing,and early reading ability in preschool children by S. Anvari, L. Trainor, J. Woodside, & B. Levy...3 Singing, gender, and health: Perspectives from boys singing in a church choir by M. Ashley...4 The effect of early music training on child cognitive development by T. Bilhartz, R. Bruhn, & J. Olson...5 Learning in and through the arts: Curriculum implications by J. Burton, R. Horowitz, & H. Abeles...6 Table of Contents Can music be used to teach reading? by R. Butzlaff...7 Involvement in the arts and human development: General involvement and intensive involvement in music and theater arts by J. Catterall, R. Chapleau, & J. Iwanaga...8 The effects of three years of piano instruction on children s cognitive development by E. Costa-Giomi...9 How arts integration supports student learning: Students shed light on the connections by K. DeMoss & T. Morris...10 Champions of change: The impact of the arts on learning by E. B. Fiske...11 Recent and past musical activity predicts cognitive aging variability: Direct comparison with general lifestyle activities. by B. Hanna-Pladdy & B. Gajewski...12 Learning to make music enhances spatial reasoning by L. Hetland...13 Listening to music enhances spatial-temporal reasoning: Evidence for the Mozart Effect by L. Hetland...14 Music training improves verbal but not visual memory: Cross-sectional and longitudinal explorations in children by Y. Ho, M. Cheung, & A. Chan...15 Staying in school: Arts education and New York City high school graduation rates by D. Israel...16 Examination of relationships between participation in school music programs of differing quality and standardized test results by C. Johnson & J. Memmott...17 Musical skill and cognition by J. Jonides...18 Music participation and socioeconomic status as correlates of change: A longitudinal analysis of academic achievement by P. Miksza...19 Arts voices: Middle school students and the relationships of the arts to their motivation and self-efficacy by H. M. Moorefield-Lang...20 The arts and education reform: Lessons from a 4-year pilot of the A+ Schools Program by C. Nelson...21 The importance of music to adolescents by A. North, D. Hargreaves, & S. O Neill...22 Artistic talent development for urban youth: The promise and the challenge by B. Oreck, S. Baum, & H. McCartney...23

Anything Goes: A case study of extra-curricular musical participation in an English secondary school by S. Pitts...24 Arts education in America: What the declines mean for arts participation by N. Rabkin & E.C. Hedberg...25 Classroom keyboard instruction improves kindergarten children s spatial-temporal performance: A field experience by F. Rauscher & M. Zupan...26 Music lessons enhance IQ by E. Schellenberg...27 Learning through the arts: Lessons of engagement by K. Smithrim & R. Upitis...28 The impact of music on childhood and adolescent achievement by D. Southgate & V. Roscigno...29 Table of Contents Effects of music instruction on developing cognitive systems at the foundations of mathematics and science by E. Spelke...30 Music and mathematics: Modest support for the oft-claimed relationship by K. Vaughn...31 Why the arts matter in education or just what do children learn when they create an opera by D. Wolf...32 Musical experience shapes human brainstem encoding of linguistic pitch patterns by P. Wong, E. Skoe, N. Russo, T. Dees, & N. Kraus...33 Cultivating demand for the arts: Arts learning, arts engagement, and state arts policy by L. Zakaras & J. Lowell...34

Advocacy & Leadership in Music Education Overview of Findings & References Findings Involvement in music supports student academic achievement and non-music cognitive growth. Involvement in music promotes reading and linguistic development. Involvement in music promotes mathematic and spatial development. Involvement in music engages students who are greatest at risk for failure in school and creates equitable access to curriculum for all types of learners. Involvement in music promotes positive attitudes toward school, staying in school, and student engagement with learning. Involvement in music promotes competencies in creative and critical thinking. Involvement in music promotes independent student motivation to learn and participation in collaborative learning experiences. Involvement in music promotes early learning development. References Bilhartz, et al. (2000) Catterall, et al. (1999) Costa-Giomi (1999) Ho, et al. (2003) Jonides (2008) Miksza (2007) Oreck, et al. (1999) Schellenberg (2004) Anvari, et al. (2002) Butzlaff (2000) Catterall, et al. (1999) Johnson, et al. (2006) Miksza (2007) Southgate, et al. (2009) Wong, et al. (2007) Catterall, et al. (1999) Costa-Giomi (1999) Hetland (2000a, 2000b) Johnson, et al. (2006) Miksza (2007) Rauscher, et al. (2000) Smithrim, et al. (2005) Southgate, et al. (2009) Spelke (2008) Vaughn (2000) Fiske (1999) Moorefield-Lang (2010) Nelson (2001) Oreck, et al. (1999) Burton, et al. (1999) Catterall, et al. (1999) DeMoss, et al. (2002) Israel (2009) Moorefield-Lang (2010) Nelson (2001) Oreck, et al. (1999) Smithrim, et al. (2005) Burton, et al. (1999) Wolf (1999) DeMoss, et al. (2002) Fiske (1999) Moorefield-Lang (2010) Wolf (1999) Anvari, et al. (2002) Bilhartz, et al. (2000) Hetland (2000a) Involvement in music promotes a positive school climate. Burton, et al. (1999) DeMoss, et al. (2002) Pitts (2007) 1 Involvement in music promotes pro-social attitudes & behaviors, community involvement, and promotes community and parent affiliation with schools. Involvement in music promotes positive self-concept and wellbeing. Music education promotes participation in the arts and contributes to a healthy economy. It also provides students with skills and behaviors necessary for success in the 21 st century workplace. Early and extended involvement in music promotes enhanced cognitive functions in advanced age. Burton, et al. (1999) Catterall, et al. (1999) Fiske (1999) Nelson (2001) Pitts (2007) Ashley (2002) Moorefield-Lang (2010) North, et al. (2000) Oreck, et al. (1999) Americans for the Arts (2005) Fiske (1999) Rabkin, et al. (2011) Zakaras, et al. (2008) Hanna-Pladdy, et al. (2012)

This is the third study of the nonprofit arts and culture industry s impact on the nation s economy conducted by Americans for the Arts (prior studies were done in 1994 & 2002). Americans for the Arts.(2005). Arts & economic prosperity III: The economic impact of nonprofit arts and culture organizations and their audiences (Summary report). Washington, DC: Americans for the Arts. For this study, 156 local and regional partners from cities, counties, multicounty regions, representing all fifty states and the District of Columbia volunteered and agreed to complete four research components: 1) Conduct surveys of area nonprofit arts and culture organizations to collect fiscal information for the year 2005 (collected data from 6,080 organizations). 2) Survey nonprofit arts audiences to measure their spending while attending events (collected data from 94,478 groups of attendees representing approx. 280,000 attendees). 3) Use highly regarded input/output economic analysis to determine how dollars spent on arts and cultural events impacted the community beyond the event before leaking out of the local community. 4) Use data to determine estimates for national economic impact findings. Findings from this study indicate communities that invest in the arts reap the additional benefits of jobs, economic growth, and a quality of life that positions those communities to compete in our 21st century creative economy. The economic impact of nonprofit arts and cultural industries is not only big but is increasing: Nationally, arts and cultural industries generate $166.2 billion annually, which is up 24% in the past five years or 11% when adjusted for inflation. Arts and cultural industries support 5.7 million full-time jobs, which is up 850,000 jobs since the 2002 report. Arts and cultural industries generate $30 billion in local, state, and federal government revenues annually while collectively these 3 levels of government spend less than $4 billion annually to support arts and culture (a 7:1 return on investment). Nationally, the typical attendee at arts and cultural events spends an average $27.79 per person in addition to the cost of the event, supporting local businesses that cater to art and cultural events. 2

Researchers conducted a variety of tests with 100 4- and 5-year-old participants (50 from each age group) to measure the relationship between musical perception skills, phonological awareness and early reading skills. Additional tests in auditory memory, vocabulary, and mathematics were given to participants to help account for additional cognitive skills that might influence test results. Anvari, S., Trainor, L., Woodside, J., & Levy, B. (2002). Relations among musical skills, phonological processing, and early reading ability in preschool children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 83(2002), 111-130. Findings from this study indicate In both 4- and 5-year-old groups, phonological awareness significantly correlated with reading skill. In turn, phonological awareness also correlated with musical ability. Test results suggest that the auditory processes needed for music perception are related to phonological awareness and ultimately reading ability. Importantly, test analyses also demonstrated that music perception also affects reading ability even when phonemic awareness results are removed. This suggests that music perception and phonemic awareness contribute additional processing skills necessary for 4- and 5-year-old reading that could be explored in additional research. 3

The aim of this qualitative research study was to examine boys experiences of singing in a church choir and the implications of those experiences for identity construction and personal wellbeing. The authors describe the significance of this study within the context of a tendency for boys to self-exclude themselves from singing due to gender socialization and peer prescriptions of choir as a feminine endeavor. Ashley, M. (2002). Singing, gender and health: Perspectives from boys singing in a church choir. Health Education, 102(4), 180-187. Participants in this study included 18 boys, ages 10-14, who participated in a choir at a major city church in England. Participants were from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds and formal school institutions. Data were gathered through observation, participant diaries, and interviews. Findings from this study indicate The boys participating in the choir did so for personal enjoyment and deeply held appreciation for music. In interviews, the boys often made statements indicating that participation in choir was linked to their personal engagement and wellbeing. All the boys in this study were academic high achievers and maintained particularly strong connections to reading. Implications for schools: Researchers noted that boys at this age often struggle to fit into macho images of being male and lack social-emotional skills to deal with this struggle. Participation in the choir provided the boys in this study with self-esteem and a sense of meaningfulness that allowed them to circumscribe proscriptions of macho culture. The boys were critical of the low standards of achievement for boys in music they perceived at their public schools. Researchers suggest that schools and policy makers seriously consider the benefits of encouraging boys to participate in music as a means for developing health and wellbeing. 4

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a structured music curriculum on the cognitive development of young children. Pre- and post-tests were used to collect data from 66 children ages four through six using tests of cognitive development (Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale) and music ability (Young Child Music Skills Assessment.). Participants represented diverse economic and ethnic backgrounds and contained approximately even distributions of gender. Pre-test results indicated no significant differences between the control and experimental group on results from cognitive and music tests. Bilhartz, T., Bruhn, R., & Olson, J. (2000). The effect of early music training on child cognitive development. Journal of Applied Development Psychology, 20(4), 615-636. Participants were selected from area preschool and Head Start programs and were split evenly into control and experimental groups. The experimental group participated in the music and movement program, Kindermusik for the Young Child Year 1, administered by licensed Kindermusik educators once weekly for 30 weeks at 75 minutes per class. The control group received no treatment. The results from this study indicate that there is a significant correlation between music instruction for young children and cognitive improvement in select nonmusic abilities. The specific areas of cognitive growth are indicated below: Children receiving the music treatment scored significantly higher than the control group on the Stanford-Binet Bead Memory subtest. This subtest measures both visual imagery and sequencing strategies, which are components of cognitive abilities related to abstract reasoning. Results indicated a possible correlation between high levels of music treatment during the study and performance on the Stanford-Binet Pattern Analysis subtest. This test measures abstract reasoning skills related to visual perception, part-to-whole synthesis, and manual dexterity. There was a tendency for children receiving music training to score higher on the Stanford-Binet test related to vocabulary. However, significant differences were only found between the participant groups among children from high-income families. Further research would be needed to determine possible causal links between music training in early childhood and vocabulary development. 5

Researchers used standardized and team designed questionnaires and measures along with interviews to analyze the creative, cognitive, and personal competencies needed for academic success between schools with significant provision of arts programs including visual art, music, dance and drama (defined as high-arts) and those with limited provision of arts programs (defined as low-arts). Burton, J., Horowitz, R., & Abeles, H. (1999). Learning in and through the arts: Curriculum implications. In E.B. Fiske (Ed.), Champions of change: The impact of the arts on learning (pp. 35-46). Washington, DC: Arts Education Partnership. Teachers in art, general classroom, and specialist subjects along with school administrators were also interviewed and given questionnaires as part of this study. Interviews and classroom observations were carefully coded for frequency and quality and were used by the researchers to expand upon and clarify the quantitative findings. The sample for this research included over 2,000 students attending public school in grades 4, 5, 7, and 8 in New York, Connecticut, Virginia, and South Carolina. Eighteen schools participated in preliminary data collection, 12 were selected for more extensive study, and 4 became sites for in-depth case studies. Student performance and teacher perceptions: Students in high-arts groups performed better than those in lowarts groups on measures of creativity, fluency, originality, elaboration and resistance to closure. High-arts groups were perceived by their teachers as stronger in general competencies including their abilities to express thoughts and ideas, exercise their imaginations, and take risks in their learning. Non-arts teachers in high-arts schools frequently identified creative thinking, flexibility, ability to imagine and solve problems from multiple perspectives, taking imaginative leaps, and organizing thoughts into meaningful wholes as the effects of arts learning on other disciplines. High-arts students were more cooperative and demonstrated greater willingness to display their learning before community, peers, and parents. Student self-perceptions as learners: High-arts students were far more likely than low-arts students to perceive themselves as competent in academics. High-arts students were also more likely than low-arts students to believe they were competent in school in general and specifically in reading and math. 6 School climate: Schools with high-arts were more likely to show good rapport between students and teachers than low-arts schools. Teachers in high-arts schools were more likely to be involved in professional development, innovative in their teaching, and have good working relationships with other teachers in the school. High-arts schools had administrators who encouraged teachers to take risks, learn new skills and broaden curriculum with less emphasis on conformity, formulization, or centralization of curriculum. School climate findings were more firmly tied to high-arts provisions than to high economic status.

This study is a meta-analysis of empirical research that claims an association between music training and reading performance. For this meta-analysis six experimental and twenty-four correlational studies were identified through 1998. Studies qualifying for this meta-analysis had to meet the following criteria: utilized a standardized measure of reading ability, tested reading ability following instruction in music, utilized sufficient statistical data for analysis. Butzlaff, R. (2000). Can music be used to teach reading? Journal of Aesthetic Education, 34(3/4), 167-178. Findings from analysis of 24 correlational studies: There is a strong and reliable correlational association between instruction and performance in music and performance on standardized reading/verbal tests. Findings from analysis of 6 experimental studies: While correlational studies indicate a relationship between learning in music and achievement in reading, the analysis of experimental studies does not provide reliable evidence that instruction in music actually causes improvement in reading. 7

This study provided an analysis of data collected in the National Educational Longitudinal Survey, a longitudinal study of 25,000 secondary school students (8-12 grades) sponsored by the United States Department of Education. In this study researchers used this data to examine relationships between involvement in the arts and academic success. In addition, the study reports on relationships found between involvement in instrumental music and achievement in mathematics. Catterall, J., Chapleau, R., & Iwanaga, J. (1999). Involvement in the arts and human development: General involvement and intensive involvement in music and theater arts. In E.B. Fiske (Ed.), Champions of change: The impact of the arts on learning (pp. 1-18). Washington, DC: Arts Education Partnership. Findings from this study indicate that students who were highly involved in the arts demonstrated consistently more favorable outcomes in achievement, staying in school, and attitudes about school and community. Detailed findings include Over 65 percent of 8 th grade students with significant involvement in arts scored in the top half of composite standardized test performance (versus 49 percent of limited arts involvement). Only 1.4 percent of 8 th graders with significant arts involvement dropped out over the subsequent 2 years (4 times better than students with limited arts involvement). Over 65 percent of 10 th graders with significant arts involvement scored in the top half of the composite test score distribution (compared to 47 percent for students with limited arts involvement). Nearly 65 percent of 10 th grade students with significant arts involvement scored in the top half of reading performance distribution (versus 45 percent of students with limited arts involvement). 47 percent of 10 th grade students with significant arts involvement believed community service is important (compared to 34 percent of students with limited arts involvement). Over 57 percent of 12 th grade students with significant involvement in the arts scored in the top half of composite standardized test performance (versus 39 percent of limited arts involvement). Findings from this study indicate the following relationships between instrumental music training and achievement in mathematics: Students with high involvement in instrumental music training scored significantly better on math proficiency tests than students with no music training. Low socioeconomic students with high involvement in instrumental music training scored better on math proficiency tests than students categorized as average students. This is significant since all students in high socioeconomic categories scored better than the students in the average category on math proficiency tests. 8

In this longitudinal study, data that examined the effects of music instruction on children s cognitive development within a school setting were gathered over a three-year period. Seventy-eight fourth-grade children completed the study. Thirty-five of the students represented the control group (receiving no music instruction) while forty-three students were given weekly piano lessons over a three-year period. Costa-Giomi, E. (1999). The effects of three years of piano instruction on children s cognitive development. Journal of Research in Music Education, 47(3), 198-212. At the start of the study both groups of students scored similar results on tests of cognitive abilities, musical abilities, motor skills, self-esteem, academic achievement, and interest in studying piano. Similar tests were given to both groups of students following the first, second, and third years of the study. Results of this study indicate Students receiving piano instruction demonstrated greater improvement in general cognitive ability after year two and spatial abilities after years one and two than their counterparts who did not receive music training. Following the third year of the study students in both groups (with and without piano instruction) demonstrated no difference in general cognitive and spatial abilities. The author suggests two hypotheses for this and recommendations for further study: 1) As piano lessons became more challenging in the third year students in the experimental group became less attentive to learning piano, and 2) Prior research suggests that puberty affects spatial ability in children, which may have affected the third year results of the study. 9

Thirty students across ten classes in veteran teacher artist partnerships were selected to help explore the processes and outcomes associated with arts-integrated learning units versus learning processes and outcomes in comparable non-arts units. Participants represented even distributions of all levels of student achievers. DeMoss, K., & Morris, T. (2002). How arts integration supports student learning: Students shed light on the connections. Chicago, IL: Chicago Arts Partnerships in Education (CAPE). Arts integrated instruction benefits: Created more independent and intrinsically motivated investments in learning. Fostered learning for understanding as opposed to recall of facts for tests. Transformed students characterizations of learning barriers into challenges to be solved. Inspired students to pursue further learning opportunities outside of class. Fostered student engagement with learning and improved student perceptions of the learning environment. 10

This compilation of seven research studies was intended to examine why and how young people are affected by experiences in the arts. Research teams used a variety of methodologies to provide data-driven evidence of the effects of involvement in arts education experiences, both in and out of school, on learning and motivation. Fiske, E. B. (Ed.). (1999). Champions of change: The impact of the arts on learning. Washington, DC: The Arts Education Partnership and the President s Committee on Arts and Humanities. Summary consensus of findings in all studies: The arts reach students who are disengaged with school and at greatest risk for failure. The arts provide students who are disengaged with conventional classroom practices with an alternative learning style where they can succeed. The arts connect students to themselves through personal investments and each other through arts learning communities. The arts transform learning environments into places of discovery. Young persons participation in the arts provides adults with opportunities to be actively involved in the lives of young people. The arts provide new challenges for students already considered successful. The arts connect learning experiences to the world of real work and the types of behaviors necessary for success in evolving 21 st century workplace requirements. 11

This study examined the potential influences of recent and past music experiences on cognitive abilities in advanced age. Neuropsychological tests were used to assess a variety of cognitive domains. Participants in the study included 37 non-musicians (less than one year music participation) and 33 musicians (more than ten years instrumental music participation) between the ages of 59-80 with similar education and general leisure activity levels. Hanna-Pladdy, B., & Gajewski, B. (2012). Recent and past musical activity predicts cognitive aging variability: Direct comparison with general lifestyle activities. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6(198), 1-11. Findings from this study indicate Participants who sustained music training from childhood for more than ten years outperformed participants in the non-music control group on cognitive tests related to verbal working memory, verbal immediate recall, verbal fluency, visuospatial judgment, and sensorimotor dexterity. Research suggests that early age music participation that is sustained for an extended period of time may enhance cognitive functions and reduce cognitive variables related to advanced age. 12

In this meta-analysis the author synthesizes the results from 15 independent studies that examined the effects of instruction in music on performance of spatial tasks. All studies in this report used control groups to compare test results for children ranging 3-12 years of age with and without music instruction. While the type and duration of music instruction varied, all studies required experimental groups to actively make music. Hetland, L. (2000a). Learning to make music enhances spatial reasoning. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 34(3/4), 179-238. Findings from this meta-analysis indicate Active music instruction lasting two years or less produced enhanced results on tests of spatial-temporal reasoning. Analysis also suggested that these results were more dramatic for younger participants (ages 3-5) than older children (ages 6-12). The effect size for this finding was moderate and notably consistent across studies. Additional analysis was performed on nine experiments that reported scores on a range of spatial measures including spatial memory, spatial recognition, mental rotations, and/or spatial visualization. Analysis of these studies suggests that music instruction enhances this broader range of spatial abilities. Five experimental studies utilized measures of general cognitive ability. These studies indicate that music instruction does not lead to enhanced performance on these measures; however, the small number of studies in this analysis suggest the need for further research. 13

This meta-analysis examined the relationship between listening to specific types of music and enhanced performance on spatial tasks, popularly referred to as the Mozart Effect. Following an extensive review of literature, the researcher identified and analyzed 26 studies, which included 36 experiments that used any kind of spatial test and 31 experiments that specifically tested for spatial-temporal outcomes. Hetland, L. (2000b). Listening to music enhances spatialtemporal reasoning: Evidence for the Mozart Effect. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 34(3/4), 105-148. The findings from this meta-analysis indicate The Mozart Effect does exist. This meta-analysis revealed that listening to specific types of music improved performance on tasks that measure spatial-temporal abilities or the ability to perform mental rotation in the absence of the physical object. Results from this meta-analysis indicated a moderate effect size. 14

This study builds upon prior research that demonstrated that young adults who participate in music have increased verbal memory compared to those with limited music experience. In this study the researchers conducted two experiments that 1) explored the effects of music training on the visual and verbal memory of children and 2) utilized the same participants to determine if verbal memory was affected in children who continued or terminated their music training. Ho, Y., Cheung, M., & Chan, A. (2003). Music training improves verbal but not visual memory: Crosssectional and longitudinal explorations in children. Neuropsychology, 17 (3), 439-450. The first experiment included 90 male participants ages 6 to 15. Fortyfive of these participants had 1 to 5 years of experience in the school band and orchestra program. The other 45 participants attended the same school but had no music experience. Measures were taken to ensure that both groups matched in terms of age, education level, socioeconomic characteristics, and general intelligence. In the second experiment, 33 of the 45 students from the group with music training participated in the follow-up. Experiment 1: Music training had a significant positive effect on the verbal memory skills of children. There was no difference found in the visual memory skills of children with and without music training. Experiment 2: Children who continued music training for one year following a baseline measurement demonstrated improvement in verbal memory while children who discontinued music training within three months failed to show any improvement in verbal retention. These findings suggest that different types of experience (specifically music training) might affect localized brain functions in predictable ways. In this study, it was demonstrated that experiences in music training have positive effects on verbal memory brain functions. 15

Using data collected by the New York City Department of Education, the researchers looked at the relationship between school-based arts education and high school graduation rates in NYC public schools. Israel, D. (2009). Staying in school: Arts education and New York City high school graduation rates. New York, NY: The Center for Arts Education. The following findings suggest that increasing students access to arts instruction in schools with low graduation rates can be a successful strategy for lifting graduation rates and turning around struggling schools not just in NYC but nationwide. The findings from this study indicate that high schools with graduation rates in the top third exhibit the following: 40 percent more certified arts teachers per student than those schools in the bottom third. 40 percent more physical spaces dedicated for the arts and classrooms appropriately equipped for the arts than schools in the bottom third. 25 percent more partnerships with arts and cultural organizations than those schools in the bottom third. 45 percent more likely to have raised funds from external sources to support the arts than schools in the bottom third. Nearly 35 percent more graduates completing three or more arts courses than schools in the bottom third. Nearly 10 percent more likely to offer students a multiyear sequence in the arts than schools in the bottom third. More likely to have offered students an opportunity to participate or perform in one or more arts activities and more likely to have offered students an opportunity to attend an arts activity such as a theater performance, dance recital, or museum exhibit than schools in the bottom third. 16

The purpose of this study was to consider the relationship between participation in music programs of differing qualities and achievement scores on standardized tests in math and English for elementary and middle school students. Researchers compared results from statemandated standardized test scores of 1,119 third and fourth grade students and 4,739 eighth and ninth grade students attending schools with excellent and poor music programs in a variety of regions throughout the United States. Johnson, C., & Memmott, J. (2006). Examination of relationships between participation in school music programs of differing quality and standardized test results. Journal of Research in Music Education, 54(4), 293-307. Findings from this study indicate Analysis of standardized test scores indicated that elementary school students in exemplary music programs had higher test results in math and English than peers who did not receive high-quality instruction in music. Analysis of standardized test scores indicated that middle school students participating in both exceptional music programs and lowquality instrumental music programs scored better on standardized tests in math and English than peers with no music program or deficient choral programs. While the effect sizes for results from both elementary and middle school students was small, the findings parallel previous research that also indicates that students involved in music programs score higher on standardized tests than students with no participation in music. 17

In this study researchers explored the effects of music training on memory skills. Participants for the study included 11 college students with extensive music training and 11 demographically similar college students with no music training. Tests of long-term verbal memory were given to all participants while brain imaging (fmri) was used to compare the regions of brain activity during testing of musicians and nonmusicians. Jonides, J. (2008). Musical skill and cognition. In C. Asbury & B. Rich (Eds.), Learning, arts, and the brain: The Dana Consortium report on arts and cognition (pp. 11-15). New York, NY: Dana Press. Findings from this study indicate Musicians performed better than non-musician participants on tests of long-term verbal memory. Test results and brain imaging indicate that musicians do not necessarily have better memories than non-musicians. Instead, musicians transfer the rehearsal strategy of focused attention to other cognitive functions, which allows for enhanced memory. 18

Miksza, P. (2007). Music participation and socioeconomic status as correlates of change: A longitudinal analysis of academic achievement. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 172 (Spring), 41-58. Description: This longitudinal study utilized data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 (U.S. Department of Education) to examine correlations between music participation, academic achievement, and socioeconomic status in high school students (sample size=5,335 subjects). This study focused exclusively on comparisons between students who consistently reported participation in music with those who reported not participating in music. The primary objective of the study was to determine if academic achievement varied from 8 th to 12 th grade based on participation in school music ensembles (e.g., band, choir, or orchestra). Comparisons were made between three separate academic testing waves administered between 8 th and 12 th grade. Findings from this study indicate Students reporting participation in music scored consistently higher on academic achievement tests in math, reading, science, and social studies than students reporting no music participation. The rates of change in math, science, and social studies achievement were not significantly related to participation in music. Although students participating in music did not improve over time at a significantly different rate than their peers, they maintained their initially higher levels of academic achievement over time. Regardless of socioeconomic status, students who participated in music maintained higher academic achievement scores over time. Authors indicate this may be worthy of exploration as a way to deter negative effects of socioeconomic status on academic achievement. 19

Using student questionnaires, focus-group interviews, and follow-up interviews with 92 8 th grade students, the study sought to determine if arts education had a relationship to 8 th grade, rural, middle school students motivation and self-efficacy. In this study students reported the following: Moorefield-Lang, H. M. (2010). Arts voices: Middle school students and the relationships of the arts to their motivation and selfefficacy. The Qualitative Report, 15(1), 1-17. Arts Education & Motivation Arts classes motivated students to learn because the subject was interesting and provided opportunities for new kinds of learning. Arts classes motivated students to develop personal discipline and a strong work ethic. Arts classes motivated students by providing opportunities for positive peer interactions and opportunities to interact with a variety of peers from across the grade level or in different grade levels. Students expressed how their arts electives motivated them to want to do better in school in their specific arts class and in general. Students felt motivated by their arts classes because they were personally connected and inspired by their participation in the arts. Arts Education & Self-Efficacy The positive self-efficacy that students gained from participating in art-based classes also positively affected their confidence that they could succeed in other academic subjects. Arts-based classes, as an environment often filled with supportive peers, promoted positive self-efficacy in students. Students also felt increased confidence from working together toward group success versus solely individualistic endeavors commonly found in other academic subjects. The performance aspects of arts-based classes increased students confidence to speak up in other classes. 20

Researchers used results of a 4-year A+ Schools Program in 24 North Carolina schools to demonstrate that arts can open up deeper understanding of core subjects because it fosters creative thinking and addresses the multiple ways that students learn. Nelson, C. (2001). The arts and education reform: Lessons from a 4-year pilot of the A + Schools Program: Executive summary. Winston-Salem, NC: Thomas S. Kenan Institute for the Arts. The A+ Program is a comprehensive school reform that views the arts as fundamental to how teachers teach and how students learn in all subjects. Strategies used in this program include increasing arts instruction, fostering two-way arts integration, tapping multiple intelligences, emphasizing hands-on learning, taking an integrated thematic approach to the curriculum, increasing professional collaboration and strengthening school partnerships. While A+ schools achieved growth on North Carolina s accountability tests comparable to that of other schools statewide, findings suggest comprehensive school reform driven by arts integration has effects on schools, communities, teachers, and students beyond those found on standardized tests of basic skills. Effects found on schools: Increased organizational capacity, increased channels of communication, more focused identity, and increased legitimization of the arts. Effects found on communities: Created new partnerships, increased parent participation and awareness of curriculum, and greater parent affiliation with schools. Effects on teachers: Motivated instructional change for enhanced learning opportunities, increased collaborative work and new leadership roles, and created richer, more educationally substantive assessment criteria. Effects on students: Enriched academic environment, increased equity in access to the curriculum, improved attitudes, attendance and behavior. 21

In this study, researchers used survey data to examine the importance of listening to or performing music to adolescent participants. This study was conducted in England and participants included 2,465 adolescents 13 and 14 years of age. The questionnaire used for this study asked participants to indicate a) level of involvement with musical activities, b) importance of music activities relative to other activities, and c) factors that affect listening and performing preferences. North, A., Hargreaves, D., & O Neill, S. (2000). The importance of music to adolescents. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 255-272. Findings from this study indicate Music plays an important social and emotional role in adolescent lives. Survey data indicate that in particular music allows adolescents to a) shape and portray identity among peers, and b) fulfill emotional needs and regulate mood. Over 50% of participants indicated either currently playing an instrument or consistently playing one before giving it up. Listening to music was preferred to most indoor activities but not outdoor activities. Listening or playing popular music was preferred to classical music. Classical music was perceived as a tool for pleasing parents or teachers. Researchers suggest these survey findings indicate both the importance of music to adolescents and provide implications for curriculum development in music education within schools. 22

In this study, researchers followed 23 current and former students ages 10-26 who participated in a performing arts program in New York City Public Schools titled Young Talent. This program strives to provide sustained arts instruction to students identified with potential talent who might not otherwise have access to arts instruction. Oreck, B., Baum, S., & McCartney, H. (1999). Artistic talent development for urban youth: The promise and the challenge. In E.B. Fiske (Ed.), Champions of change: The impact of the arts on learning (pp. 63-78). Washington, DC: Arts Education Partnership. The goal of this qualitative study was to identify obstacles faced by economically disadvantaged urban students, identify support systems and characteristics that helped them overcome those obstacles, and determine what impact serious arts involvement had on the students lives and capacities. Interviews, observations, and academic data were used to make assessments about the impact of this program on students at different stages of music and dance training: elementary, intermediate, and high school/adult. Findings from this study indicate A large majority of the participants in the study were able to achieve a high level of success in the arts, in school or in their professional career. Success in this study is defined in three ways: 1) degree to which students developed artistic talent, 2) academic progress and aspirations, and 3) evidence of personal development that is transferable to other areas of their lives. Researchers identified a number of personal and behavioral qualities that were common across all participants and age groups and seemed to directly contribute to their success: resilience, self-regulation, identity and the ability to experience flow (a state of total absorption in an activity). Individual case studies revealed significant transformations of student attitudes, behaviors, and achievement in school due to access to sustained, quality arts training through the Young Talent program. 23

In this qualitative study, the researcher sought to capture pupil attitudes and experiences as both participants and non-participants in a secondary school production (located in the United Kingdom) of the Cole Porter musical, Anything Goes. The researcher used questionnaires, audio diaries, and direct observation to gain an understanding of pupil motivations to participate or not participate in the school musical; participant social, personal, and musical experiences through involvement in the musical; and how the production influenced the broader school community. Pitts, S. (2007). Anything goes: A case study of extracurricular musical participation in an English secondary school. Music Education Research, 9 (1), 145-165. Questionnaires were collected from 110 11-12-year-old students (musical participants=15, non-participants=95) and 88 14-15-year-old students (musical participants=20, non-participants=68). Five participants in the musical recorded audio diaries as a component of the research. Findings from this qualitative study indicate There was a widespread awareness of the musical production among participants and non-participants. Questionnaire feedback indicated that there was a general belief that the musical had a positive impact on the school. Participants in the musical indicated increased musical knowledge and ability to self-evaluate musical performances. Despite an acknowledgement of intense commitment and time requirements for the production, student participants focused overwhelmingly on the enjoyment they experienced as part of the musical and the atmosphere of friendship and sociability it created. 24

Researchers in this study analyzed data from four administrations (1982, 1992, 2002, and 2008) of the Surveys of Public Participation in the Arts (SPPA) by the National Endowment for the Arts. Rabkin, N., & Hedberg, E. C. (2011). Arts education in America: What the declines mean for arts participation. Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Arts. Analysis from the 1992 SPPA survey indicated, arts education was the strongest predictor of almost all types of arts participation (arts performance being the exception). Based on this finding, the current analysis was conducted to determine If school-based arts education declined or increased between 1982 and 2008 How arts education was distributed across the population If arts education can contribute to reversing the declining trend in arts participation Findings from this study indicate Since 1982, there has been a steady decline in the rates of adult attendance at arts events and performances (i.e., classical and jazz concerts, musical and non-musical plays, opera, and ballet performances). Arts education has a powerful positive effect on adult attendance to arts events. Arts education has a positive effect on other forms of arts participation including personal artmaking, participation in the arts through media, and additional arts education. Data from the SPPA suggest a declining trend in childhood participation in music and visual arts. For survey participants of all socioeconomic brackets, there was a decrease in the amount of arts education they received as children. There was a substantial decrease in arts education for African American (49 percent) and Hispanic (40 percent) children when comparing data from 1982 until 2008. Children of parents who had arts education or who attend arts events are more likely to take private arts classes and more likely to attend arts events themselves. 25

In this study the researchers compared the test results of classroom keyboard instruction on the spatial-temporal and pictorial memory skills of kindergarten children with those of a control group of children who were not given keyboard instruction. The researchers described spatialskill processes as those necessary to combine separate elements of an object into a single whole, which are skills necessary for distinct mathematical and scientific reasoning. Rauscher, F., & Zupan, M. (2000). Classroom keyboard instruction improves kindergarten children s spatialtemporal performance: A field experiment. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 15(2), 215-228. This study consisted of 62 kindergarten students, 34 receiving keyboard instruction and 28 receiving no music instruction. All students were given a pre-test for spatial-temporal and visual memory skills. All of the children were retested following four-month and eight-month intervals. Group keyboard instruction occurred twice a week for twenty minutes and was conducted by a music specialist. These findings support findings from other studies that demonstrate that music instruction improves spatial-temporal skills but does not affect pictorial memory skills. This study was significant because it demonstrated that improvements in these cognitive skills could be gained through group music instruction, like the classroom setting. Summary of research findings: Despite similar pre-test scores, the kindergartners receiving keyboard instruction scored significantly higher in spatial-temporal tasks than students with no keyboard instruction. Significant difference in spatial-temporal scores was achieved at the 4-month interval and was achieved at a greater magnitude at the 8- month interval. 26

This study was conducted to test the hypothesis that instruction in music can increase children s IQ levels. Schellenberg, E. (2004). Music lessons enhance IQ. Psychological Science, 15(8), 511-514. Participants in this study included 132 6-year-olds. The participants were randomly assigned to four different instructional groups who either received lessons on keyboard, Kodály voice lessons, drama, or no lessons. By including two types of music instruction and instruction in a non-music area the researcher hoped to establish that training in music influenced gains in cognition specifically and was not just caused by participation in extracurricular activity more generally. The lessons were taught on a weekly basis over a one-year period. All participants were given pre- and post-tests in intelligence (Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition), educational achievement (Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement), and social functioning (Parent Rating Scale of the Behavioral Assessment System for Children). Findings from this study indicate The groups with music instruction had modest but reliably larger increases in overall IQ. Students in the two control groups (drama and no instruction) had an average increase in IQ of 4.3 points while the two music groups had and average increase of 7.0 points. Additional finding: Students in the drama group demonstrated significantly larger improvements in adaptive social behaviors than the other three groups. 27