Demand for Social Workers in California

Demand for Social Workers in California By Prof. Eileen Mayers Pasztor, DSW Department of Social Work epasztor@csulb.edu 562-985-7775 Prof. Michelle Saint-Germain, Ph.D. Chair, Graduate Center for Public Policy and Administration msaintg@csulb.edu 562-985-5383 Prof. Teresa DeCrescenzo, MSW Department of Social Work terryd50@aol.com 310-358-9110 California State University, Long Beach 1250 Bellflower Blvd. Long Beach, CA 90840 April 2002 This report was produced with the help of a 2000-2001 contract from the California State University Faculty Research Fellows Program for the California Assembly. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the California Assembly. The Coordinator of the Faculty Research Fellows Program is Professor Jim Cox, Center for California Studies, California State University, Sacramento. For information on the Faculty Research Fellow Program and a list of all previous reports, visit http://www.csus.edu/calst/government_affairs/faculty_fellows_program.html

TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES...v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...vi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...1 I. INTRODUCTION A. Purpose of the Study...3 B. Rationale for the Study...3 II. METHODOLOGY A. Literature Review...5 B. Statute Review...5 C. Operational Definition of Social Worker...5 D. Numerical Estimates of Need...5 E. Education and/or Training Requirements...7 III. FINDINGS A. Literature Review...9 B. Statute Review...13 C. Operational Definitions...14 D. Numerical Estimates of Need...16 E. Education and/or Training Requirements...31 F. Conclusions...36 IV. RECOMMENDATIONS A. Creating a Positive Public Image for Social Workers...40 B. Enhancing Career Opportunities...41 C. Improving Working Conditions...42 D. Providing Compensation and Benefits Commensurate with the Work...43 E. Creating Diverse Opportunities for Social Work Education...44 F. Reclassifying and Renaming Social Work Positions...46 G. Crafting Public Policy...47 APPENDIX A. - Request for Information Distributed to Jurisdictions...49 APPENDIX B. - Geographical Location of Reporting Jurisdictions...52 APPENDIX C. - Population of Reporting Jurisdictions...54 APPENDIX D. - Statutes and Codes...56

APPENDIX E. - Factors Affecting the Social Worker Shortage: Historical Perspective and Studies...68 BIBLIOGRAPHY...86

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Table 1. Nationwide Vacancy Rates for Social Workers...10 Table 2. Demand for Child Welfare Social Workers in 39 Counties...23 Table 3. Demand for Child Welfare Social Workers in 58 Counties...25 Table 4. Demand for All Social Workers in 39 Counties...27 Table 5. Demand for All Social Workers in 58 Counties...28 Table 6. Distribution of Social Workers by Position...31 Figure 1. Educational Requirements for Case Workers Using Merit Systems Service (MSS) Definitions...32 v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many individuals and organizations provided essential support for this endeavor. First, we acknowledge the concern and responsibility of the California Assembly Human Services Committee, under the leadership of Assemblywoman Dion Aroner (D-Berkeley), for addressing the issue of the shortage of social workers through roundtables, hearings, and research. We appreciate the diligent work of Kirsten Deichert, MSW, Senior Consultant for the Assembly Human Services Committee. At the California Research Fellows Program at the Center for California Studies, California State University, Sacramento, we thank the Fellows Program director, James Cox, Ph. D. for his technical assistance and timely responses. We also appreciate the efforts of Shela Schubin at the Center who graciously provided explanations to help us with all the paperwork. We appreciate the cooperation of the California Welfare Directors Association and especially the support of John Cullen, Vice President at Large, Contra Costa, and Frank Mecca, Executive Director, for helping us contact county agencies. Our findings would not be possible without the willingness and ability of the responding agencies, and we especially thank the directors and staff who thoughtfully and kindly attended to our persistent requests for immediate information. We thank David Kopperud with the California Department of Education, Safe Schools & Violence Prevention Office for his timely response to our request for information regarding school social workers. We thank the staff of GLASS (Gay and Lesbian Adolescent Social Services) in Los Angeles for their dedication to this project. Special recognition is due to Khush Cooper, MSW (Ph.D. candidate, 2003), a social work supervisor at GLASS, for her invaluable assistance with the literature review. Special thanks also to Frances Hammond, BSW who organized the mailing of the survey instruments to every county in the state, as well as personally contacted 30 counties with professionalism. At the Graduate Center for Public Policy and Administration at California State University, Long Beach we thank Rebecca Bennett (MPA candidate, September 2002) for diligently conducting our review of the statutes and codes. At California State University, Long Beach, Department of Social Work we have many supportive colleagues to acknowledge. First, we thank Dr. John Oliver, Director, for his commitment to this initiative and for arranging an immediate connection between the Department of Social Work and the Graduate Center for Public Policy and Administration. We thank Prof. Julie O Donnell, Ph.D. for guiding us to information about school social workers, and we thank Prof. Barbara Cohen, MSW, Director of Field Instruction, who helped us obtain information about social workers at Regional Centers. Special thanks to Prof. Tessie Cleveland, DSW, former director of King/Drew Medical Center Department of Social vi

Services, for her perspectives. We appreciate James Ferreira, MSW, Director, Child Welfare Training Center, for facilitating our paperwork through the University. Special thanks to Akilah Runnels, (MSW candidate, May 2002) for organizing the time to work on our project, for her professional and personable contacts with 28 counties in the State, and for her technical assistance in producing our written materials. We appreciate the work of Aura Lair (MSW candidate, May 2002) who also assisted with the literature review as part of a project for her child welfare class with Prof. DeCrescenzo. The combined efforts and commitment of these individuals enabled us to complete this project within the limited time and budget allowed. vii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Purpose This project was commissioned by the California Assembly through the California State University Faculty Research Fellows Program to: (1) review the literature describing the need for increased numbers of social workers; (2) review California statutes requiring social workers to provide state-supported services; (3) develop a clear operational definition of social worker; (4) develop a systematic description of the statewide demand for social workers; and (5) describe the education and/or training level required of social workers to fill identified needs. Methodology Numerical estimates of need for social workers in California were developed using data collected from county social service agencies, which included: (1) the total number of social worker positions in the agency; (2) the distribution of these positions across programs, e.g. child welfare, aging, mental health, disabilities; (3) the educational requirements for these positions; (4) the number of current positions filled by waivers of the educational requirements; (5) the number of current vacant positions; (6) increases or decreases in the number of these positions expected in the next few years; and (7) the jurisdiction s operational definition of "social worker." Limitations include the short time frame for the research and the collection of data during the holiday period of November 2001 to January 2002; as well as the absence of data on the need for social workers in the private and/or non-profit sectors. Findings 1) The literature points to social work as one of the faster growing sectors of employment, and documents the increasing need for social workers in general. 2) There are a few California statutes requiring social workers to provide state-supported services, most notably in child welfare services; there are also some regulations concerning the training that staff must have to perform certain duties. 3) There is wide variation among counties on the definition of what constitutes a social worker position, but the critical skill is the ability to assess a situation to determine whether there is a need for services and, if so, which ones. 4) Numerical estimates of need were calculated based on data from two-thirds of the counties, covering 85% of the population of California. Currently there are an estimated 12,221 social workers positions at the county level in all 58 counties in California. The current vacancy rate is estimated at 9.5% (which is very close to national figures), which translates to a current need for 1,171.5 new social workers (although needs vary widely between urban and rural counties). If turnover rates are taken into account, this becomes an annual rather than a one-time need. If, in addition, Assembly Bill 364 passes, most counties would double the number of child welfare workers within five years. This 1

would increase the need for new social workers from a low of 9,248.5 (with zero turnover) to a high of 22,196.4 (with 20% per year turnover) over the next five years. If all types of social workers are considered, the need for new social workers over the next five years could climb as high as 25,279.2 (with 20% turnover), even if no new positions are created other than the ones in conformance with AB 364. 5) The education and training requirements for social worker positions vary widely. a. At the entry level (10% of all jobs), even through they carry the job title of social worker, these positions do not require college-level coursework in social work. Educational requirements can be filled by training programs. b. At the advanced entry level (one-third of all jobs), most positions do not require a college degree in social work. Educational needs can be filled by coursework at a community college or unaccredited social work program. c. At the lead social worker level (half of all jobs), undergraduate courses in social work are generally required. Any increase in the number of these positions will require an increase in the number of persons enrolled in accredited BA programs of social work in California each year. d. At the supervisory level (15% of all jobs), a masters degree in social work is usually required. Any increase in the number of these positions will require an increase in the number of persons enrolled in accredited MSW programs in California each year. Conclusions The level of demand for social workers will continue to escalate across the program areas of child welfare, disabilities, mental health, and school social work, as the population grows, diversified, and ages. The shortage is of concern because necessary services may go unprovided, or may be provided by staff with lesser qualifications, or may be assigned to qualified staff already carrying full caseloads (exacerbating turnover). California s schools of social work, which currently graduate a combined total of 1,500 BAs and MSWs per year, will be unable to meet the annual demand for new social workers from the public sector alone, not to mention the private and not-for-profit sectors. Recommendations Positions that do not require formal coursework in social work should not have a social work job title. Candidates for jobs requiring a social worker can be increased by expanded opportunities for social work education, including distance education; accelerated BSW MSW degrees; internships; tuition assistance; and certificates or associate degrees to help entry level staff advance in the field. Recruitment and retention of social workers can be enhanced by creating a more positive public image for social workers; and improving working conditions, including smaller caseloads, flexible work schedules, and increased support staff. Compensation and benefits should be commensurate with the demands of the job. Policymakers will need to provide the increased levels of support necessary to comprehensively and effectively address the long-standing problem of the shortage of social workers in California. 2

I. INTRODUCTION A. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to provide more accurate and specific information about the demand for social workers in California. The objectives were to: 1. Review the literature that described the need for increased numbers of social workers; 2. Review current California statutes requiring social workers to provide state-supported services; 3. Develop a clear operational definition of social worker; 4. Develop a systematic description of the statewide demand for social workers; and 5. Describe the education and/or training level required of social workers to fill needs identified above. In addition to the above information, this report also includes a section on recommendations. B. Rationale for the Study The study was commissioned by the California Assembly through the California State University Faculty Research Fellows Program. The request for proposals disseminated on August 28, 2001, noted that California has a critical shortage of social workers, and specifically that although the precise scope and severity of the statewide shortage are not yet known, several sources have reported a large number of vacancies in social work positions (Cox, 2001, p. 2). The demand for social workers in California is of concern as unmet needs for social workers have several consequences. Necessary services may go unprovided or be provided with staff with lesser qualifications, or may be assigned to qualified staff already carrying full caseloads. These measures can create problems for the agency providing the services. 3

Clients may be overlooked, or receive lesser quality services, exacerbating their problems. Current staff may feel overloaded by the demands placed on them, and leave their jobs, increasing the number of vacancies and perpetuating the problem. Thus it is essential that state policy makers, their constituents, advocacy groups, social work educators, recipients of social services, and the individuals and agencies and organizations responsible for delivering those services have information about this problem. 4

II. METHODOLOGY A. Literature Review Project staff conducted a literature review describing the need for social workers in California, as well as from a national and historical perspective. The review included the standard academic literature, as well as reports generated by government agencies, professional councils, and non-profit groups. The researchers made use of the holdings of the California State University, Long Beach Library and, through its inter-library loan system, the contents of many other academic libraries as well. Information was also obtained through internet searches and from materials sent to project staff by colleagues with similar interests. B. Statute Review Project staff undertook a comprehensive review of current California statutes that require "social workers" to provide state-administered services. Staff used University Library holdings as well as information from internet services. C. Operational Definition Project staff asked all participating agencies to report their working definition of a "social worker position." In addition, project staff obtained numerous job descriptions from both state and county agencies which have social worker in the title. To establish its accuracy and usefulness, the operational definition was then circulated to a number of state and county agencies that employ social workers for comment. D. Numerical Estimates of Need Project staff identified the public agencies that use social workers to be included in the study. Contact persons for each agency were mailed or faxed a cover letter explaining the project, and a two-page instrument designed to collect the necessary data (Appendix A). 5

Follow-up contact was made within a week. As indicated in Appendix A, contact persons were asked for: 1) The total number of social worker positions in the agency; 2) The distribution of these positions across programs, e.g. child welfare, aging, mental health, disabilities, etc.; 3) The educational requirements for these positions; 4) The number of current positions filled by waivers of the educational requirements; 5) The number of current vacant positions; 6) Increases or decreases in the number of these positions expected in the next few years; and 7) The jurisdiction s operational definition of "social worker." A number of limitations in the methodology were discovered. First, the study was conducted during the months of November and December 2001, and January 2002. As might be expected, personal leaves, vacations, and holiday closures affected the response rate. However, reporting jurisdictions were as cooperative as possible given the rapid response needed and the regular and extra workload responsibilities during that time of year. A second problem emerged when data were solicited from a wide range of agencies in each county that provide social work services for children and adults. In some counties, all services were provided by one centralized agency. In other counties, however, there are several different agencies, differentiated by the population they primarily serve. The need to contact multiple agencies in a single county complicated the data collection process. In the short time frame allotted, Child Welfare Services (CWS) personnel were able to provide the most consistent and detailed information, whereas data from the other program areas were less complete. The analysis that follows is thus based mainly on the data for social work positions in CWS (except where noted otherwise). The data from CWS has been used to 6

estimate the demand for social workers both in the program areas in which data were missing and for counties which did not report data. A third limitation was discovered during the course of the research, involving the definition of "social worker." In addition to "traditional" uses of social workers, many new categories of positions for social workers have evolved. This trend also reflects the practice of contracting out services previously performed by employees on the government payroll. School social workers, Employee Assistance Program staff, and private not-for-profit and for-profit social service agencies are illustrative of these new types of jobs. In fact, the Bureau of Labor Services lists 11 areas of social work practice: Child welfare or family services; Child or adult protective services; Clinical; Criminal Justice; Gerontology; Health care; Mental health; Occupational; Schools; Social work administration; and Social work planning and policy making. A report on the job market for social workers adds the fields of supervision, management, research, community organizing, and education and training as well (Barth, 2001, p.35). Thus it was not possible in the short time period given for this project to identify all existing social work jobs, or to count the actual number of vacancies, in order to paint a complete picture of the need for social workers in California. Nevertheless, based on the data received, it was possible to make some estimates of the demand for social workers, both immediate and short-range. The data were collected and coded for entry into a statistical analysis program. The data were analyzed to characterize the overall need for social workers, as well as breakdowns by agency and program type. E. Education and/or Training Requirements This information was collected from both the state and the county agencies in the 7

steps outlined above, as well as from the review of current California statutes. The data were analyzed to show the education and/or training requirements of the various positions identified in the need analysis. The results were used to project the needs for social workers in terms of existing types of education and training (e.g., certificates, concentrations, minors, majors, baccalaureates, and graduate degrees). Currently, accredited schools of social work in California graduate about 1,500 students per year, counting both bachelors and masters degree graduates. There have been a number of different estimates of the annual productivity of schools of social work in California. However, this estimate, produced at the third in the series of hearings conducted by Assemblywoman Dion Aroner (D-Berkeley), November 14, 2001, and reported in the online publication of the National Association of Social Workers entitled http://www.naswca.org/shortage/hearing111401.htm, will be used in this report. 8

III. FINDINGS A. Literature Review The prevalence and persistence of unmet demands for social workers have led to a number of state and national studies over the past several years. 1. National Demand The findings of a study of the national labor market for social workers addressed several recent, important developments. The most striking is the distribution of social work positions between the public, private, and not-for profit sectors. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, in the year 2000, 57% of social work positions were found in the public sector, and 43% were found in the private or non-profit sectors. The total of the government positions was distributed among federal (3.5%), state (47.4%), and local (49.1%) agencies (Barth, 2001, p.36). According to the U. S. Census Bureau (2001), jobs for social workers are expected to increase by 36% between now and 2008, a rate that is much faster than the average job increase. A large number of additional social work jobs (218,000) is also expected in the same period, increasing the national total from 604,000 to 822,000. The growth in the number of social work positions will be fueled both by demands from the government sector and by the creation of new social work jobs in the private sector, e.g., as part of Employee Assistance Programs, as well as by the increasing tendency of public agencies to contract with private and non-profit agencies to provide services formerly delivered directly by government employees (Barth 2001, p.37). While the present study only addressed the demand for social workers by public agencies, it should be recognized that there are also demands from other sectors. Thus, the public sector will face increasing competition from the 9

private sector for social workers in future years. A recent study of the national demand for social workers by the Alliance for Children and Families, the American Public Human Services Association, and the Child Welfare League of America also compared public and private sector agencies (Table 1). This report further noted vacancy rates of about 10%-40% in child protective services agencies nationwide (Alliance for Children and Families et al., 2001). Table 1: Nationwide Vacancy Rates for Social Workers RATES PUBLIC SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR Social Worker Vacancy 9-11% 9-11% SW Supervisor Vacancy 7% 27% Social Worker Turnover/Year 19-20% 40-41% SW Supervisor Turnover/Year 8% 28% SW Average Tenure on Job 7-8 years 3-4 years SW Supervisor Average Tenure on Job 13 years 6 years Source: Alliance for Children and Families et al., 2001. Another recent survey conducted by the Child Welfare League of America looked at 250 child welfare organizations nationwide and found a 10% average vacancy rate. The survey also found a 20% turnover rate in public agencies and a 40% turnover rate in private agencies. An administrator interviewed in the article stated, a career in child welfare is not very attractive when other, better-paying jobs may be less challenging and more rewarding (Mack, 2001). 2. Demand in California According to a study funded by California Senate Bill 2030, workload standards for child welfare social workers had not been changed substantially since 1984, when there were 10

fewer families and children to be served and fewer programs and mandates with which to comply. Since then, dozens of new statutes have been enacted on the state level, in additional to federal legislation such as the 1997 Adoption and Safe Families Act (P.L. 105-89). These legislative changes place additional burdens on social workers in terms of time and documentation. While the report's primary focus was on adjusting caseload standards, it also recommended that current social work staff with tenure of less than six months (about 10% of all staff) be given an additional 27 hours of time for training and supervision per month. The report concluded that to meet minimum standards for child welfare caseloads, the 6,449 current social workers would have to be doubled to 13,762, and tripled to 19,984 to achieve optimal standards (California Department of Social Services, 2000; O Neill, 2001). A series of hearings on the shortage of social workers in California was initiated in 2001 by Assemblywoman Dion Aroner (D-Berkeley). The first, "Planning the Future of Social Work in California: Dealing with the Crisis in the Social Worker Shortage," was held on February 19 th, before the Assembly Human Services Committee. This was followed by two more hearings, "Developing an Action Plan to Solve California's Human Services Workforce Shortage" on July 17 th, and Social Work Education and the Social Work Shortage on November 14 th. Summaries of the hearings (O Neill, 2001) detailed the current shortage of social workers in California, which can be measured partly by the number of unfilled vacancies. According to John Cullen, Vice President at Large of the California Welfare Directors Association, the ten biggest county welfare offices alone needed about 3,400 social workers immediately. The Child Welfare Stakeholders Group echoed this assessment, citing the need for at least 3,000 social workers for the state's foster care system. Other sectors of social 11

work in California are experiencing similar problems, with reports of vacancy rates from 20 to 80 percent for certain job categories (e.g., Licensed Clinical Social Workers). The demand for social workers varies by the type of client population served and by the region of the state. A California State Department of Mental Health study (2001) reported that the mental health system in California had 2,500 vacant social work positions. John Ryan, Director of Riverside County Department of Mental Health, reported a vacancy rate for social workers of about 20% in mental health agencies in his region, which was slightly lower than the average statewide rate of 25%. The developmental disability sector that contains the state s 21 Regional Centers also reported a vacancy rate of 25%. Similarly, the aging and long-term care sectors reported a 20-30% vacancy rate, with 75% of aging care facility administrators stating it was difficult to recruit and hire MSWs (Assembly Human Services Committee, 2001; O Neill, 2001). The one public sector field in which the supply of potential staff exceeds demand is school social work. Until recently, there has been little use of school social workers in California. While nationally there are 12,000 15,000 school social workers, and this number is expected to rise, California has only 223 school social workers (California Department of Education, 2000). This is because in California, unlike other states, little attention has been given to the changing roles that school personnel are being asked to assume (Dear, 2000). Until recently, relatively few school social work positions existed, and only nine educational programs in California offer the necessary training. With few jobs, few students chose to undertake studies in that field; with only a small labor pool available, schools were reluctant to create school social work positions. However, this may soon change. Federal and state legislation as well as major court decisions have increasingly 12

recognized the importance of school social work services and provided an opportunity to broaden these services (Monkman, 1999). Recent examples include the inclusion of school social work in the Educate America Act (Allen - Meares, 1999) and the Elementary School Counseling Act, as well as recent changes to the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (Hare and Rome, 1999). Programs in school social work now have all available student openings routinely filled, often with a waiting list for applicants into the program. This is positive, considering California s current ratio of one school social worker for every 27,134 students (California Department of Education, 2000). B. Statute Review There are only a few statutes in California which specify the educational requirements for specific social work positions. There are many more regulations which concern the training which individuals must have to perform certain duties (see Appendix B). Regulation 31-070 of the Manual of Policies and Procedures, Child Welfare Services State of California (May 1999), requires that at least 50% of professional staff providing emergency response services, and at least 50% of the professional staff providing maintenance services shall possess a Master s Degree in Social Work, or its equivalent in education and/or experience as certified by the State Personnel Board or a county civil service board. The regulation further requires that 100% of the supervisors of staff providing emergency response and family maintenance services shall possess a Master s Degree in Social Work, or its equivalent in education and/or experience as certified by the State Personnel Board or a county civil service board. The remaining emergency response and family maintenance services professional staff shall possess a bachelor s degree in social 13

work or its equivalent in education and/or experience as certified by the State Personnel Board or a county civil service board. Training for child welfare workers is specified in Article 2, Chapter 3, Part 4, Division 9 of the Welfare and Institutions Code, in sections CA WIC 16206 and 16208. Training for teachers with services credentials with specializations in pupil personnel services are specified in Article 4, Chapter 2, Part 25, Division 3, Title 2 of the Education Code, in CAL ED CODE 44266. Requirements for Licensed Clinical Social Workers are specified in Article 4, Chapter 14, Division 2 of the California Business and Professions Code, in CA B&P Code 4996.2 and 4996.22. There are also several provisions for training for LCSWs, specified in CA B&P Codes 25, 28, 29 and 32, as well as in Code 2736.1. It was not possible to determine how many counties might not be in compliance with these requirements. While some counties indicated that they did not technically have any staff operating under waivers of these requirements, they have had to make adjustments to avoid using waivers. One strategy is to under-fill positions with employees who do not meet the requirements, for example, using a Social Worker III to fill a Social Worker IV position. Another strategy to avoid noncompliance is to redefine some social work positions to have fewer requirements, or to re-assign certain tasks from positions with lower educational requirements to other positions with higher educational requirements. Given the educational requirements for positions currently titled social worker (described below) it is likely that many counties may not be able to meet these current requirements. C. Operational Definitions The respondents in this study were asked to give an operational definition of a social worker. There has been some discussion in the literature of the difference between a case 14

worker or case manager and a social worker. For example, the U.S. Department of Labor projected that jobs for case managers would grow faster than the average for other jobs through 2005. The report defined case manager as a job requiring a social work degree. However, there are many jobs called case manager which do not require such a degree, for example, nurse case managers (Shepherd, 1997). The term case worker has often been applied to many types of jobs that involve providing services to clients but that do not require social work degrees, for example, welfare or food stamp eligibility workers. A content analysis of the responses received in this study showed that the operational definition of social worker consisted of four major characteristics. 1. Determines need for services; authorizes services; plans services. The primary characteristic of a social worker is that the person makes decisions about the need for services to be provided; develops and/or modifies a service plan; and authorizes the provision of services by others. This characteristic most closely echoes the definition provided by Sylvia Pizzini, Deputy Director of the California State Department of Social Services, at the hearings held on February 9, 2001. She recommended that assessment, evaluation, planning, linking, therapeutic intervention, monitoring, and advocacy are tasks that need to be performed by a social worker. 2. Carries a case load; case manager. The second most often mentioned characteristic of a social worker is that the person is a case manager for a group of cases (a case load), and maintains continuity with that same group of cases over time. This may involve completing paperwork and writing reports. 3. Provides services. The third most frequently mentioned characteristic of a social worker is that the person may provide services directly. 15

4. Supervises. At a more advanced level, a social worker may supervise or oversee the provision of services by others; may monitor persons receiving services to ensure that they maintain eligibility for those services; and may enforce compliance with applicable regulations. These task components of social work can be seen as a continuum, requiring increasing levels of education and experience, as will be discussed in the last section on education below. The set of characteristics of a social worker mentioned in number 3 above are more often associated with direct service provision by technical or para-professional staff than with professional social workers. The set of characteristics of a social workers defined in number 2 above are more closely associated with a generic case manager job description. The set of characteristics specified in number 1 above are those most closely associated with formal education in social work. The set of characteristics of a supervisor (number 4 above) are most closely associated with those of an advanced professional in the social work field as traditionally defined, such as an MSW degree. D. Numerical Estimates of Need Data were obtained from public agencies in 39 (67%) of the 58 California counties as shown on the map in Appendix B and listed by population size in Appendix C. Populations ranged from 1,180 (Alpine) to over 9 million (Los Angeles). Thirteen counties were rural and 26 were urban as classified by the state. Combined, these counties represented over 85% of the total population of the state, and contained a good cross-section of all California counties. A number of different relationships emerged based on whether a county was urban or rural. The number of social workers in each county was strongly related to the total 16

population for the county (r=.90, p<.01), although the ratio varied across counties, from a low of 402 to a high of 7,270 persons per social worker. Urban counties tended to have higher ratios of population to social workers than rural counties. Similarly, the number of social workers in Child Welfare Services (CWS) was strongly related to the number of children in the county (r=.946, p<.01). But again, the ratio of children to social workers varied. In urban counties, the ratio ranged from 493 to 2,082. In rural counties, the ratio grew from 296 to 1,907 children per CWS social worker. Current CWS Social Workers As mentioned previously in the section on methodology, complete data were obtained from all the reporting counties only for Child Welfare Services social workers. The number of CWS social worker positions in the 39 counties reporting varied from a low of 2 to a high of 1,733. Table 2 shows, in the first row of figures, the actual data received from 39 counties for both the number of existing social worker positions in Child Welfare Services (CWS). Taken together, these 39 counties reported a total of 8,032.5 social worker positions in Child Welfare Services alone. Based on the data provided by these counties, the number of CWS social worker positions for the remaining 19 counties could be estimated. This was calculated by matching the missing county with the next closest county in terms of population and urban or rural status. As the ratio of children in the county population to each CWS social worker for the county is quite highly correlated, the ratio for the next nearest county was used to calculate the data for the missing counties. Using this methodology, the total number of CWS social worker positions in the 58 counties in California was estimated at 9,248.5. This is shown in the first row of Table 3. 17

This is substantially more than the statewide total of 6,449 child welfare workers counted in the 1998 SB 2030 study. On one hand, some of the difference may be due to the definition of social worker in each county. The present study counted both line social workers and social work supervisors, but not higher-level administrators. A few counties included lower-classified positions in their counts, such as social work aide or unit clerk, but these were removed for the analysis in the present study. On the other hand, there may have been an actual increase since 1998 in the number of CWS positions. Vacancies in CWS Positions The overall, weighted, average vacancy rate from the 39 reporting counties was 9.5%. This is remarkably close to the national findings shown above in Table 1 (discussed on page 8), and gives support to the accuracy of the findings in this study. Some counties identified their vacancies by position and agency, but others only included the total number of vacant social work positions in the county. Unlike the total number of social work positions, however, which was strongly related to county population, there were no good predictors of the vacancy rate by county. Vacancy rates varied widely, with some counties reporting no vacancies among their CWS social work staff, and others reporting vacancy rates as high as 50% in one rural area and 27.8% in one urban area. While the rural counties had smaller numbers of vacant positions, they had higher vacancy rates on the average (11.4%) than the urban counties (7.3%). The total number of vacancies reported by the 39 counties was 764.5. This is shown in the first row of Table 2. The majority of the vacancies were for line social workers, with fewer vacancies for social work supervisors. Some counties did not report vacancies by agency, but just submitted the total number of vacancies for social workers in the county. If 18

the county reported social work jobs across agencies, the vacancies were distributed proportionally. If the county only reported CWS social work positions, all the vacancies were attributed to CWS social work jobs. It may be that the number of vacancies is overstated in this report. However, since the bulk of county social worker positions in most counties are in agencies that provide services to children, it is likely that most vacancies would also be in CWS jobs. Also, the vacancy rates reported here match national estimates very closely. Assuming that data from the 39 counties reporting represents about 85% of the statewide population, and about 85% of the total CWS social worker positions, it can be assumed that it also represents about 85% of the vacancies. Therefore, the number of vacancies for the remaining 19 counties could be estimated, which produced a statewide total of 878.6 CWS social worker positions currently vacant. This is shown in the first row of Table 3. A vacancy rate is a snapshot at one point in time. It indicates the number of additional workers that are needed at present. However, when vacancies recur on a continuing basis, this is referred to as a turnover rate. While a few social worker vacancies are due to new positions being created, most are due to people leaving the job. This converts a point-in-time problem (vacancies) to a recurring problem (turnover). Thus part of the demand for social workers in California has to be seen as an ongoing problem due to turnover. Another reason that vacancies exist is that some counties experience considerable was difficulty in recruiting staff with the minimum educational requirements for social worker positions, especially beyond the entry level. Some counties had obtained waivers 19

which allowed them to employ staff with less than the minimum educational requirements in some positions. While the overall use of waivers was low, it was more prevalent in rural (10% of all positions on average) than in urban (3% of all positions on average) counties. Employees filling social work positions on waivers, or under-filling social work positions, also represent additional training and/or educational needs in the state. Finally, 54% of rural counties and 69% of urban counties said they expect to increase their total number of social work positions in the near future. The demand for social workers will only increase, especially if turnover remains high. Current Demand in CWS In sum, there are now an estimated 9,248.5 social work positions in Child Welfare Services departments in the 58 California counties, with 878.6 vacancies (shown in the first row of Table 3). The difference between positions and vacancies indicates a need for almost 900 social workers immediately, in children's services positions alone. This does not take into account the need for social workers in other county departments, for social workers employed directly by state agencies, or for social workers in the not-for-profit or private sector which accept contracts to deliver publicly-funded services (although there does not appear to be shortage of school social workers at this time). Given the current needs in the public sector, exacerbated by the projected demand for additional positions in the private sector, the total current demand for social workers in California is certainly much higher. Demands in All Program Areas The Child Welfare Services social worker data provides a baseline from which to estimate the demand in other program areas. For example, assuming that CWS social workers constitute about 75% of all county social workers, the total number of county social 20

workers for the 39 counties which reported data rises to 10,710; the estimate for all 58 counties rises to 12,221. Further, assuming a vacancy rate of 9.5% would bring the total estimated vacancies at the county level to 1,017.5 for the 39 counties reporting data, and to 1,171.5 for all 58 counties. These figures are shown in the first row of Tables 4 and 5. This is the immediate demand for all types of social workers by California counties. By further assuming that county social workers represent the bulk (about 85%) of government social workers in California, the total number of social workers used by state and local government would be 14,507.4. With an average vacancy rate of 9.5%, there would be an immediate demand for 1,378.2 social workers to fill the vacancies in these positions. Impact of Turnover As discussed in the literature review, public agencies which employ social workers experience an average turnover rate of up to 20% per year. In the second set of figures in Table 2, reading across the rows, the number of vacancies that would recur each year is calculated for turnover rates from a low of 5% to a high of 20%. If these rates are applied only to the 8,032.5 social work positions reported by the 39 counties for CWS staff, there will be a demand for an additional 401.6 to 1,606.5 social workers each year. Using the figure of approximately 1,500 social work graduates per year, at both the BSW and MSW levels, the unmet need can be calculated. It would not be until the 20% level that there would be a deficit of social workers each year (106.5). However, if the estimates of the need for all types of social workers across all types of programs in all 58 counties are used (Table 5), the number of additional social workers needed would rise to 616.6 to 2466.3 per year, clearly outstripping the available supply. 21

The number of new staff needed may be impacted by several other factors outside the scope of this report. While each county experiences turnover among its staff, it is possible that social workers move from one county to another. While some social workers may leave the profession, others join. Therefore, it would be important to estimate the net number of new social workers required each year, by calculating the reduction in the number of social workers in the profession each year (quit, retire, change careers, leave the state, etc.) that is not offset by others joining the work force (e.g., college graduates, in-migration from other states). If national estimates of the average tenure of social workers as 7-8 years are used (from Table 1), then it could be assumed that about one-seventh or one-eighth of all social workers leave the profession each year. That would be equal to about a 12% to 15% turnover rate per year. However, an important caveat stems from California's stringent licensing requirements, which include oral exams (unlike other states) and severely restrict the ability of licensed social workers from jurisdictions outside California to practice in this state. Lifting some of these restrictions would help to meet the demand for social workers. Impact of AB 364 A final element that must be taken into account in estimating the demand for social workers in California is Assembly Bill 364. This bill would require county child welfare worker caseloads to be reduced over a five-year period, to meet the standards established by the social worker caseload study. For most counties, this would require, at minimum, a doubling of child welfare workers. The potential effects of AB 364 are detailed in Tables 2-5. Table 2 begins with the total of 8,032.5 child welfare social workers reported by 39 22

counties. It then shows the number of social workers needed under assumptions of various turnover rates. The next set of figures shows what the demand for social workers would be if AB 364 was adopted, and the current number of CWS social workers would double over the next five years, adding 20% of the total (1,606.5) per year. If AB 364 is implemented, the current total of 8,032.5 social workers will double to 16,065. If we add one-fifth each year, the demand for social workers increases to the point where it outstrips the available graduates of all BSW and MSW programs in California per year (1,500). There would be a shortage of 106.5 social workers per year, for each of the five years, assuming a zero turnover rate. The final sets of figures show the demand for social workers for five years, assuming both the implementation of AB 364 and turnover rates from zero to 20% per year. Under these assumptions, the unmet need for social workers increases from a low of 106.5 in year one with zero turnover, to 1,713.0 in year one with 20% turnover. The remainder of the table continues the analysis for years two through five of AB 364 and turnover rates from zero to 20% per year. The demand for social workers for the entire 5-year period of AB 364 rises from a low of 8,032.5 (with zero turnover) to a high of 19,278 (with 20% per year turnover). This is the estimate of the need for new child welfare services social workers only - and only for 39 counties. TABLE 2: Demand for Child Welfare Social Workers in 39 Counties SCENARIO 1: Actual data from 39 counties for CWS social workers only 39 COUNTY 39 COUNTY CWS TOTAL CWS VACANCIES BSW/MSW Graduates per year Surplus = (+) Unmet need = (-) CURRENT 8032.5 764.5 1500 735.5 Turnover among CWS only BSW/MSW VACANCY/YEAR Assuming Turnover @ Graduates per year Need Per Year 5% 401.6 1500 1098.4 10% 803.3 1500 696.8 15% 1204.9 1500 295.1 20% 1606.5 1500-106.5 23

UNDER AB364: Number doubles over five years TOTAL CWS POSITIONS NEW POSITIONS BSW/MSW Graduates per year Need Per Year YEAR 1 8032.5 1606.5 1500-106.5 YEAR 2 9639.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 YEAR 3 11245.5 1606.5 1500-106.5 YEAR 4 12852.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 YEAR 5 14458.5 1606.5 1500-106.5 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 1 Turnover Vacant of 8032.5 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 @5% 401.6 2008.1 1500-508.1 @10% 803.3 2409.8 1500-909.8 @15% 1204.9 2811.4 1500-1311.4 @20% 1606.5 3213.0 1500-1713.0 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 2 Turnover Vacant of 9630.0 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 @5% 482.0 2088.5 1500-588.5 @10% 963.9 2570.4 1500-1070.4 @15% 1445.9 3052.4 1500-1552.4 @20% 1927.8 3534.3 1500-2034.3 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 3 Vacant of Turnover 11245.5 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 @5% 562.3 2168.8 1500-668.8 @10% 1124.6 2731.1 1500-1231.1 @15% 1686.8 3293.3 1500-1793.3 @20% 2249.1 3855.6 1500-2355.6 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 4 Vacant of Turnover 12852.0 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 @5% 642.6 2249.1 1500-749.1 @10% 1285.2 2891.7 1500-1391.7 @15% 1927.8 3534.3 1500-2034.3 @20% 2570.4 4176.9 1500-2676.9 24

Under AB364 plus turnover--year 5 Vacant of Turnover 14458.5 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 @5% 722.9 2329.4 1500-829.4 @10% 1445.9 3052.4 1500-1552.4 @15% 2168.8 3775.3 1500-2275.3 @20% 2891.7 4498.2 1500-2998.2 A similar calculation was estimated for the number of child welfare services social workers needed for all 58 counties (Table 3). These calculations were based on the assumption stated above, that the numbers reported by the 39 participating counties represent 85% of the total for all 58 counties. Combining the increased need attributed to AB 364 with turnover rates from zero to twenty percent per year, the demand for social workers for the entire 5-year period of AB 364 rises from a low of 9,248.5 (with zero turnover) to a high of 22,196.4 (with 20% per year turnover). This is the estimate of the need for new child welfare services social workers only for all 58 California counties. TABLE 3: Demand for Child Welfare Services Social Workers in 58 Counties SCENARIO 2: Estimated data for 58 counties for CWS social workers only 58 COUNTY CWS TOTAL 58 COUNTY CWS VACANCIES BSW/MSW Graduates per year Surplus = (+) Unmet need = (-) CURRENT 9248.5 878.6 1500 621.4 Turnover among CWS only Assuming Turnover @ VACANCY/YEA R BSW/MSW Graduates per year Need Per Year 5% 462.4 1500 1037.6 10% 924.9 1500 575.2 15% 1387.3 1500 112.7 20% 1849.7 1500-349.7 25

UNDER AB364: Number doubles over five years TOTAL CWS POSITIONS NEW POSITIONS BSW/MSW Graduates per year Need Per Year YEAR 1 9248.5 1849.7 1500-349.7 YEAR 2 11098.2 1849.7 1500-349.7 YEAR 3 12947.9 1849.7 1500-349.7 YEAR 4 14797.6 1849.7 1500-349.7 YEAR 5 16647.3 1849.7 1500-349.7 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 1 Turnover Vacant of 9248.5 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1849.7 1500-349.7 @5% 462.4 2312.1 1500-812.1 @10% 924.9 2774.6 1500-1274.6 @15% 1387.3 3237.0 1500-1737.0 @20% 1849.7 3699.4 1500-2199.4 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 2 Turnover Vacant of 11098.2 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1849.7 1500-349.7 @5% 554.9 2404.6 1500-904.6 @10% 1109.8 2959.5 1500-1459.5 @15% 1664.7 3514.4 1500-2014.4 @20% 2219.6 4069.3 1500-2569.3 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 3 Turnover Vacant of 12947.9 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1849.7 1500-349.7 @5% 647.4 2497.1 1500-997.1 @10% 1294.8 3144.5 1500-1644.5 @15% 1942.2 3791.9 1500-2291.9 @20% 2589.6 4439.3 1500-2939.3 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 4 Turnover Vacant of 14797.6 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1849.7 1500-349.7 @5% 739.9 2589.6 1500-1089.6 @10% 1479.8 3329.5 1500-1829.5 @15% 2219.6 4069.3 1500-2569.3 @20% 2959.5 4809.2 1500-3309.2 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 5 Turnover Vacant of 16647.3 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1849.7 1500-349.7 @5% 832.4 2682.1 1500-1182.1 @10% 1664.7 3514.4 1500-2014.4 @15% 2497.1 4346.8 1500-2846.8 @20% 3329.5 5179.2 1500-3679.2 Table 4 continues the estimation, this time for all types of social workers employed by the county in the 39 counties reporting data in this study. The assumption is that child 26

welfare services social workers represent 75% of all social workers employed in counties in California. Therefore the need for all types of social workers for the entire 5-year period of AB 364 rises from a low of 8,032.5 (with zero turnover and no other new positions created), to a high of 21,955.5 (with 20% per year turnover). This is the estimate of the need for all types of social workers but only for the 39 counties reporting data. TABLE 4: Demand for All Social Workers in 39 Counties SCENARIO 3: Estimated total SW for 39 counties if CWS = 75% of all social work positions 39 COUNTY 39 COUNTY BSW/MSW Surplus = (+) ALL SW ALL SW VACANT Graduates per year Unmet need = (-) CURRENT 10710.0 1017.5 1500 482.6 Turnover among all SW (n=10710) Assuming Turnover @ VACANCY/YEAR BSW/MSW Graduates per year Need Per Year 5% 535.5 1500 964.5 10% 1071.0 1500 429.0 15% 1606.5 1500-106.5 20% 2142.0 1500-642.0 (Data from 39 counties for CWS only) UNDER AB364: CWS doubles over five years TOTAL CWS POSITIONS NEW POSITIONS BSW/MSW Graduates per year Need Per Year YEAR 1 8032.5 1606.5 1500-106.5 YEAR 2 9639.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 YEAR 3 11245.5 1606.5 1500-106.5 YEAR 4 12852.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 YEAR 5 14458.5 1606.5 1500-106.5 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 1 Turnover Vacant of 10710 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 @5% 535.5 2142.0 1500-642.0 @10% 1071.0 2677.5 1500-1177.5 @15% 1606.5 3213.0 1500-1713.0 @20% 2142.0 3748.5 1500-2248.5 27

Under AB364 plus turnover--year 2 Turnover Vacant of 12316.5 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 @5% 615.8 2222.3 1500-722.3 @10% 1231.7 2838.2 1500-1338.2 @15% 1847.5 3454.0 1500-1954.0 @20% 2463.3 4069.8 1500-2569.8 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 3 Turnover Vacant of 13923 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 @5% 696.2 2302.7 1500-802.7 @10% 1392.3 2998.8 1500-1498.8 @15% 2088.5 3695.0 1500-2195.0 @20% 2784.6 4391.1 1500-2891.1 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 4 Turnover Vacant of 15529.5 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 @5% 776.5 2383.0 1500-883.0 @10% 1553.0 3159.5 1500-1659.5 @15% 2329.4 3935.9 1500-2435.9 @20% 3105.9 4712.4 1500-3212.4 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 5 Turnover Vacant of 17136 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1606.5 1500-106.5 @5% 856.8 2463.3 1500-963.3 @10% 1713.6 3320.1 1500-1820.1 @15% 2570.4 4176.9 1500-2676.9 @20% 3427.2 5033.7 1500-3533.7 Finally, Table 5 estimates the demand for all types of social workers for all 58 counties in California. Combining the increased need from AB 364 with turnover rates from zero to twenty percent per year, the demand for social workers for the entire 5-year period of AB 364 rises from a low of 9,248.5 (with zero turnover and no other new positions created) to a high of 25,279.2 (with 20% per year turnover). This is the estimate of the need for all types of social workers by all 58 California counties. TABLE 5. Demand for All Social Workers in 58 Counties SCENARIO 4: Estimated total SW for 58 counties if CWS = 75% of all social work positions 58 COUNTY ALL SW 58 COUNTY ALL SW VACANT BSW/MSW Graduates per year Surplus = (+) Unmet need = (-) CURRENT 12331.3 1171.5 1500 328.5 28

Turnover among all SW (n=10710) Assuming Turnover @ VACANCY/YEAR BSW/MSW Graduates per year Need Per Year 5% 616.6 1500 883.4 10% 1233.1 1500 266.9 15% 1849.7 1500-349.7 20% 2466.3 1500-966.3 (Estimates from 58 counties CWS only) UNDER AB364: CWS doubles over five years TOTAL CWS POSITIONS NEW POSITIONS BSW/MSW Graduates per year Need Per Year YEAR 1 9248.5 1849.7 1500-349.7 YEAR 2 11098.2 1849.7 1500-349.7 YEAR 3 12947.9 1849.7 1500-349.7 YEAR 4 14797.6 1849.7 1500-349.7 YEAR 5 16647.3 1849.7 1500-349.7 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 1 Turnover Vacant of 10710 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1849.7 1500-349.7 @5% 616.6 2466.3 1500-966.3 @10% 1233.1 3082.8 1500-1582.8 @15% 1849.7 3699.4 1500-2199.4 @20% 2466.3 4316.0 1500-2816.0 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 2 Turnover Vacant of 12316.5 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1849.7 1500-349.7 @5% 709.1 2558.8 1500-1058.8 @10% 1418.1 3267.8 1500-1767.8 @15% 2127.2 3976.9 1500-2476.9 @20% 2836.2 4685.9 1500-3185.9 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 3 Turnover Vacant of 13923 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1849.7 1500-349.7 @5% 801.5 2651.2 1500-1151.2 @10% 1603.1 3452.8 1500-1952.8 @15% 2404.6 4254.3 1500-2754.3 @20% 3206.1 5055.8 1500-3555.8 Under AB364 plus turnover--year 4 Turnover Vacant of 15529.5 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1849.7 1500-349.7 @5% 894.0 2743.7 1500-1243.7 @10% 1788.0 3637.7 1500-2137.7 @15% 2682.1 4531.8 1500-3031.8 @20% 3576.1 5425.8 1500-3925.8 29

Under AB364 plus turnover--year 5 Turnover Vacant of 17136 NEW+VACANT Graduates per year Need Per Year @0% 0.0 1849.7 1500-349.7 @5% 986.5 2836.2 1500-1336.2 @10% 1973.0 3822.7 1500-2322.7 @15% 2959.5 4809.2 1500-3309.2 @20% 3946.0 5795.7 1500-4295.7 California is one of only a few states that delegate most social work functions to the counties for implementation, so most of the social workers are employed at the county level. Thus the estimates of the demand for social workers in this report are likely to capture the demand for the majority of social workers in California. It is true that these estimates do not address the demand for social workers in California who are employed directly by the state; work in schools; or work in the private or not-for-profit sectors. However, few social workers in California work directly for the state; and few social workers have been employed in schools. National estimates show increasing proportions of social workers being employed outside the public sector. This trend may be the result of the creation of new, nontraditional jobs. Or it may be an increase in the practice of contracting out. However, there are no indications from surveys of alumni of schools of social work that such a large proportion is employed outside the public sector in California. In any event, even if some social work functions are contracted out to the private or not-for profit sectors, these are still social work positions that are funded by public funds. This will not decrease the overall need for social workers in California. In addition, given the very high correlation between the population of children in a county and the number of CWS social worker positions in the county, the number of such positions can be expected to increase as the population of California increases (although we did not estimate it in this study). Thus the total demand will be higher still, and clearly will 30

not be able to be met by the current number of students graduating from schools of social work in California each year. Not only would the number of graduates need to increase, but the education and training offered by California schools of social work would need to be expanded to address the demand for the various types of positions required. Some counties reported the number of social workers at each position level, for example, how many in the Social Work I classification, Social Worker II, and so forth. Other counties only reported the number of line workers and the number of supervisory staff. Finally, some counties only reported the total for all types of positions. Using the data reported, however, it is possible to gain a more detailed picture of the demand for social workers in California (Table 6). Social Worker I TABLE 6. DISTRIBUTION OF SOCIAL WORKERS BY POSITION Social Worker II Social Worker III Total Line Social Workers Supervisors Ratio 156 507 857 1520 (10.3%) (33.3%) (56.4%) (100%) 227 6.7:1 Table 6 shows the distribution of social workers across line and supervisory positions in the five counties that provided this level of detail. Of the total of 1,520 line workers, about 10% were in the most junior level (Social Worker I), about one-third were in the intermediate level (Social Worker II), and the over half were in the journey level (Social Worker III). Dividing the total number of line workers (1,520) by the total number of supervisors (227) produces a ratio of approximately 6.7 line workers for every supervisor. Taking the 15 counties that reported just the total number of line workers and the total number of supervisors, a similar ratio is obtained of approximately 6 line workers to every supervisor. The ratio is somewhat lower for this second group of counties because it includes Los Angeles County, which has a ratio of only 5 workers to each supervisor, a ratio 31

lower than for most other counties. This distribution of social workers across positions has implications for the provision of social work training and education, as discussed in the next section. E. Education and/or Training Requirements The educational requirements for social workers vary among counties, but there are two predominant patterns. First, 30 of the 58 counties (mostly smaller and more rural) use Merit Systems Services (MSS), a centralized recruiting service in Sacramento. MSS has developed standardized definitions for a number of social worker jobs and established the minimum educational and other requirements for applicants. Although the four basic levels developed by MSS are all labeled social worker, they do not necessarily require either an undergraduate or graduate social work degree. These positions are based on the job description rather than the formal level of social work education required (Figure 1). The four levels are described below. Figure 1. Educational Requirements for Social Worker Positions ELIGIBILITY WORKER I ELIGIBILITY WORKER II SOCIAL WORKER I SOCIAL WORKER II SOCIAL WORKER III SOCIAL WORKER IV (SUPERVISOR) High School equivalency Two years in job with public contact High School equivalency One year as EW I High School equivalency One year as EW II 30 semester units in behavioral sciences and 1 year as SW I; OR BA in any field; BA with 30 units in behavioral science and 2 years casework; OR One year as SW II Masters in Social Work 32

1. Entry-Level Social Worker Most entry-level "social worker" positions do not require an undergraduate degree in social work. In fact, many of these positions do not require an undergraduate degree at all. It is possible to obtain an entry-level position, usually called a Social Worker I, with only a high school graduation if the applicant also has some experience in dealing with the public. For example, some Social Worker I positions will accept, in addition to graduation from high school, any one of the following: (a) One year of full-time experience in the MSS Eligibility Worker II classification; (b) Three years of full-time experience in the MSS Vocational Assistant classification; (c) Two years of full-time experience in the MSS Homemaker classification; (d) Two years of full-time experience in a journey-level clerical class; (e) One year of full-time social work case management experience; (f) Equivalent experience in a job classification comparable to those above. The MSS Eligibility Worker II classification, for instance, requires 12 months as an Eligibility Worker I. The Eligibility Worker I, in turn, requires graduation from high school and two years of responsible office experiences which included considerable public contact responsibilities. College course work may be substituted for the required experience on a year-for-year basis. The requirements for these positions also include a catch-all option which states that any combination of education, training, and experience that would provide the required knowledge and abilities is acceptable. 2. Journey-Level Social Worker The second-tier social work positions, usually called Social Worker II, generally require about 30 semester units (10 courses) in the social and/or behavioral sciences, plus 33

some work experience. This is the first level that has any specific educational requirements. In some cases, a completed undergraduate degree may be substituted for experience, but the major does not have to be in social work or a related field. It is possible that an individual with an undergraduate degree in history, for example, and no experience, could hold the title and responsibilities of a Social Worker II. 3. Lead Social Worker The advanced journey-level social work position, usually called Social Worker III, may be filled by having one year of experience performing duties comparable to a Social Worker II. Another option is to have the educational equivalent to graduation from college, including 30 semester units (10 courses) in social welfare, social/human services, or other behavioral science, and two years of social casework experience in a public or private social services agency. This is the first level that has specific experience requirements, in addition to educational requirements, related to social services. 4. Supervisory Social Worker The supervisory social work positions generally require an MSW or similar degree, plus experience. For some of these positions, applicants are considered qualified if they are within six months of obtaining the degree. These positions may be referred to as Lead Social Worker, Social Worker IV or Supervising Social Worker. This is the first level to require a formal graduate degree in social work or a similar field. The second pattern is exemplified by other, mostly larger and more urban counties, which have developed their own definitions and minimum requirements for social work positions. The requirements of the larger or more urban counties generally are more extensive than those of the smaller or more rural counties, or the MSS designations. 34

If the distribution of social workers among these levels follows the pattern shown in Table 6 above, then the least amount of demand exists at the most junior level, i.e., Social Worker I. Only about 10% of social workers are found in this category. This level does not currently require any college-level education in social work. Persons in this entry-level position could benefit from job-related training, or from para-professional training such as a certificate program or community college courses. The next higher level of demand for social workers occurs at the next stage, i.e., Social Worker II. About one-third of social workers are found at this level. Persons at this level could benefit from an AA degree in social work offered by a community college, or from completing a B.A. with 30 units of coursework in social work or a related discipline. The highest level of demand for line workers occurs at the journey level, i.e., Social Worker III. Over half the social workers in the public sector are found in this job category. Persons in these jobs could benefit from a bachelor s degree in social work. This would imply that schools of social work in California should focus on producing more BASWs, or offering minors in social work to students in other programs. Finally, at the supervisory level, a Masters of Social Work is generally required. Using a ratio of about 7 line workers to each supervisor, we can estimate that one of every seven social workers in California has an MSW degree. However, some jobs require that half the staff, and all the supervisors, have an MSW degree. Thus there appears to be a need for more social workers with masters degrees. In assessing the demand for social workers in California, it will be important to examine the gap between the position duties of some positions and the actual educational attainments of persons found in those positions. Some of this can be remedied by changing 35

the titles of jobs which do not actually require any formal training or education in social work to eliminate the words social worker. The remainder, which represent the actual demand for social workers, will have to be met by increasing the number of persons in California with formal training and education in social work. F. Conclusions The literature review and survey responses included in this (and other) studies point to specific factors that affect the recruitment and retention of social workers, which need to be addressed if the demand for social workers in California is to be met (Appendix E provides an historical perspective on the evolution of these interactive factors, and the studies in the last decade that document these problems). 1. Demand for Social Workers The level of demand for social workers will continue to escalate across the program areas of child welfare, disabilities, mental health, and school social work, as the population both grows and becomes more diverse and complex. Then there is also the aging of the population to consider. Federal legislation must also be taken into account. The federal government recently established national standards for child safety and permanency (Adoption and Safe Families Act, 1997). State agencies will be held responsible for achieving specified goals for children in out-of-home care. These national standards will effectively increase the demand for social workers across the nation. California has been scheduled for a federal audit under this program later in 2002. If these goals have not been met, California s foster care program could possibly incur $2 billion dollars in penalties ( Committees Focus on Foster Care, 2001). In the future, there may be a similar standard established for other areas of social work, such as adult protective services. 36

2. Lack of Supply The generally negative perception of social work, coupled with poor pay and lack of benefits such as liability protection, that are incommensurate with the amount and nature of the work, deter new people from entering the field. Part of the negative perception is the fear of ever- increasing amounts of paper work. Social workers estimate that they spend 65% to 75% of their time filling out multiple forms with repetitive information (Samantrai, 1992). 3. High Turnover A direct consequence of the lack of supply is the high vacancy rate in some social worker jobs. Since many positions are often vacant, the remaining staff are obliged to pick up the slack, leading to overwork, and resulting in high turnover. Another cause of turnover is under-preparation for the job. Some persons working in jobs classified as social worker positions have not received the education or training that would help them to function effectively in their environment. Due to the lack of prepared candidates, some agencies have lowered the requirements for some social work positions. For example, one state regulation requires that only 50% of child welfare staff working in the area of emergency response or ongoing services hold a degree in social work (or a related field). However, the other 50% do not need such preparation. Regulations such as these result in the assigning of social work tasks to individuals who are not prepared or trained as social workers. This leads to staff being overwhelmed by the demands placed upon them, exacerbating the turnover rate. 37

4. Need for Education The present study revealed that there are four distinct tasks that are attributed to the position of social worker. As detailed in Section III.C., these include (in increasing order of importance): -providing direct social services; -carrying a caseload; -determining the need for and planning services; and -supervising. These tasks can be organized into discrete positions arranged in a four-level hierarchy. As detailed in Figure 1 (above), the entry level position provides direct social services. At the present time, this level does not require any education or training, or experience, in social work. The second or journey level, which carries a caseload, may have a college degree, but not necessarily in social work, and does not require direct experience. At the third level, a lead social worker is someone who determines the need for and plans for services. This level does require at least some formal education in social work or related fields, as well as experience. Finally, at the fourth level, a supervisory social worker requires a graduate degree in social work (or a related field) and experience. This lowering of the bar has resulted in new hires with some college or unrelated Bachelor s degrees going from clerical and sales positions to being social workers with only a drivers license and a few weeks of classroom and/or field training. Due to the shrinking pool of social workers, many fear that the standards for being employed as a social worker will be lowered even further. This results in increasingly less qualified individuals being asked to perform duties beyond the scope of their training and experience, resulting in lower quality service to the public. Some agencies in our study were using 38

student interns to fill what would otherwise be vacant social work positions; this practice is also common elsewhere (Bocage, Homonoff, & Riley, 1995; Hunter, 2001; O Neill, 2001). Liability issues must also be considered. Based on the data from this study of the demand for social workers in California, even the most optimistic scenario (for example, in Table 2) projects that within a few years, California s schools of social work will be unable to meet the demand from the public sector alone, not to mention the private and not-for-profit sectors. 5. Need for Leadership It is vital that California policymakers take a leadership position to address the unmet demand for social workers. Although it may seem costly in the short run, the aggregate costs of failing to address this problem are likely to be higher over time. The next section provides recommendations that could address the demand for social workers in California. 39

IV. RECOMMENDATIONS In 1988, the Child Welfare League of America (CWLA) Biennial Assembly addressed the major issues facing the child welfare field and drafted seven resolutions designed to respond to these issues (Helfgott, 1991, p. v): -create a positive national image of child welfare; -inform the public of career opportunities in the field in order to enhance recruitment; -advocate for the funding of scholarships, grants, internships, and work/study opportunities; -improve education and training programs to assure competencies; -advocate for salaries and benefits commensurate with essential responsibilities and skills; -create working environments and personnel policies supportive of staff, culturally relevant, and that contribute to retention; and -support research projects to identify measures of competence, staffing qualifications, workloads, and turnover rates. In the decade and a half since those recommendations were first made, there has been scant progress in any of the seven categories in the child welfare field, or in any other program areas employing social workers. Little attention has been given to the need for a strategic, comprehensive plan that addresses these issues in holistic fashion. The following recommendations build on these findings and enhance the recommendations presented at a series of hearings in the California Assembly over the past year. 1. Creating a Positive Public Image for Social Workers The public needs to understand the expertise, hard work and successes that abound in the social work field. Human service agency administrators can improve recruitment and retention by collaborating to improve the image of their staff and agencies. This could be done by working with the media and the legal system to explain the value of the profession 40

(Mack, 2001; Malm et. al, 2001; McGowan & Walsh, 2000). The Statewide Media Campaign to Promote Human Services Professionals is one example of an enhanced advertising campaign that could help improve public opinion. 2. Enhancing Career Opportunities Recruitment and retention could also be enhanced by offering internships, hiring incentives, and referral rewards to current employees, as well as tuition assistance and loan forgiveness programs (Assembly Human Services Committee, 2001; Mack 2001). Agencies may benefit from posting job announcements on the internet and planning aggressive recruitment efforts at schools of social work (Alliance for Children and Families, et al. 2001). One proposed solution to the shortage is to have para-professionals fill some of the vacant positions (Assembly Human Services Committee, 2001; California State Department of Mental Health, 2001; Saillant, 2001). However, this strategy is acceptable only if the para-professionals receive competency-based education and training to provide a high standard of care to clients, and it is clearly disclosed that they are not fully trained social workers. This approach would require the expansion of training opportunities to those who are interested in the field, but have not yet obtained their Bachelors or Masters in Social Work, e.g. an associates degree in social rehabilitation or a human services certificate program (Assembly Human Services Committee, 2001). Baccalaureate certificates in case management or associate degrees could be offered to clerical staff interested in advancing in the field (California Department of Mental Health, 2001). These training opportunities could be offered at low or no cost during flexible hours at convenient locations, with trainees receiving financial assistance for transportation and 41

childcare (Saillant, 2001). However, these employees should not carry the title social worker. Training opportunities and advanced education are attractive not only to paraprofessionals hoping to advance. Current professionals would also greatly benefit from continuing education and training in terms of skill-building, self-esteem and job satisfaction. Such training and education opportunities would increase retention in addition to recruiting new workers (Alliance for Children and Families et. al, 2001; Assembly Human Services Committee, 2001). 3. Improving Working Conditions Improved working conditions require decreasing caseloads and providing flexible work schedules, better supervision, access to management, and increased support staff. Lowering caseloads cannot be achieved without making the job of social worker more attractive. Flexible work hours also might attract more potential social workers (Fernandez, 1990; Rycraft, 1994; NASW, 2001; Alliance for Children and Families, et. al., 2001; Mack 2001). Flexible scheduling would also enable employees at all levels to obtain further training and education (Saillant, 2001). Other family-sensitive workplace practices include maternity/paternity leave, and affordable and accessible child care (Fernandez, 1990). Supervisors who are trained to provide administrative, educative, and supportive supervision are essential to staff job satisfaction, especially for those serving high-risk client populations (Rycraft, 1994; Burke, 1997; Martin & Schinke, 1998; Zunz, 1998; Schroffel, 1999; Mclean & Andrew, 2000; Alliance for Children and Families et al., 2001; NASW, 2001; Mena & Marguerite, 2001; Weaver, 2000). By itself, experience in the field does not ensure that an individual will be a good supervisor. Training is essential and is a 42

documented retention tool, as shown by San Diego County s Supervisor Training Academy (Assembly Human Services Committee, 2001). Another improvement in working conditions results from increasing access to management decision-making for social workers who are involved in direct client service (Henry, 1990; Mack 2001). Administrators and supervisors should be trained to obtain line workers feedback on operations and policies that drive the organization. As a result, staff may have a sense of pride about their work, and the positive effects of empowerment and self-advocacy may translate to clients (Mclean & Andrew, 2000). Beyond that is an urgent need for additional support staff and a restructuring of information management systems, so that social workers are not forced to spend so much of their time on clerical tasks and repetitive paperwork that could be handled by a paraprofessional (Alliance for Children and Families et. al, 2001; NASW, 2001). 4. Providing Compensation and Benefits Commensurate with the Work The most effective retention and recruitment strategies combine higher pay with performance bonuses and benefits, along with reduced personal liability and an enhanced public image. Salaries are especially critical in private agencies that deliver public services under contract. While such agencies typically serve the same clients served in the public sector, they historically have paid lower salaries than public agencies. Compensation should be commensurate with the stressful work that social workers perform (Sue, 1990; Alliance for Children and Families et al., 2001; Assembly Human Services Committee, 2001; O Neill, 2001). Because of low salaries, committed social workers are often forced to work additional jobs (Mack, 2001, Malm et. al, 2001). Mack (2001) suggested that competitive salaries be accompanied by adequate benefits, which can be provided cafeteria-style to custom-fit employees. In addition, 401(k)s with matched employer contributions, vacation 43

sellbacks, a sick-time bank from which employees could draw down each other s sick-time if needed, and a pension plan could be added as benefits. Many of these inducements are standard in other professions (Mack, 2001). Benefits connected to tenure are fairly simple ways to ensure worker investment in an organization and increase retention, and are important for private sector social workers (California Alliance for Child and Family Services, 2002). The impact of relatively high pay and other benefits, including extended vacations, is most apparent in the supply of school social workers. With starting salaries of over $50,000, there are waiting lists for applicants to enter school social work certificate programs. 5. Creating Diverse Opportunities for Social Work Education Retention and recruitment strategies are meaningless without an adequate pool of degreed social workers. Accredited schools of social work need to produce more graduates, especially at the Master s level (Sue 1990; Assembly Human Services Committee, 2001; Barr & Neustrom, 2001; Theriot, 2001). The number of graduates from California social work schools has been flat for years, with enrollments capped at less than 50% of the demand (O Neill, 2001). As a result, schools of social work in California are not enrolling enough students to meet the job market demands. All Deans and Directors of California schools of social work have indicated that they would consider expansion if they had additional funding and more space. Efforts should be made by employers and schools of social work to increase incentives for attracting new students, and encourage Bachelor-level social workers to continue their education (see point e below). Employers should offer release-time and tuition subsidies for workers who want to continue their education (Saillant, 2001). Schools of 44

social work should have flexible class schedules so students may enroll part-time and balance school and work with more ease. Currently, only a few California schools have twoyear, three-year, or four-year program options, or offer summer courses. (NASW, 2001). A variety of models currently exist that provide plausible means of significantly expanding application, admission, and graduation rates of the state s accredited social work programs. These include: (a) The CSULB Distance Education Program, which utilized a host site developmental model to provide the infrastructure for newly implemented programs in Bakersfield and Chico, and is serving as the stimulus for current MSW program candidacy efforts in Hayward and Humboldt; (b) The specialized cohort model, characterized by the collaborative agreement between the accredited Southern California programs (CSULB, CSULA, UCLA, USC) and the Department of Mental Health. (c) The development of BSW and MSW elective courses as web-based offerings at human service locations, junior colleges and other sites frequented by potential program applicants; (d) Expansion of affiliation agreements between accredited state schools that facilitate creative pooling of select resources, such as faculty; and (e) An educational option that would allow students with a BSW to obtain their MSW on an accelerated basis. This could complement the existing independent BSW and MSW degree programs. Graduates of social work programs should also be skilled in working within large bureaucracies, in supervision, and in self-advocacy (Samantrai, 1992). Thus, an essential component of social work education for both BSWs and MSWs is the field placement. This experience provides students with the opportunity to work directly with clients, be supervised by a practitioner, and receive an evaluation of the quality of their work. It is an ongoing challenge to identify field placement opportunities for students in child and family 45

services, to work with the elderly, to work with developmentally disabled populations, and in macro placements. More agencies must be willing to invest staff time in student supervision, by giving field instructors release time for this critical work. The use of unaccredited human service training programs may be a strategy to "provide a significant pool of staff for public social services agencies" and "entry into a career in professional social work" (Diechert, 2002, p. 24). While there clearly are benefits to this kind of creative programming, it is essential that standards for service delivery are met and not compromised by filling positions with individuals who are called social workers but who do not have the requisite education. 6. Reclassifying and Renaming Social Work Positions A comprehensive job analysis should be conducted regarding the specific services that are needed by clients who receive aging, child welfare, disabilities, mental health, and other such services. Delivery of those services can be organized into positions that describe both the services to be provided and the education and/or training required. The position titles should reflect the qualifications and credentials of these staff. For example, if a position does not call for delivery of services that must be provided by a person with a social work degree, then the position should carry the title of caseworker, case manager, social service provider, etc. These positions should not be titled "social worker," so it is clear to the public that these services are not being provided by individuals with BSW or MSW degrees. At the same time, persons with similar or equivalent degrees (e.g., psychology, counseling, child development, etc.) would no longer be eligible for positions which carry the title of social worker and require a degree in social work. It may be deemed appropriate for individuals with social work degrees and other degrees to do similar work, 46

but only individuals with social work degrees should be called social workers. The reason is that applying the title of social worker across the board to all positions that involve serving the public removes incentives for current or prospective staff to obtain the specific knowledge and skills inherent in a social work degree. Routinely applying the label social worker to jobs that do not require those specific skills and abilities lowers the standards for service provided to the public. Using staff without formal social work training or education to fill vacant social work positions is the equivalent of the children s fable of The Emperor s New Clothes. 7. Crafting Public Policy Addressing the shortage of social workers will require increased levels of financial and legislative support. Schools of social work are largely affiliated with public universities. They will need legislative approval to hire more faculty, expand programs, and procure more space. State and county departments of social services the primary employers of social workers will also depend on the legislature for additional resources. Of course private schools also need creative ways to address funding challenges. One less costly action would be to loosen licensing requirements with respect to social workers licensed in other states (reciprocity), so they could practice in California; and to eliminate the oral exam, which has been a source of controversy for years (and was eliminated years ago for California Licensed Psychologists.) A comprehensive legislative approach is essential. For example, the Assembly Bill 722 Study Work Group is being convened to address pupil support services. One of its seven objectives is to determine the proper ratios of pupil-to-school social workers. This effort should complement the other actions addressed in this report. 47

Unless action is taken, the impact of the shortage of qualified social workers will continue to be written about in newspapers and journal articles. A new generation of politicians, lawmakers, agency administrators, and educators will struggle with the same problems. Most importantly, so will staff and their clients. Another social worker shortage study will be commissioned, and the cycle will begin again. These discouraging outcomes will continue to indicate that there is neither the public nor the political interest in improving the quality of the social-work work force serving California s most vulnerable residents. The causes of the social worker shortage are well documented and intervention strategies have been outlined above. The solutions are complex and fall into the category identified as wicked problems (Rittel and Weber, 1973). This concept postulates that scientists and engineers have "tame" problems that typically have a solution, e.g., solving an equation. But in the social services, problems are wicked because they do not lend themselves to simple interventions or one-dimensional solutions (Courtney, 2001; Pasztor, 2001). Adopting the multi-faceted approach outlined above would enable California to be among the first states with a strategic plan that stops studying and begins to tame the wicked problem of the social worker shortage. 48

APPENDIX A. Request For Information 49

December 2001 Dear Colleague: We are writing to ask you for your essential participation in the study Demand for Social Workers in California requested by the California Assembly and funded via the Center for California Studies at California State University, Sacramento. The Assembly policy makers need to better understand the scope of our workforce problem across all social service areas. We are contacting each county to assist with this information. We appreciate the help of the California Welfare Directors Association in identifying contacts. We have enclosed a brief questionnaire that outlines the information which the Assembly is requesting. For your convenience, you may fill out this form and fax it directly to us at 562-985-4672, attention Prof. Saint-Germain. Or, if you wish, you may e-mail the information to us at msaintg@csulb.edu. Alternatively, you may give us the information over the telephone, as one of our friendly project staff (Akilah or Frances) will call you in early January unless we receive your information by fax or e-mail. As this information is due in early February, we would appreciate receiving your information by the middle of January to be included in the data analysis and reporting. We would be pleases to send you a copy of the final report. Just let us know if you wish this when you provide your county s information. Meanwhile, if you have any comments or questions, please contact us. Thank you in advance for your assistance. Best wishes for the New Year. Sincerely, Prof. Michelle Saint-Germain, (562) 985-5383, Graduate Center for Public Policy Administration Prof. Eileen Mayers Pasztor, (epasztor@csulb.edu), Department of Social Work Prof. Terry DeCrescenzo, (terryd50@aol.com), Department of Social Work

DEMAND FOR SOCIAL WORKERS STUDY The California Assembly has requested a report on the social worker shortage in California s social service system. State policy makers need to acquire accurate information about the precise scope of the problem. This study, which is being funded by the California Research Fellows Program, will systematically describe the statewide need for social workers, using the data you provide. A suggested data matrix has been included for your responses. Please help us to complete the study by providing the requested information below. If it is more convenient, you may e-mail or fax your responses. If you have any questions, please contact Dr. Eileen Pasztor, (562) 985-7775; fax (562) 985-5514; e-mail epasztor@csulb.edu County Name: Contact Phone: Contact Person Contact e-mail: 1. In your county, what is the total number of positions that would be considered social work positions, i.e., for line workers (individuals who carry cases) or for social workers who are in a supervisory capacity? 2. What is the distribution of these positions across programs, e.g., child welfare, aging, mental health, disabilities? 3. What are the educational requirements for these positions? (Please feel free to attach job descriptions or provide the web site address where this information is posted). 4. How many of these positions are currently being filled by using waivers for those educational requirements? 5. How many of these positions are currently vacant? 6. Do you anticipate any change (increase, decrease, no change) in the number of these positions over the next few years? 7. In your county, what is the operational definition of a social worker position? Thanks! 50

DEMAND FOR SOCIAL WORKERS STUDY County Name: Contact Phone: Contact Person: Contact e-mail: DATA MATRIX PROGRAMS USING SOCIAL WORKERS TOTAL CURRENT POSITIONS NUMBER CURRENTLY VACANT NUMBER FILLED BY WAIVER EXPECTED CHANGES IN FUTURE AGING CHILD WELFARE DISABLED MENTAL HEALTH OTHER 51

APPENDIX B. Geographical Location of Reporting Jurisdictions 52

Geographical Location of Reporting Jurisdictions 53

APPENDIX C. Population of Reporting Jurisdictions 54

Population of Reporting Jurisdictions Population California Total Children Counties: Urban/Rural 33,871,648 10,519,953 Alpine R 1,208 296 Butte U 203,171 53,903 Calaveras R 40,554 10,243 Contra Costa U 948,816 290,908 El Dorado U 156,299 45,986 Fresno U 799,407 284,418 Humboldt R 126,518 32,593 Imperial R 142,361 50,589 Kern U 661,645 228,820 Kings R 129,461 41,096 Lake R 58,309 15,044 Lassen R 33,828 7,835 Los Angeles U 9,519,338 3,070,919 Madera U 123,109 39,788 Merced U 210,554 80,096 Mono R 12,853 3,110 Monterey U 401,762 124,906 Napa U 124,279 34,223 Nevada R 92,033 24,145 Orange U 2,846,289 884,189 Placer U 248,399 74,686 Plumas R 20,824 5,140 Riverside U 1,545,387 513,631 San Benito R 53,234 19,181 San Bernardino U 1,709,434 605,153 San Diego U 2,813,833 825,265 San Francisco U 776,733 147,203 San Joaquin U 563,598 192,304 San Mateo U 707,161 196,136 Santa Barbara U 399,347 110,742 Santa Clara U 1,682,585 485,584 Santa Cruz U 255,602 68,922 Shasta U 163,256 46,573 Sonoma U 458,614 127,137 Stanislaus U 446,997 155,878 Tehama R 56,039 16,671 Trinity R 13,022 3,251 Tulare U 368,021 136,372 Ventura U 753,197 246,465 55

APPENDIX D. Statutes and Codes 56

CALIFORNIA CODES WELFARE AND INSTITUTIONS CODE SECTION 16205-16208 16205. The department shall select and award a grant to a private nonprofit or public entity for the purpose of establishing a statewide multipurpose child welfare training program. 16206. (a) The purpose of the program is to develop and implement statewide coordinated training programs designed specifically to meet the needs of county child protective service social workers assigned emergency response, family maintenance, family reunification, permanent placement, and adoption responsibilities. It is the intent of the Legislature that the program include training for other agencies under contract with county welfare departments to provide child welfare services. In addition, the program shall provide training programs for persons defined as mandated child abuse reporters pursuant to Sections 11165 and following of the Penal Code. The program shall provide the following services to the extent possible within the total allocation. If allocations are insufficient, the department, in consultation with the grantee or grantees and the Child Welfare Training Advisory Board, shall prioritize the efforts of the program, giving primary attention to the most urgently needed services. However, county child protective service social workers assigned emergency response responsibilities shall receive first priority for training pursuant to this act. (b) The program shall provide practice-relevant training for mandated child abuse reporters and all members of the child welfare delivery system which will address critical issues affecting the well-being of children, and shall develop curriculum materials and training resources for use in meeting staff development needs of mandated child abuse reporters and child welfare personnel in public and private agency settings. This training shall include all of the following: (1) Crisis intervention. (2) Investigative techniques. (3) Rules of evidence. (4) Indicators of abuse and neglect. (5) Assessment criteria, including the application of guidelines for assessment of relatives for placement according to the criteria described in Section 361.3. (6) Intervention strategies. (7) Legal requirements of child protection, including requirements of child abuse reporting laws. (8) Case management. (9) Using community resources. (10) Information regarding the dynamics and effects of domestic violence upon families and children. (11) Post traumatic stress disorder and the causes, symptoms, and treatment of post traumatic stress disorder in children. The training may also include any or all of the following: (1) Child development and parenting. (2) Intake, interviewing, and initial assessment. (3) Casework and treatment. (4) Medical aspects of child abuse and neglect. (c) Prior to January 1, 1989, the department shall provide the Legislative Analyst and the Select Committee on Children and Youth with a listing of the counties participating in the program, including the number of persons trained in each county. (d) The training program shall assess the program's performance at least annually and forward it to the State Department of Social Services for an 57

evaluation and report to the Legislative Analyst. The first report shall be forwarded to the Legislative Analyst no later than January 1, 1990, and on the first of January in any subsequent years. The assessment shall include at minimum the following: (1) The number of persons trained. (2) The type of training provided. (3) The degree to which the training is perceived by participants as useful in practice. (e) The training program shall provide practice-relevant training to county child protective service social workers who screen referrals for child abuse or neglect and for all workers assigned to provide emergency response, family maintenance, family reunification, and permanent placement services. The training shall be developed in consultation with the Child Welfare Training Advisory Board and domestic violence victims' advocates and other public and private agencies that provide programs for victims of domestic violence or programs of intervention for perpetrators. 16207. Nothing in this chapter is intended to replace training requirements established by the department in regulations contained in Sections 30-196 and 30-272 of the department's manual of policies and procedures. 16208. (a) (1) The department, in consultation with the Child Welfare Training Advisory Board, shall contract with the University of California or the California State University system to develop a statewide protocol for telephone screening of emergency response referrals to protect children from abuse and neglect, to be called the Emergency Response Protocol. The department shall seek the advice of the California Children's Lobby in the development of this protocol. (2) The Emergency Response Protocol shall incorporate written procedures for screening each referral of abuse or neglect to assess whether abuse of another family or household member is occurring. This additional domestic violence assessment and referral criteria shall be developed by the department in consultation with domestic violence victims' advocates, and other public and private agencies that provide programs for victims of domestic violence or programs of intervention for perpetrators and the County Welfare Directors Association. (b) The department shall utilize available child welfare training funds in the development of the protocol. (c) The department shall incorporate the protocol into the child welfare training program described in this article no later than February 15, 1992. 58

CALIFORNIA CODES BUSINESS AND PROFESSIONS CODE SECTION 2725-2742 2736.1. (a) The course of instruction for an applicant who matriculates on or after September 1, 1985, shall include training in the detection and treatment of alcohol and chemical substance dependency. (b) The course of instruction for an applicant who matriculates on or after January 1, 1995, shall include training in the detection and treatment of client abuse, including, but not limited to, spousal or partner abuse. The requirement for coursework in spousal or partner abuse detection and treatment shall be satisfied by, and the board shall accept in satisfaction of the requirement, a certification from the chief academic officer of the educational institution from which the applicant graduated that the required coursework is included within the institution's required curriculum for graduation. 59

CALIFORNIA CODES BUSINESS AND PROFESSIONS CODE SECTION 1-35 25. Any person applying for a license, registration, or the first renewal of such license, after the effective date of this section, as a licensed marriage, family and child counselor, a licensed clinical social worker or as a licensed psychologist shall, in addition to any other requirements, show by evidence satisfactory to the agency regulating such business or profession, that he or she has completed training in human sexuality as a condition of licensure. Such training shall be creditable toward continuing education requirements as deemed appropriate by the agency regulating such business or profession, and such course shall not exceed more than 50 contact hours. The Psychology Examining Committee shall exempt any persons whose field of practice is such that they are not likely to have use for this training. "Human sexuality" as used in this section means the study of a human being as a sexual being and how he or she functions with respect thereto. The content and length of such training shall be determined by the administrative agency regulating such business or profession and such agency shall proceed immediately upon the effective date of this section to determine what training, and the quality of staff to provide such training, is available and shall report its determination to the Legislature on or before July 1, 1977. In the event that any licensing board or agency proposes to establish a training program in human sexuality, such board or agency shall first consult with other licensing boards or agencies which have established or propose to establish a training program in human sexuality to insure that such programs are compatible in scope and content. 28. The Legislature finds that there is a need to ensure that professionals of the healing arts who have demonstrable contact with child abuse victims, potential child abuse victims, and child abusers and potential child abusers are provided with adequate and appropriate training regarding the assessment and reporting of child abuse which will ameliorate, reduce, and eliminate the trauma of child abuse and neglect and ensure the reporting of child abuse in a timely manner to prevent additional occurrences. The Psychology Examining Committee and the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners shall establish required training in the area of child abuse assessment and reporting for all persons applying for initial licensure and renewal of a license as a psychologist, clinical social worker, or marriage, family, and child counselor on or after January 1, 1987. This training shall be required one time only for all persons applying for initial licensure or for licensure renewal on or after January 1, 1987. All persons applying for initial licensure and renewal of a license as a psychologist, clinical social worker, or marriage, family and child counselor on or after January 1, 1987, shall, in addition to all other requirements for licensure or renewal, have completed coursework or training in child abuse assessment and reporting which meets the requirements of this section, including detailed knowledge of Section 11165 of the Penal Code. The training shall: (a) Be completed after January 1, 1983. (b) Be obtained from one of the following sources: (1) An accredited or approved educational institution, as defined in Section 2902, including extension courses offered by those institutions. (2) An educational institution approved by the Council for Private Postsecondary and Vocational Education pursuant to Article 4 (commencing with Section 94760) of Chapter 7 of Part 59 of the Education Code. (3) A continuing education provider approved by the responsible board or 60

examining committee. (4) A course sponsored or offered by a professional association or a local, county, or state department of health or mental health for continuing education and approved by the responsible board. (c) Have a minimum of 7 contact hours. (d) Include the study of the assessment and method of reporting of sexual assault, neglect, severe neglect, general neglect, willful cruelty or unjustifiable punishment, corporal punishment or injury, and abuse in out-of-home care. The training shall also include physical and behavioral indicators of abuse, crisis counseling techniques, community resources, rights and responsibilities of reporting, consequences of failure to report, caring for a child's needs after a report is made, sensitivity to previously abused children and adults, and implications and methods of treatment for children and adults. (e) All applicants shall provide the appropriate board with documentation of completion of the required child abuse training. The Psychology Examining Committee and the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners shall exempt any applicant who applies for an exemption from the requirements of this section and who shows to the satisfaction of the committee or board that there would be no need for the training in his or her practice because of the nature of that practice. It is the intent of the Legislature that a person licensed as a psychologist, clinical social worker, or marriage, family, and child counselor have minimal but appropriate training in the areas of child abuse assessment and reporting. It is not intended that by solely complying with the requirements of this section, a practitioner is fully trained in the subject of treatment of child abuse victims and abusers. (f) This section shall become operative on January 1, 1997. 29. (a) The Board of Psychology and the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners shall consider adoption of continuing education requirements including training in the area of recognizing chemical dependency and early intervention for all persons applying for renewal of a license as a psychologist, clinical social worker, or marriage, family, and child counselor. (b) Prior to the adoption of any regulations imposing continuing education relating to alcohol and other chemical dependency, the board and committee are urged to consider coursework to include, but not necessarily be limited to, the following topics: (1) Historical and contemporary perspectives on alcohol and other drug abuse. (2) Extent of the alcohol and drug abuse epidemic and its effects on the individual, family, and community. (3) Recognizing the symptoms of alcoholism and drug addiction. (4) Making appropriate interpretations, interventions, and referrals. (5) Recognizing and intervening with affected family members. (6) Learning about current programs of recovery, such as 12 step programs, and how therapists can effectively utilize these programs. The Board of Psychology and the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners shall submit a report to the Legislature on or before June 30, 1991, indicating whether regulations were adopted or are proposed imposing continuing education requirements on their respective licensees. If the board or committee has adopted or proposed regulations, the report shall contain information as to the content of the requirement and how the requirement was developed. The board and committee are urged to consider the elements of training contained herein when adopting or proposing continuing education requirements in the areas of alcohol and chemical dependency. If the board or committee has not adopted proposed regulations, the 61

report shall indicate how concerns of consumer protection are to be met, for example, how the public will be assured that licensed psychotherapists have minimal, up-to-date competency in chemical dependency detection and early intervention. 32. (a) The Legislature finds that there is a need to ensure that professionals of the healing arts who have or intend to have significant contact with patients who have, or are at risk to be exposed to, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) are provided with training in the form of continuing education regarding the characteristics and methods of assessment and treatment of the condition. (b) A board vested with the responsibility of regulating the following licensees shall consider including training regarding the characteristics and method of assessment and treatment of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) in any continuing education or training requirements for those licensees: chiropractors, medical laboratory technicians, dentists, dental hygienists, dental assistants, physicians and surgeons, podiatrists, registered nurses, licensed vocational nurses, psychologists, physician assistants, respiratory therapists, acupuncturists, marriage, family, and child counselors, licensed educational psychologists, and clinical social workers. 62

CALIFORNIA CODES BUSINESS AND PROFESSIONS CODE SECTION 4996-4997 4996.2. Each applicant shall furnish evidence satisfactory to the board that he or she complies with all of the following requirements: (a) Is at least 21 years of age. (b) Has received a master's degree from an accredited school of social work. (c) Has had two years of supervised post-master's degree experience, as specified in Section 4996.20, 4996.21, or 4996.23. (d) Has not committed any crimes or acts constituting grounds for denial of licensure under Section 480. The board shall not issue a registration or license to any person who has been convicted of any crime in this or another state or in a territory of the United States that involves sexual abuse of children or who is required to register pursuant to Section 290 of the Penal Code or the equivalent in another state or territory. (e) Has completed adequate instruction and training in the subject of alcoholism and other chemical substance dependency. This requirement applies only to applicants who matriculate on or after January 1, 1986. (f) Has completed instruction and training in spousal or partner abuse assessment, detection, and intervention. Coursework required under this subdivision may be satisfactory if taken either in fulfillment of other educational requirements for licensure or in a separate course. This requirement applies only to applicants who begin graduate training on or after January 1, 1995. This requirement for coursework in spousal or partner abuse detection and treatment shall be satisfied by, and the board shall accept in satisfaction of the requirement, a certification from the chief academic officer of the educational institution from which the applicant graduated that the required coursework is included within the institution's required curriculum for graduation. (g) Has completed a minimum of 10 contact hours of training or coursework in human sexuality as specified in Section 1807 of Title 16 of the California Code of Regulations. This training or coursework may be satisfactory if taken either in fulfillment of other educational requirements for licensure or in a separate course. (h) Has completed a minimum of seven contact hours of training or coursework in child abuse assessment and reporting as specified in Section 1807.2 of Title 16 of the California Code of Regulations. This training or coursework may be satisfactory if taken either in fulfillment of other educational requirements for licensure or in a separate course. 4996.22. (a) (1) Except as provided in subdivision (c), on and after January 1, 2000, the board shall not renew any license pursuant to this chapter unless the applicant certifies to the board, on a form prescribed by the board, that he or she has completed not less than 36 hours of approved continuing education in or relevant to the field of social work in the preceding two years, as determined by the board. (2) For those persons renewing during 1999, the board shall not renew any license pursuant to this chapter unless the applicant certifies to the board, on a form prescribed by the board, that he or she has completed not less than 18 hours of approved continuing education in or relevant to the field of social work, as determined by the board. The coursework of continuing education described in this paragraph may be taken on or after the effective date of the continuing education regulations adopted by the board pursuant to the other provisions of this section. (b) The board shall have the right to audit the records of any applicant to verify the completion of the continuing education requirement. Applicants shall maintain records of completion of required continuing 63

education coursework for a minimum of two years and shall make these records available to the board for auditing purposes upon request. (c) The board may establish exceptions from the continuing education requirement of this section for good cause as defined by the board. (d) The continuing education shall be obtained from one of the following sources: (1) An accredited school of social work, as defined in Section 4990.4, or a school or department of social work that is a candidate for accreditation by the Commission on Accreditation of the Council on Social Work Education. Nothing in this paragraph shall be construed as requiring coursework to be offered as part of a regular degree program. (2) Other continuing education providers, including, but not limited to, a professional social work association, a licensed health facility, a governmental entity, a continuing education unit of an accredited four-year institution of higher learning, and a mental health professional association, approved by the board. (3) The board shall establish, by regulation, a procedure for approving providers of continuing education courses, and all providers of continuing education, as described in paragraphs (1) and (2), shall adhere to the procedures established by the board. The board may revoke or deny the right of a provider to offer continuing education coursework pursuant to this section for failure to comply with the requirements of this section or any regulation adopted pursuant to this section. (e) Training, education, and coursework by approved providers shall incorporate one or more of the following: (1) Aspects of the discipline that are fundamental to the understanding, or the practice, of social work. (2) Aspects of the social work discipline in which significant recent developments have occurred. (3) Aspects of other related disciplines that enhance the understanding, or the practice, of social work. (f) A system of continuing education for licensed clinical social workers shall include courses directly related to the diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of the client population being served. (g) The continuing education requirements of this section shall comply fully with the guidelines for mandatory continuing education established by the Department of Consumer Affairs pursuant to Section 166. (h) The board may adopt regulations as necessary to implement this section. (i) The board shall submit a report to the Legislature no later than January 1, 2001, evaluating the progress of continuing education required by this section, and making recommendations therefor. (j) On and after January 1, 1997, the board shall, by regulation, fund the administration of this section through continuing education provider fees to be deposited in the Behavioral Science Examiners Fund. The fees related to the administration of this section shall be sufficient to meet but shall not exceed the costs of administering the corresponding provisions of this section. For purposes of this subdivision, a provider of continuing education as described in paragraph (1) of subdivision (d), shall be deemed to be an approved provider. 64

CALIFORNIA CODES EDUCATION CODE SECTION 44250-44279 44266. The minimum requirements for the services credential with a specialization in pupil personnel services are a baccalaureate degree or higher degree, except in professional education, from an approved institution, a fifth year of study, and any specialized and professional preparation that the commission shall require, including completion of a commission-approved program of supervised field experience that includes direct classroom contact, jointly sponsored by a school district and a college or university. The services credential with a specialization in pupil personnel services shall authorize the holder to perform, at all grade levels, the pupil personnel service approved by the commission as designated on the credential, which may include, but need not be limited to, school counseling, school psychology, child welfare and attendance services, and school social work. The commission shall continue to issue credentials with a specialization in pupil personnel services under the law as it read on December 31, 1986, for a time period of two years from the effective date of regulations adopted for the issuance of certificates under the new program required by this section, to any candidate in the process of obtaining a services credential with a specialization in pupil personnel services through a previously approved program of study. 65

31-066 (Cont.) CHILD WELFARE SERVICES PROGRAM GENERAL REQUIREMENTS Regulations 31-066 MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAM ASSESSMENT AND RECOMMENDATION FOR PLACEMENT IN AN OUT-OF-STATE GROUP HOME (Continued) 31-066 HANDBOOK BEGINS HERE.514 For the purpose of this section, a county s Interagency Placement Committee, as established pursuant to MPP Section 11-402.182, may perform this assessment and placement recommendation as long as the members of this team have met the definition of a "Multidisciplinary Team" found in MPP Section 31-066.2. HANDBOOK ENDS HERE.6 Recommendations shall be submitted, in writing, to the court and shall document why the outof state placement is the most appropriate placement selection and in the best interest of the child. Documentation shall include, but is not limited to, the case plan, mental health assessment, descriptions of services the group home shall provide and other relevant information used to make the placement recommendations. HANDBOOK BEGINS HERE.61 Family Code Sections 7900 et seq., the Interstate Compact on Placement of Children (ICPC), applies, but is not limited to, whenever a California court or county social service/probation department wishes to place a child out-of-state. The CDSS Compact Administrator is responsible for the activities under the ICPC and shall carry out the terms and provisions of the ICPC. HANDBOOK ENDS HERE NOTE: Authority Cited: Sections 10553, 10554, and 16501.1, Welfare and Institutions Code. Reference: Sections 7901, 7911, 7911.1, and 7912, Family Code and Sections 361.21, 727.1, and 16516.5, Welfare and Institutions Code. 31-070 STAFF REQUIREMENTS 31-070.1 County staff who provide emergency response and family maintenance services shall meet the following qualifications:.11 At least 50 percent of the professional staff providing emergency response services, and at least 50 percent of the professional staff providing family maintenance services, shall possess a master's degree in social work, or its equivalent in education and/or experience as certified by the State Personnel Board or a county civil service board..12 One hundred (100) percent of the supervisors of staff providing emergency response and family maintenance services shall possess a master's degree in social work, or its equivalent in education and/or experience as certified by the State Personnel Board or a county civil service board. CALIFORNIA-DSS-MANUAL-CWS MANUAL LETTER NO. CWS-99-03 Effective 7/15/99 Page 32.2 66

CHILD WELFARE SERVICES PROGRAM Regulations GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 31-070 31-070 STAFF REQUIREMENTS (Continued) 31-070.13 Remaining emergency response and family maintenance services professional staff shall possess a bachelor's degree in social work or its equivalent in education and/or experience as certified by the State Personnel Board or a county civil service board..14 Bilingual staff shall be available as specified in Manual of Policies and Procedures Chapter 21-100..2 At the beginning of the calendar year, the county shall determine if it meets the requirements specified in Sections 31-070.11,.12, and.13, unless the county has an approved plan pursuant to Section 31-070.21..21 If the county is unable to meet the requirements specified in Sections 31-070.11,.12, and.13, the county shall:.211 Document the reason(s) for such inability in a written statement to the Department..212 Submit to the Department for approval a plan specifying the means by which the county plans to meet the requirements of Sections 31-070.11,.12, and.13, and the time frame by which the county expects to obtain compliance. (a) Upon plan approval, the Department shall have the authority to defer the requirements specified in Sections 31-070.11,.12,.13, and.2 for a period up to three years..22 At the end of the time frame specified in the county's plan, but no more than three years from the date the county submits its plan to the Department, the county shall notify the Department, in writing, of its progress in obtaining compliance..221 If the county has failed to obtain compliance, the county shall follow the procedures in Section 31-070.21. NOTE: Authority Cited: Sections 10553 and 10554, Welfare and Institutions Code. Reference: Sections 16501(c) and (e), Welfare and Institutions Code and 45 CFR 1356.21(d). CALIFORNIA-DSS-MANUAL-CWS MANUAL LETTER NO. CWS-99-01 Effective 1/1/99 Page 33 67

APPENDIX E. Factors Affecting the Social Worker Shortage: Historical Perspective and Studies 68

Historical Perspective The premise that skilled professionals can empower individuals and families to function more efficiently within their environment took hold in the first two decades of the 20 th century (Jimenez, 1990). Termed the Progressive Era, the demand for human services during these two decades was considerably greater than it had been earlier in American history, when service was considered the place of volunteers and the religious community. The increased demand was the result of many factors: new psychological convictions about the possibility for human change; middle and upper-class individuals having the new-found luxury to address issues of optimal functioning due to the prosperity stemming from the Industrial Revolution; the creation of an underclass that was desperate for social reform; and a new generation of college educated women with the time and resources to address those needs (Jimenez, 1990). Subsequently, by the period following World War I, the professional counselor had replaced the volunteer, the social scientist had replaced the friendly visitor, and the client had replaced the recipient. In the decades following the Progressive Era, historical events continued to fuel the demand for human service professionals. The New Deal legislation, beginning with the Social Security Act of 1935, made the government responsible for the well-being of its citizens and created a federal infrastructure for distribution of governmental aid. The population explosion resulting from the baby boom generation accelerated the demand for social services. In addition, the allowance of tax deductions for charitable contributions prompted a rapid increase of corporate funding and resulted in their private social service agencies and their subsequent expansion during the 1950s and 1960s. President Lyndon Johnson s War on Poverty in the 1960s added to the state-based infrastructure put in place by 69

the New Deal, further increasing the demand for social workers. The last three decades of the 20 th century contributed to this growing demand. Veterans returning from the Vietnam War needed a vast array of services, ranging from mental health and substance abuse services to job training and physical rehabilitation. The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1973 created a federal mandatory reporting law for child abuse and neglect. As the reports came pouring in, this legislation created the foundation for the child protection and foster care industries, which required thousands of new social workers nationwide to staff abuse hotlines, investigation teams, foster care services, and residential treatment facilities. Even adoption services were under pressure, with the transition during the 1960 s and 1970 s from finding infants for infertile white couples to finding families of all ethnicities for waiting children of all ages and with special needs. Overall, the number of human service professionals grew 242% from 1960 to 1980 (Jimenez, 1990). The social work infrastructure was unprepared for such growth, and the result is the continuing chaos and fragmentation that has been documented over the past few decades. The trend continued in the 1980 s. In the mental health field, the approach was to remove patients from institutions and place them in community-based programs. But as domestic spending cuts reduced those options, clients often ended up in communities without services. In the child welfare field, P.L. 96-272, the Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act, which was intended to reduce the entry and increase the exit of children from foster care became known as the Great Paperwork Act of 1980. The services were authorized but the necessary funds were not appropriated. By the mid 1980 s new legislation had to be passed to address independent living skills for children and young people growing up in the foster 70

care system. That problem continues today. Also, the prevalence of crack/cocaine and HIV/AIDS combined with further reductions in social services, limited the supply of qualified human service professionals needed to meet the existing and new demands. Today, as discussions of the social worker shortage continue, still more children are being reared in poverty; are home alone because parents have to work multiple jobs; and are being raised in single parent households. In addition, better reporting and monitoring procedures have resulted in rising numbers of child abuse reports and the foster care population is at a record high of over 500,000 more than at the time of the intended "reform" legislation of 1980. Only now these children not only have special needs, many have extraordinary needs (National Commission on Family Foster Care, 1991.) Parents and children with developmental disabilities face challenges in finding affordable, accessible services; social work students are being taught that advocacy for these families is one of their major responsibilities (Rycus & Hughes, 1998). The baby-boom generation is aging, creating an exponentially increasing need for adult protective services, long-term care, and hospice services. Addressing the shortage of social workers is critical in light of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, which are expected to have national, state, and local long-term health, mental health, economic, and social ramifications. A poll by the Pew Research Center reported that that seven out of 10 American adults felt depressed during the first week of the crisis and a third had trouble sleeping. The disaster most certainly will exacerbate existing mental health problems for many individuals and families, and it will be the social work profession's challenge to assist individuals and families in resuming some normalcy and direction in their lives. 71

The social work profession also has historically been concerned with those families already on the brink of financial ruin. Many of the jobs that have been and will be lost are in the service industries and the unskilled labor pool. For most of these workers, many representing diverse ethnicities, these jobs are their only barriers to homelessness. Social workers will be called upon to assist these individuals and families in finding new jobs, applying for assistance, and coping with the accompanying stress. Further, professionally educated and trained social workers who are culturally competent will be needed to help address hate crimes against minority populations, especially against various Middle Eastern- American communities. Frustration, feelings of helplessness and anger run high because of both emotional and economic losses. The correlation between those pressures and increased family violence and higher crime rates is already well documented elsewhere. NASW News reported on a meeting in New York City of the social work community designed to examine the changing roles and responsibilities of the professional after the terrorist attacks. A standing-room only crowd of 650 attended (O Neill, 2002). On a national level, social workers will be called upon to lobby for funding for social service programs to assist those in immediate as well as future need during this time of upheaval, a goal that may be compromised by increased homeland security and defense spending. The suffering and deprivation resulting from catastrophes often are particularly devastating for those with few resources and little opportunities to replace losses. Of all the human service professions, social work is uniquely suited to interpret the disaster context, to advocate for effective services, and to provide leadership in essential collaborations among institutions and organizations. It is not only individuals and families that will require intervention, but whole communities. 72

Social Worker Shortage Studies The shortage of social workers has recently become the subject of considerable discussion, in California as well as nationwide. However, the shortage of qualified social workers in the human services is not a new problem. For a variety of social, economic, political, legal, geographic, and public perception reasons, the demand for social services professionals has historically outstripped the supply. Although media and professional publications have typically referred to the labor shortage as a "crisis", this terminology is misleading. A crisis implies a short-term problem that can be addressed expeditiously. In fact, a review of the literature reflects that this so-called "crisis" has actually been a way of doing business in the human service field for many decades (DeCrescenzo and Pasztor, 2000). When an overloaded system s breaking point appears imminent, there is a flurry of attention and studies are commissioned. But typically, the fundamental problems are not resolved. Somehow, programs and their clients - with the exception of more or less publicized tragic deaths - continue to struggle along until the next crisis creates a new flurry of attention. One example comes from the state of Maryland, where legislation was passed in 1998 following a number of child deaths. Known as the Child Welfare Work Force Initiative, a year later there still was no plan to translate the law into reform (NASW, 1999.) For example, in 1984 it was reported that turnover rates for child welfare workers were as high as 75% in some jurisdictions (Jayaratne and Chess). In 1988, the Child Welfare League of America (CWLA) Biennial Assembly addressed the major issues facing the child welfare field and reported "the staff crisis in child welfare as a major issue of concern" (Helfgott, 1991, p. v). The resolutions of the Assembly were to: create a positive national image of child welfare; inform the public of career opportunities in the field in order to 73

enhance recruitment; advocate for the funding of scholarships, grants, internships, and work/study opportunities; improve education and training programs to assure competencies; advocate for salaries and benefits commensurate with essential responsibilities and skills; create working environments and personnel policies that are supportive of staff, culturally relevant, and that contribute to retention; and support research projects to identify measures of competence, staffing qualifications, workloads, and turnover rates (Helfgott, 1991, vi). In 1989, NASW published Addressing the Program and Personnel Crisis in Child Welfare, published by the National Association of Social Workers (NASW). Three years later, CWLA published Staffing the Child Welfare Agency: Recruitment and Retention (Helfgott, 1991). This publication documented seven major reasons for the workforce problems: complex demand for services; lack of resources for clients; increasing workloads; inadequately trained workers; inadequate financial compensation; limited liability protection, and negative public image. Most importantly, it detailed 21 strategies to address the workforce challenges along with work tools for agencies to conduct their own internal studies, and references to agencies across the country that were having some successes. In child welfare, it seems that despite all the explanations of the work force problems and the suggested remedies, little attention has been given to interventions. The ongoing "crisis" continues to be documented. In 1999, the independent comprehensive study authorized by the California State Legislature on the shortage of child welfare workers indicated that the State must double the number of qualified public social workers in order to meet current minimum legal standards. The minimum need was established at 13,762 new staff and to meet optimal standards, that number would have to jump to 19,984. 74

In June 2000, the Child Welfare Forum in NASW California News emphasized that the workforce problem must be addressed by a state-wide strategic plan that addresses the inter-relationship between retention and recruitment (DeCrescenzo and Pasztor). As learned from studies that have examined the shortage of foster parents (which is down nationwide to 100,000 from 150,000 over the past decade), the first approach to recruitment is to have a plan for retention. It is not cost-effective to place efforts into a "revolving door" system (Pasztor and Wynne, 1995). The most recent national study of the social worker shortage was disseminated this past May by the Alliance for Children and Families, the American Public Human Services Association, and the Child Welfare League of America. Their collaborative report provides methodology, sample size, and data analysis. The findings include tables and charts identifying vacancy rates, turnover rates, average annual salaries, average caseload sizes, notable recruitment and retention problems on both state and county (including California) levels, frequently implemented strategies in recruitment and retention, and perspectives from the private sector. Social worker shortages are not unique to the child welfare field. At the February 9, 2001 California Assembly Human Services Committee hearing, it was reported that the statewide mental health system has a vacancy rate of 22% for licensed clinical social workers; state developmental disability regional centers have a vacancy rate of 25%; and 62% of the licensed adult care agencies surveyed reported that the shortage is affecting the quality of their services and their abilities to meet regulatory requirements. In its March 2000 issue NASW News reported that, "across the country, state and county officials are struggling to fill job vacancies." The only area in which there is less demand is in school 75

social work. Studies point to specific factors contributing to the social worker shortage. These factors include: 1. Changes in the Amount of Work and the Nature of the Work In the aptly-titled report, "Running to Keep in Place: The Continuing Evolution of the Our Nation's Child Welfare System," The Urban Institute authors (who included California in their data collection process) referred to child welfare as a system "still crisis-oriented and unstable" (Malm et al., 2001, p. 2). State reforms and federal legislation continuously require more accountability and documentation. New programs such as family group decision-making and concurrent planning, while sound in theory and no doubt in the best interests of children and families, take time to learn, require shifts in thinking, and need time to implement. Large caseloads make it difficult to "ensure timely checks on whether families have complied with services", and relationships with staff in other agencies "are often strained as a result of unreturned phone calls or incomplete paperwork" (Malm, 2001, p. 17). These problems are not unique to child welfare. The recent NASW study on the consequences of welfare reform in New York reported that staff find themselves caught in the crossfire between their clients' increased requests for help and their agencies strained capacity to serve them well (O Neill, 2002, p. 4). The report added that staff are doing more with less, they report heavier workloads, more paperwork, more crises, a faster pace of service and more time-consuming fieldwork (O Neill, 2002, p. 4). Thus, social workers who studied and committed to be "people-workers" increasingly have become "paperworkers." Social workers choose their profession because of the desire to help; no one needs a social worker because their life is going well. With the exception perhaps of school social 76

work, the challenges of working in the program areas of aging, developmental disabilities, mental health, and child welfare require commensurate benefits. 2. Organizational Challenges in Retention and Recruitment The national study conducted by Alliance for Children and Families et.al. (2001) also looked at retention and recruitment problems within both public and private agencies. High job demands and other, more attractive job market alternatives were salient as recruitment problems in public agencies, whereas high workload/caseload was salient as a retention problem. Job demands and other market alternatives were also recruitment problems for private agencies, with the lack of qualified job candidates as an added obstacle. Low salaries were most often mentioned as hindrances to recruitment and retention for private agencies, with high workloads running a close second. Within public agencies, an overwhelming majority of social workers complained that large caseloads drive staff to resign. Agencies with lower turnover paid child protective services staff approximately $2200 more annually than higher turnover agencies; lower turnover was associated with approximately $3500 more in salary for other social work positions; and supervisors at lower turnover agencies earned approximately $5800 more on an annual basis than their counterparts in agencies where the turnover was higher. Testimony at the February 19, 2001 California State Assembly Human Services Committee Hearing addressed several obstacles to recruiting social workers. These included: 1) stressful and non-supportive working environments; 2) poor supervision; 3) low salaries; 4) lack of special recognition for veterans; 5) negative public image of the social work profession; 6) lack of salary differential for LCSWs; 7) selective recruitment efforts that steal social workers from one sector to another; 8) social workers are increasingly burdened by 77

clerical duties; and 9) shortage of bilingual social workers and social workers of color, placing extra demands on minority and bi-lingual staff. Other authors have also implicated low wages, heavy caseloads, lack of opportunities for professional growth, stringent state and federal regulations, increasing personal and legal liability, documentation demands, using automated systems without clerical support, lack of respect from judges, threats to physical safety, secondary trauma, negative publicity, and dissatisfaction with state hiring practices (Sue, 1990; Balfour & Neff, 1993; DeCrescenzo & Pasztor, 2000; Mack, 2001; Malm et. al, 2001). Liability is another factor. Social workers, especially in the private sector where there are not the same immunity protections as those afforded to public agency staff, often are held legally responsible for the actions of their clients. According to Reamer's study in 1995, malpractice claims against social workers were increasing, but social workers had little access to data about the frequency, types, and costs of malpractice claims filed against them. The large majority of the claims were against individuals in private practice. In the article, "Social Workers and Immunity from Law Suits" (Alexander, 1995), it was reported that child protective services workers needed considerably more training on immunity issues so they could assist their attorneys in the event they were sued. Similarly, a more knowledgeable and demanding baby-boomer population carries implications for liability of adult protective services workers. Whether in the private or the public sector, social workers are at risk for administrative, civil, and even criminal sanctions, based upon the actions of their clients. Low salaries, though, are the most prevalent obstacle to employee recruitment and retention in social work. The budget cuts in the 1980s set a precedent for how much of the 78

national budget is allocated for social services, resulting in less funding being available o the social services sector (Hunter, 2001). In fact, the majority of social service agencies reported that they have been, and continue to be severely hurt by budget cuts (Bocage et al., 1995, p. 702). Wages that are not commensurate with the work add to the frustration of obtaining a graduate degree and being hard pressed to pay off student loans incurred in the course of one s education (Martin & Schinke, 1998; Rycraft, 1994). According to Janlee Wong, the Executive Director of California s NASW chapter, while Pete Wilson was governor of California, there were no raises in salaries for any state worker (O Neill, 2001). Although it varies from state to state, the average salary nationwide for a stateemployed social worker is approximately $33,500 per year and $28,500 for privately employed workers (Alliance for Children and Families et al., 2001). Conversely, school social workers have average starting salaries of over $50,000 for nine months of work and few shortages are reported for these positions. A February 5, 2002 editorial in The Los Angeles Times, addressing the problem of child welfare workers being able to visit children in foster care on the required monthly basis, recognized the problem as one of caseload overload and staff turnover, and held the county board of supervisors, not the staff, responsible. Nonetheless, more resources repeatedly are spent training new staff, rather than on compensation for current employees or services to clients (Henry, 1990; Graef & Hill, 2000). Ultimately, team building is impossible and turnover robs organizations of cohesion and a sense of community, which is critical to the well-being of both clients and workers. Moreover, the turnover results in a reduced service capacity and increases the possibility of harmful decisions (Balfour & Neff, 1993) made in haste by inexperienced workers, who have 79

only their good intentions and intuition to guide them. Social workers also report being unduly pressured by dependency court judges, many of whom issue orders that are impossible to implement, impractical, and reflect a lack of understanding of human development, family dynamics, and the implications of abuse and neglect. Along with children s attorneys, judges and other court personnel may be the last resort for workers trying to do the right thing for the children in their caseloads. Child welfare workers, in particular, work in a sector with high turnover, roughly 25% of these workers have less than a year s experience, and 40% have less than two years experience (O Neill, 2001). There is an accompanying overload of children in the foster care system, ( Committees Focus on Foster Care, 2001) and child abuse reports have increased 400% in the last 20 years (Waldfogel, 2000). This means that inexperienced workers are handling more children than they should (approximately 200-300% of the recommended caseload of a seasoned worker). Consequently, service delivery to these children is extremely compromised ( Committees Focus on Foster Care, 2001). Waldfogel (2000) noted that child welfare workers were so overwhelmed by their child protective responsibilities that they were unable to provide either quality child protection or child welfare services to a population of children who are already traumatized and mistrusting, and who desperately need to build long-term, consistent and trustworthy relationships with their workers (Mack, 2001; Waldfogel, 2000). This social worker shortage, coupled with a foster care overload, comes amid other pressures. For the first time, the federal government has established national standards for child safety and permanency (with child well-being to be determined.) State agencies will be held responsible for achieving outcomes regarding recurrence of abuse and neglect; the 80

stability of children s out of home care placements; maltreatment in care; and more expeditious reunification with parents or kin; and adoptive placement. With the federal audit coming up in 2002, California s foster care program could possibly incur $2 billion dollars in penalties ( Committees Focus on Foster Care, 2001). When vacancy rates are high, existing workers are at higher risk for burnout because they have to cover higher caseloads without additional compensation (Mack, 2001). Workers spend less time with clients, have difficulty securing appropriate services and have to travel longer distances (Malm et. al, 2001). 3. Burnout and Secondary Traumatic Stress Burnout can be both a reason and a consequence of the social worker shortage. The literature emphasizes that social workers are at above-average risk of burnout because their work is strongly client related. However, they face complex social situations, contend with unclear evaluation criteria, deal with abundant role conflicts, often lack supervisory and public support, work long hours and are on-call, and they have limited resources in the face of high demands (Poulin & Walter, 1993; Soderfelt et. al, 1995; Um & Anderson, 1998). Research supports that organizational factors, and not individual coping skills, affect burnout (Soderfelt et. al, 1995; Um & Anderson, 1998). Many social workers contend that they are required to spend an exorbitant amount of time on paperwork and travel, leaving them too little time to provide direct client service. This leads to feelings of being ineffective and depleted (Mclean & Andrew, 2000; Alliance for Children and Families et al., 2001). Role conflicts become apparent when the profession believes in client service first, but agencies put priority on having paperwork in on time because of accountability regulations (Samantrai, 1992). 81

Samantrai (1992) found that child welfare worker are enthusiastic about their jobs for about six to nine months and, after 12 months, they become disillusioned. If an alternative (lateral transfer, decreased hours) could not be found within five years, they quit. Those social workers who had been at the agency for 15 years or more gave only two reasons for wanting to stay: 1) to change the child welfare system because it was so flawed; or 2) to continue receiving a paycheck even though they did not like their jobs (Samantrai, 1992). In addition, it is documented that social workers are at risk for poor supervision. Supervisors must be willing and able to provide educational and supportive supervision along with administrative oversight. Because of turnover, super workers may be promoted quickly to supervisors, without the necessary training or support from management. Courses in supervision often are electives, not required studies, in schools of social work. Inadequate supervision results in staff unhappiness and isolation and also contributes to burnout (Samantrai, 1992; Bocage, Homonoff, & Riley, 1995; Mclean & Andrew, 2000; Alliance for Children and Families et al., 2001). A newer dynamic reported in the literature is termed secondary traumatic stress (STS), "vicarious trauma," or "compassion fatigue" (Figley, 1995; Pearlman & MacIan, 1993; Beaucar, 1999; and Cunningham, 1999). This evolves from social workers being exposed to traumatic situations through their clients experiences. Schools of social work have not uniformly been effective in teaching students and staff about the potential of this problem (Price & Knox, 1997), and in-service trainings are needed as well. This dynamic is aggravated by dealing with clients who are unstable, mentally ill, or dangerous, and who verbally and sometimes physically assault staff. Eighty percent of social workers express that they feel a significant amount of work-related stress (Mclean & 82

Andrew, 2000). This often leads to many social workers feeling emotionally exhausted, depersonalized, and sometimes extremely fearful and anxious in performing their duties (Soderfeldt et al., 1996; Acker, 1999; Horwitz, 1999). While a moderate amounts of stress can be stimulating, too much stress leads to staff turnover (Rycraft, 1941; Mclean & Andrew, 2000; Rycraft, 1994). In addition to these intra-agency stressors, staff may feel threatened by state overseers who, they perceive, are not supportive and who do not understand the realities of the job demands. This of course is complicated by the lack of client and community appreciation for the work. 4. Lack of Leadership The Urban Institute report previously cited highlighted turnover in public sector administrators as a critical factor (Malm, 2001). As an example, in the three years in which the study was underway in 12 states and multiple local jurisdictions, the directors of the agencies changed in half of the states. Line staff in particular noted that leadership changes precipitate changes in other management staff, which creates instability. These changes also create shifts in agency vision and priorities as well as the administration's ability to understand and work with staff. A key concern was the ability of constantly shifting management to respond to problems in the community. Likewise, turnover in line staff and supervisors restricts the universe of social work professionals who eventually may be promoted to management and administrative positions. Human services agencies often go outside the field of social work, such as law or business, to appoint administrators. While these credentials are valuable, there is a message to the social work field that their experience and education are not adequately valuable. In addition, most social work agencies do not provide a means for staff to be involved 83

in decisions that affect them. A study by Henry (1990) found that the inability to have any say in agency decisions greatly contributed to problems in retention. 5. Shortage of Graduates from Undergraduate and Graduate Social Work Programs Barr and Neustrom (2001) reported that almost all social work schools in California are producing graduates at or beyond their capacity. All Deans and Directors interviewed for the study would consider expansion if they had additional funding. The authors noted that 62% of the school had plans to expand, but only by small percentage (fewer than 30 graduates a year) and no schools were planning to add a new degree program. All of the Deans and Directors stated that, in order to expand, they would need more faculty, and 40% stated that they would need more space. These findings were reported at the third hearing on the social worker shortage convened by Assemblywoman Aroner (D-Berkeley) last November and reported in the February 2002 issue of NASW California News (Deichert, 2002.) The role of unaccredited human service training programs was featured as a strategy to "provide a significant pool of staff for public social services agencies" and "entry into a career in professional social work" (Diechert, 2002, p. 24). While there clearly are benefits to this kind of creative programming, it is essential that standards for service delivery are met and not compromised by filling positions with individuals who are called social workers but who do not have the requisite education. A report from the University of California at Berkeley (2001) noted that in 1998, there were approximately 5,600 social work students in California schools, with 53% MSW students and 47% BSW students. In 1998, schools of social work graduated approximately 1,800 students, 61% from MSW programs and 39% from BSW programs. Thirteen schools 84

offer BSW programs only and the same number offer MSW programs only, with two new graduate schools in the process of becoming accredited. In terms of BSW programs, enrollment steadily increased form 1993 to 1998 and the number of graduating BSWs increased. Conversely, the enrollment for MSW programs declined from 1993 to 1998 and the number of MSW graduates has remained flat (Theriot, 2001). Dean Midgley from University of California at Berkeley s School of Social Welfare, has reported an urgent need for 3,000 social workers (Hunter, 2000). This need easily absorbs two years worth of graduates from schools of social work. But even as the demand for social workers has grown, the supply of new social workers has remained flat, especially with respect to those with a master s degree. The number of graduates from social work schools has been flat for years, with enrollments capped at less than 50% of the demand (O Neill, 2001). As a result, schools of social work are not enrolling enough students to meet the job market demands. In summary, given this historical perspective and the findings of the above studies, it is logical that fewer people have been attending social work schools, choosing social work as a profession, or continuing in their positions as social workers (Koeske & Kirk, 1995; Hunter, 2001). For decades now, the shortage of social workers continues, and will continue until the public recognizes the problem to be serious enough to warrant a systematic, strategic and multi-faceted intervention. 85

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