Essential Church History 4 The Church Fathers Paul described his ministry as one of laying foundations. In 1 Corinthians 3:10-13, he wrote: By the grace God has given me, I laid a foundation as an expert builder, and someone else is building on it. But each one should be careful how he builds. For no one can lay any foundation other than the one already laid, which is Jesus Christ. If any man builds on this foundation using gold, silver, costly stones, wood, hay or straw, his work will be shown for what it is, because the Day will bring it to light. It will be revealed with fire, and the fire will test the quality of each man s work. Upon the foundation laid by the apostles (in the apostolic age), a group of men known today as the Church Fathers began to build (in the patristic age). But Paul s warning was clear:...each one should be careful how he builds. In this supplementary study, we will take a closer look at each of the builders of the young Church and see how well they built upon the foundation laid by the apostles. The End of the First Century The generations of leaders that followed after the first apostles carried the apostolic tradition into the second and third centuries. Three of these early leaders, who acted as a bridge between the apostolic and patristic ages, are well-documented. Clement of Rome Clement was a presbyter or bishop of the church in Rome during the latter part of the first century. As we saw in the last lesson, he wrote a letter to the church at Corinth. A M Renwick and A M Harman describe his epistle: The Epistle of Clement of Rome is interesting as being probably the earliest of the sub-apostolic writings. It was written in 96 AD to the church at Corinth Page 1
where there had been certain unpleasant divisions. Irenaeus, writing about a century later, says that Clement was the third Bishop of Rome. There is, however, no suggestion in Clement s Epistle that he had authority over any church other than his own...in fact, Clement himself, like Paul and Luke (in the Acts of the Apostles), always uses the terms bishop and presbyter as being interchangeable. We cannot read Clement s lengthy letter without being deeply impressed by his earnestness, by the constant appeal to Scripture, both Old Testament and New, especially the Pauline Epistles, and by his deeply evangelical tone whenever he touches upon atonement for sin. 1 Clement s letter provides evidence that books that were to be later included in the New Testament canon were already circulating among the churches at the end of the first century. He quotes extensively from the Old Testament as Scripture. He also quotes the words of Jesus, using sayings that are found in Matthew, Mark and Luke. As well as this, he quotes from Romans, 1 Corinthians and Hebrews. His letter also gives important evidence for Paul s successful mission to the western boundary Spain (note Romans 15:24,28) and for Paul and Peter s martyrdom. It is also possible that he is the Clement referred to in Philippians 4:3. Ignatius of Antioch Under armed guard, on the road to Rome where he was to be martyred, Ignatius wrote seven letters two to the churches in the cities through which he passed; three to those who sent people to visit him during his journey; one to the church in Rome to tell them not to interfere with the Roman authorities taking him to be martyred; and one to Polycarp in Smyrna. The content of these letters is wide and varied. He came against the Ebionite heresy, which demanded the keeping of the Sinai Covenant as a way of salvation. He attacked Docetism, and he is the first person outside the New Testament writers to speak of the virgin birth of Jesus. He is also the first writer to use the term catholic (universal) to describe the church. In his use of the word catholic, he is referring to the universal church being connected by a unity in faith in Christ and with delegations between the churches to express this relationship and concern for one another. Ignatius was convinced that unity was the all-important answer to the heretics and encouraged obedience to the bishop as the best way to maintain it. A M Renwick and A M Harman analyze his reasoning: He wanted to have the episcopos in undisputed control, and because he did not see this in any church other than his own he emphasized the virtues of monarchial episcopacy as strongly as possible. To the Trallians he wrote: Respect the bishop as a type of God, and the presbyters as the council of God, and the college of the apostles. Apart from these there is not even the name of a Church. This, like similar statements of his elsewhere, is almost blasphemous. He assigns a most important place to the prebytery as well as the bishop, and in this we may have a clue to his real meaning. We have already seen the sense in which the terms presbyter (or elders) and bishop were understood Page 2
Polycarp in early days and noted that these terms referred to the same person. By the time of Ignatius, in Antioch and other places in the East, one of the presbyters had been chosen to preside over the others. He had become a permanent pastor and president of the other presbyters or elders, who helped and advised him in the work of the Church. This president is the man whom Ignatius calls bishop because he is episcopos or overseer. He is still a presbyter, but has become a permanent pastor or overseer. 2 We have already looked at the influence of Polycarp in the last lesson. He was a disciple of John, and later led the church at Smyrna. Together with Clements (of Rome) and Ignatius (of Antioch), he represents the generation linking the apostolic age with the patristic age. The Second Century The second century was marked by the rise of the great Apologists, cause some to label this century the Apologist Age. Irenaeus of Gaul Irenaeus was a disciple of Polycarp who was, in turn, a disciple of John. Thus he was only one generation removed from those who knew directly one or more of the apostles, and was, therefore, in a unique position to appeal to tradition in his arguments with the Gnostics. His greatest service to the Church was through his extensive writings. We still have his work Against Heresies in five books. The importance of this work in saving the Church from the insidious and pernicious doctrines of the Gnostics cannot be exaggerated. As John Newton explains: For Irenaeus the authority of the faith is established through the direct line of elders in the church back to the apostles. This authentic message of the church confirms the Christian Bible. He was the first to state four Gospels as canon. To these he also added a list of apostolic writings, quoting all as Scripture along with the Old Testament. In his argument for the direct line of elders, he was the first to list the succession of Roman bishops as an example of this line, and thus he opened the way for later church officials to elevate the bishop of Rome. 3 Tertullian of Carthage Tertullian is known as the father of Latin theology. He was born in Carthage, a large and beautiful city, known as a center of Latin culture. Born of pagan parents, he lived the usual life of the cultured pagans in that city, with its corrupt theaters and brutal gladiatorial contests. His training as a lawyer naturally affected how he expressed theological concepts, which were later to influence deeply the thinking and theological terms of the Church as a whole. He was the first person, for example, to use the Latin word trinitas (trinity). Page 3
After becoming a Christian, he began writing books to promote the Christian faith. He wrote a large number in Greek that are now lost, but the thirty-one he wrote in Latin have survived and are highly significant. In his Apology, he underscored both the legal and moral absurdity of the persecution that was coming against the Christians. He also wrote to encourage those who faced martyrdom, and attacked the heretics. Some of Tertullian s concepts, however, also opened the door to later error, as A M Renwick and A M Harman explain: Tertullian cuts off the heretics by insisting that the churches founded by the apostles have the deposit of truth. They, and they alone, have the correct tradition. Hence, the Church should not admit heretics to discussions on the Scriptures. The door is thus slammed in their faces. This was dangerous doctrine, and led to much ecclesiastical despotism and intolerance in later ages. He falsely assumed that tradition must be in accordance with, and therefore equal with, Scripture, and developed the views of Irenaeus on this subject. From this there was evolved, in due time, the full Roman Catholic doctrine of Church authority and tradition. 4 Tertullian also taught on the subject of sin and grace, but his views opened the way, at least in part, for a salvation by good works error that would be amplified during the Dark Ages. Tertullian later joined the Montanist sect, but then had a falling out with them. He continued to stand, however, against the emerging doctrine that the Church was the sum of the enclave of bishops. He insisted that the Church was, in fact, the people of the Holy Spirit, and in this he reflected the best of Montanist doctrine. The School at Alexandria Alexandria was founded in AD 332 by Alexander the Great. By the late second century, it had a population of possibly two and a half million, and had become one of the greatest cities in the world. Its culture was Greek, and second only to that of Athens. It was a flourishing seat of learning and had a sizeable Jewish community. It was in this city, about 200 BC, that the Septuagint (the Greek version of the Old Testament), which prepared the way for the Gospel among Greek-speaking people, had been translated. But Gnosticism also flourished there. Bruce Shelley describes the Christian developments in Alexandria: While Tertullian was at work in Carthage, Alexandria, to the east, was becoming another key intellectual center for the Christian faith. By about AD 185 a converted Stoic philosopher named Pantaenus was teaching Christians in Alexandria. He probably also traveled to India and was a very able thinker. His pupil Clement carried his work to even greater heights in the closing days of the second century. In spite of periods of intense persecution, the school gained great importance, strengthening the faith of Christians and attracting new converts to the faith. 5 Page 4
The School of Alexandria grew out of the need to give instruction to inquirers and applicants for baptism, who were called catechumens. It became one of the most important institutions in the Church and by the third century was almost a Christian university. At first it was intended only for catechumens [new Christians], but it soon established courses in philosophy, grammar, literature, mathematics, and science. Crowds of students flocked to this center of learning. They came not only from among the Christians but from among those pagans who were earnestly seeking for the truth. Pantaenus, Clement, and Origen were men of noble Christian character. Surrounded by a restless intellectual community, and living in a very cosmopolitan city notorious for its turbulence, they all suffered much for the faith and were ready to die for it if need be, so great was their love for Christ. 6 Clement of Alexandria Titus Flavius Clement was born of pagan parents, probably in Athens, and became a Christian through his study of philosophy. He traveled to the centers of learning in the Greek-speaking East, and finally joined Pantaenus s school in Alexandria. He was impressed by Pantaenus s ability to interpret the Scripture. Clement became head of the school about AD 190 and wrote most of his works during his years as a teacher in Alexandria (AD 190-202). In Miscellanies, his major work, he called philosophy the schoolmaster to bring the Hellenistic mind to Christ (just as Paul had called the Law the schoolmaster to bring the Jewish mind to Christ see Galatians 3:24). He followed Philo, an Alexandrian Jewish writer who had used Greek philosophy to interpret the Old Testament, quoting him at length. The status of Clement as a Church Father was later questioned. However, he was the forerunner and teacher of Origen, who exerted a major influence on the theology of the eastern church. The fierce persecution under Septimius Severus drove Clement from Alexandria in AD 202 and he died in Asia Minor. The Third Century The third century was marked by both rapid growth and intense persecution, both of which presented tough challenges to the Church leadership. Origen Origen was the son of a martyr and was raised in a fine spiritual atmosphere. He was one of the most brilliant writers and teachers the Church has ever known. He became head of the School in Alexandria at the age of 18 and, in spite of persecution, it reached its highest fame under him. According to Jerome, Origen produced more books than any other man could read in a lifetime. Including letters and articles, some have estimated his works at 6000. He believed strongly in the divine inspiration of Scripture. A M Renwick and A M Harman write of him: He stressed the deity of Christ and the doctrine of the Trinity as against various heretical schools [such as the Monarchians]...He saw that the doctri- Page 5
nal questions at issue were of vast importance especially that which concerned the true divinity of our Lord...Origen rendered invaluable service in his powerful and clear defence of this great article of the faith. In particular his exposition of the doctrine of the Son s eternal generation paved the way, in 325, for the decision of the Council of Nicaea as to Christ s deity, as well as for later pronouncements in the ecumenical councils of the fourth century. 7 After 28 years as the head of the Catechetical School in Alexandria, however, he attracted the jealousy of Bishop Demetrius of Alexandria, who had him excommunicated and exiled. At Caesarea, in Palestine, he established another school and for 20 more years continued to influence all grades of society. He was thrown into prison at Tyre during the Decian persecution, and was broken down by his terrible suffering there, and died soon after his release in 254. 8 Cyprian of Carthage Cyprian was born in Carthage of noble and wealthy parents. An elderly presbyter won him to Christ when he was 46 years old. The old man directed him to the study of the Bible. In literal obedience to Christ, Cyprian sold his beautiful estate and gave the money to the poor. Two years after he was baptized he was elected Bishop of Carthage by popular acclaim (though he did not personally want the position). The presbyters who were passed over by this election of such a recent convert had very bitter feelings about it, and this led to a schism. In AD 250, under the emperor Decius, persecution broke out which decimated the Church. There were now many nominal Christians, and these were sifted out, leaving the strong believers to carry on a witness to the gospel. Cyprian was forced to leave Carthage but was able to return in AD 251. Cyprian has had a very strong effect on church history for several reasons: His elevation of the episcopate Cyprian insisted that the bishop was the God-appointed ruler of the Church and therefore, his authority coming directly from God, had absolute supremacy. He denounced the sin of not rendering obedience him. In the ages to follow, this claim was to be accepted far and wide. As a result, church government would become almost completely autocratic. His concept of the sacrificing priests Cyprian regarded the Lord s Supper as the offering up on the altar of the very body and blood of Christ. He was the first to give this concept concrete shape in the Church. This was a serious change, for until Cyprian s time the Church constantly declared to the pagans that it had neither altar nor sacrifice. Cyprian s influence led in time to the Roman Catholic doctrine of Transubstantiation. His strong belief that each bishop had autonomy in his own church When Stephen, the Bishop of Rome, sent a despotic decree demanding submission from the other churches in relation to the baptism of heretics, especially those Page 6
at Carthage and in Asia which opposed him, Cyprian rose, as Polycarp and Irenaeus had done before him, and battled against the usurpation of Rome. During the Valerian persecution, in AD 258, Cyprian was beheaded. The great crowd which looked on, including many pagans, was deeply moved at his faith and courage in the face of martyrdom. Conclusion These men guarded the Church from the onslaught of heresy and, for better or worse, through their teaching and actions, shaped the future of the Church. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 A M Renwick and A M Harman, The Story of the Church (Leister, UK: Inter-Varsity Press, 1986), p.25. A M Renwick and A M Harman, The Story of the Church (Leister, UK: Inter-Varsity Press, 1986), p.26. Who s Who in Christian History, excerpted from QuickVerse 6.0, Deluxe Edition. A M Renwick and A M Harman, The Story of the Church (Leister, UK: Inter-Varsity Press, 1986), pp.41-42. Bruce L Shelley, Church History in Plain Language (Dallas, TX: Word Publishing, 1995), p.33. A M Renwick and A M Harman, The Story of the Church (Leister, UK: Inter-Varsity Press, 1986), p.44. A M Renwick and A M Harman, The Story of the Church (Leister, UK: Inter-Varsity Press, 1986), pp.45-48. A M Renwick and A M Harman, The Story of the Church (Leister, UK: Inter-Varsity Press, 1986), pp.45-48. Unless otherwise indicated, all quotations from the Bible are from the New International Version, copyright 1973, 1978, 1984 International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan Bible Publishers. The Online Bible College can be accessed at www.online-bible-college.com Page 7