Dispute Resolution Around the World. Canada

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1 Dispute Resolution Around the World Canada

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3 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada Table of Contents 1. Legal System Legal Profession Courts of Canada Litigation Process Class Actions Pre-Trial Proceedings Pre-Trial Conference Trials Remedies Judgments Appeals Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Judgments Arbitration Mediation Key Contact... 33

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5 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada 1. Legal System Confederation Canada came into existence in 1867 with the formation of a federation of Upper Canada (Ontario), Lower Canada (Québec), Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Other provinces followed, with Newfoundland being the most recent to join the Confederation. Canada s three territories are Northwest Territories, Yukon and Nunavut. Every jurisdiction except Québec adopted the English common law system before joining the Confederation. Québec elected to retain the use of the French Civil Code system for matters falling within provincial jurisdiction. The Confederation was accomplished when the British Parliament passed the British North America Act, now renamed the Constitution Act (1867), which created the Dominion of Canada and determined the functions and powers of the provincial and federal levels of government. The Preamble to the Act provides that Canada has a constitution similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom. That is, Canadians claim as part of their Constitution all of the constitutional institutions of the United Kingdom such as the Magna Carta and the English Bill of Rights. Also included are unwritten conventions, such as the rule of law, which recognizes that, although Parliament is supreme and can create any law which it considers appropriate, every person is subject to the law within the jurisdiction, and as such, governmental decisions are made by applying known legal principles. Civil Law Modern civil law traces its origins to the Emperor Justinian who codified Roman law for use throughout the Roman Empire. This codification was adopted and formed the foundation of the legal system in continental Europe through modern times. Its most significant modification occurred early in the 19th century when Napoleon revised and recodified it. Baker & McKenzie 1

6 The Napoleonic Code was eventually adopted throughout Europe and the French colonies. The most important feature of French civil law is its central code, a list of rules stated as broad principles of law. Under this system, people wanting to know their legal rights or obligations refer to the civil code. Québec courts rely on the Civil Code for guidance and solutions. Civil Law judges are influenced by decisions made in other cases, but ultimately the Civil Code determines the principle to be applied. While the decisions of other judges and the opinions expressed by lawyers and academics discoursing on the law can be very persuasive, they do not constitute binding precedents in a civil law jurisdiction. A new Québec Civil Code was developed and came into effect on January 1, 1994, of which one-quarter is estimated to constitute new law, making its introduction a very significant event in the evolution of the law of Québec law. Common Law Stare Decisis Outside Québec, all other Canadian legal jurisdictions follow the English common law system of justice in which the judges follow each other s decisions in a process called stare decisis, or following precedent. A significant factor that affected development of this process was the creation of appeal courts. Although appeal courts are a relatively modern development, the rudiments of an appeal structure existed during the early phases of the development of common law. To avoid the embarrassment of having their decisions overturned, judges would simply follow the principles laid down by the appeal court. Eventually, the practice of following a precedent became institutionalized. The most significant feature of Canada s legal system today is that the decision of a judge at one level is binding on all others in that system which functions in a court of lower rank, provided the facts in the two cases are similar. Strictly speaking, a judge is not bound to follow decisions made by others in a court at the same level in that province. However, the practical effect is the same, 2 Baker & McKenzie

7 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada since these judges must follow their colleagues decisions, in the absence of strong reason to the contrary. Equity Historically, in order to temper the rigidity of the common law, the English Courts of Chancery provided an alternative venue for dealing with matters which could not be handled adequately or fairly by the common law courts. Because these courts were not hampered by the common law s formal and technical rules, the judges were able to decide cases on their merits, or what was morally fair or just. The body of law which arose from the Courts of Chancery became known as the law of equity. The courts in Canada are both courts of law and courts of equity, and are equally able to apply the principles of both bodies of law. In addition to considering the principles of law and equity, as well as applicable precedents, judges must consider the application and interpretation of any legislation which may apply to a given case. Statutes enacted by the provincial legislature or by the federal Parliament may override principles of law or equity, or a particular precedent. Statutes Legislation is introduced to the Canadian parliamentary process through a sequence of introduction, debate, modification and approval referred to as first, second and third readings. When legislation is finally enacted, it has the status of a statute (although it may be referred to as a bill or an act). Such a statute does not have the status of law until it receives the approval of the Governor General at the federal level or the Lieutenant Governor in the provinces, a process referred to as receiving Royal Assent. The Lieutenants Governor of the provinces and the Governor General of Canada are the Queen s representatives in Canada and can sign laws on behalf of the Crown. Because the Queen is merely a figurehead in Canada, her representatives sign as they are directed by the government in power, Baker & McKenzie 3

8 and so such a signing is essentially a formality. The statute itself may have provisions for different parts of it to come into force at different times. The Government of Canada publishes a compilation of these statutes annually. Similarly, each province annually publishes the statutes passed by its legislative assembly. Statutes often empower government agencies to create further rules to carry out their functions. As long as these regulations meet the terms of the statute, they have the effect of law. They are also published and are available to the public as regulations of both Canada and the respective provinces. Cities and municipalities pass bylaws under their statutory authority in the same way, and these too are published and made available by those jurisdictions. The Adversarial System The Canadian legal system operates through an adversarial system rather than an inquisitorial system. This means that the judge is a neutral party in the dispute. While a judge can make orders as to the general conduct of the parties to the dispute and of the litigation itself, he will not take an active role in any factual investigation relating to the case. Instead, the parties themselves (usually through lawyers) advocate for their position, and by presenting documentary evidence, examining and cross-examining witnesses, and making legal arguments, each will attempt to convince the court that its claim is the correct or just one. After each of the parties has presented its case, the judge renders a decision, which is binding on the parties, subject to any appeals which the parties may choose to bring. 2. Legal Profession The legal profession in Canada is organized and constituted under legislation passed by each province and territory. Under the Canadian Constitution, property and civil rights are the exclusive jurisdiction of the provinces and not the federal government. Each province has set 4 Baker & McKenzie

9 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada up a self-governing law society which has the mandate of setting admissions standards, ethics and practice standards, and generally governing the conduct of lawyers. The first law society predates Confederation and was founded in 1797 by legislative act in what was then known as Upper Canada, now the Province of Ontario. The Law Society of Upper Canada, as it is still called, started with 15 members and now has over 27,000 lawyers under its jurisdiction. Historically, English Canada followed the British model of making a distinction between barristers and solicitors. However, due to their small population, the law societies trained lawyers to do both functions, a tradition which continues to this day. Many lawyers choose to either practice in the courts as a barrister or carry on a solicitor s practice. Barristers in Canada still wear gowns in court, but not wigs, and maintain the English practice of referring to the opposing lawyer as my friend. The province of Québec is unique for its use of the French language and legal system. Historically, the French law was the Coutume de Paris, traditional law derived from the Napoleonic Code and Romano- Germanic laws. In Québec, there are two law societies: the Chambre des Notaries du Québec, which governs the notarial profession; and the Barreau de Québec, which governs lawyers. Each provincial law society sets admission standards which require a candidate to have a legal degree from a recognized law school followed by a period of time during which the candidate has worked for a lawyer under the articles of clerkship. A bar admission course requiring additional study, followed by bar exams, is also required. Most law societies require their members to be Canadian citizens or permanent residents. A member of a provincial law society is automatically permitted to practice before the federal courts of Canada. Baker & McKenzie 5

10 For many years, the provincial law societies carefully guarded their monopoly position and refused to permit lawyers from other provinces to practice without receiving a special call, which in many cases was cumbersome and expensive. In the last five years, however, with the rise in national Canadian law firms, restrictions on lawyers (other than Quebec) have been gradually lifted making it easier for lawyers called to practice in one province to work in and appear in the courts of another. 3. Courts of Canada Each province and territory has established a system of courts for the administration of justice. In addition, certain specialized federal courts exist to deal with income tax, patents and trademarks, and other federal subjects. Since the provinces exercise jurisdiction over property and civil rights under the Canadian Constitution, most dispute resolution is handled by the provincial court system. While provinces operate the provincial courts, the federal government is responsible for the appointment of most judges. The provinces appoint provincial court judges, in particular those who deal with specific criminal matters and small civil matters. With the exception of Québec, each Canadian province and territory has adopted and developed its laws on a similar basis, drawing largely on the British common law. The Supreme Court of Canada The Supreme Court of Canada is composed of nine judges appointed by the federal government from each region of the country. It is the final court of appeal in Canada. 6 Baker & McKenzie

11 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada The Federal Court System The Tax Court of Canada The Tax Court of Canada, a superior court, is dedicated to hearing appeals brought by taxpayers against assessments levied by Revenue Canada, the country s tax and revenue authority. Either the taxpayer or Revenue Canada may appeal a decision of the tax court to the trial division of the Federal Court. The Federal Court of Canada The Federal Court of Canada is comprised of two divisions the trial and appeal divisions. The trial division has exclusive jurisdiction over select legal matters, including those relating to intellectual property rights, shipping and navigation, and certain matters in which the federal government is a party to the action. Meanwhile, the appeal division hears appeals from decisions rendered by the trial division. All matters before the Federal Court are heard and determined without a jury. The Provincial Court System Each province and territory has developed its own court system which typically involves a trial and an appellate division. The structure of the Ontario and Québec court systems are described below. Because subtle differences may exist from one province to another, reference should be made to the applicable enabling and governing legislation to determine the operation and structure of the court systems in particular provinces. Ontario Ontario has two levels of appeal courts: the Divisional Court and the Court of Appeal. The Divisional Court is a branch of the Superior Court of Justice, has limited appellate jurisdiction, and is primarily responsible for the judicial review of the decisions of administrative boards and tribunals exercising statutory powers of decision. It hears appeals where the claim or amount awarded is not more than $50,000. Baker & McKenzie 7

12 The Court of Appeal is the superior court of record where hearings take place before at least three judges. All provinces have a final appellate level, and their decisions may be appealed with leave to the Supreme Court. The Superior Court of Justice has the jurisdiction historically exercised by the courts of common law and equity in England and Ontario, where trials and hearings normally take place before a single judge. The Court has jurisdiction over criminal, civil, and family cases. It has two branches the Divisional Court and the Small Claims Court, which provides a comparatively informal forum for the disposition of disputes amounting to less than $25,000. The Ontario Court of Justice is a second branch of the trial courts and is comprised of those dealing with criminal youth and family matters, as well as provincial offenses. Proceedings in the Ontario Court of Justice are usually heard and determined by a single judge. Ontario has also created specialized groups of judges to deal with particular proceedings. These groups exist and operate within the Superior Court of Justice. An example of such a court is the Superior Court of Justice (Commercial List) in the city of Toronto which endeavors to facilitate the expedited and effective disposition of business disputes, major insolvency matters, and complex commercial litigation arising in Toronto. Québec The Québec court system is similar to that of other Canadian provinces, involving a trial division comprised of the Superior Court and the Court of Québec, as well as an appellate division. The Superior Court usually has jurisdiction in all criminal and civil matters, including bankruptcy proceedings, that arise in Québec. The Court of Québec has jurisdiction in select civil and criminal matters including youth, small claims and provincial tax matters. The Québec 8 Baker & McKenzie

13 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada Court of Appeal has appellate jurisdiction in all civil and criminal matters. A fundamental difference between Québec and the other provinces is that most of its private laws are codified in the Civil Code, which is not based on the British common law, but on Roman law and the Napoleonic Code. It stresses the importance of legislation and deemphasizes the precedential value of case law. The Civil Code applies as Québec s general law whenever there is no other governing legislation. 4. Litigation Process Litigation in all provinces follows three stages pleading, discovery and trial. Pleadings Pleadings set out the substantive elements of the claim or the defense. The plaintiff usually commences a lawsuit by serving an originating claim on the defendant. The claim will outline the material facts and allegations which support the relief sought by the plaintiff. The defendant is allowed a limited period to deliver the responding pleading or defense. If he wishes to allege that he has suffered damage and injury because of the plaintiff s action, the defense may also include a counterclaim. Other types of pleadings include a cross-claim, which is used by a defendant who wishes to claim against a co-defendant, and a thirdparty claim, which is used when the defendant alleges that the damage or injury done to the plaintiff was caused by a person or corporation not named in the claim. Baker & McKenzie 9

14 Discovery Discovery involves compliance with extensive pre-trial discovery rules, involving parties to the litigation and documents relevant to the matters at issue. The procedural and substantive laws governing pretrial discovery in each province and territory are designed to enable each party to the litigation obtain all documents and detailed evidence relevant to the adverse party s case prior to trial. These rules vary from province to province. Provincial civil litigation rules do not usually provide for discovery of more than one representative of each of the parties without leave of the court. Examination for discovery is a very important part of the pre-trial process, which aims to: Obtain admissions that would help to prove the case Obtain admissions that will undermine the opponent s case Discover the evidence upon which the opponent relies to establish a case Narrow the issues to be determined at trial Trials Following discovery, litigants proceed to a trial, normally conducted by a single judge. In certain cases, trials may be heard before a jury, composed of six or 12 members of the community where the trial is being heard. However, civil jury trials are far less common in Canada than in the United States. Applications In most jurisdictions, a second option exists to commence a lawsuit. In certain circumstances, the parties may choose to commence proceedings by way of application, also known as an Originating Motion. 10 Baker & McKenzie

15 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada Proceeding by way of application is a simpler and focused procedure, and a decision can be obtained much more quickly. Applications may only be used in matters where there are no material facts in dispute. For instance, matters involving the interpretation of a clause in a contract or involving a declaration of an interest in land may be commenced by a notice of application. An applicant commences an application by serving a notice of application along with a supporting affidavit on the respondent. The respondent then will deliver a notice of appearance, and may choose to file a responding affidavit providing the respondent s version of events. The parties are then given the opportunity to cross-examine the affiants of each other s affidavits, and then prepare written arguments to the court prior to the hearing of the application. The discovery process described below which applies to actions (proceedings commenced by a statement of claim), does not apply to applications. Depending on the complexity of matters at issue in an application, it is possible to have a hearing within a few weeks. Pre-Trial Procedures Between the discovery and trial stages, the courts have various pretrial procedures with the aim of promoting settlements and expediting the litigation. In most parts of Ontario, a mandatory mediation session is required during the early stages of the litigation process. Criminal Procedure Criminal justice procedures in Canada are governed by the Criminal Code, which contains both procedural provisions and specific offenses. Some statutes impose penalties for the violation of the substantive requirements, but defer to the procedural provisions of the Criminal Code. Baker & McKenzie 11

16 5. Class Actions Class actions are permitted by legislation in most Canadian provinces, including Ontario, British Columbia, Québec, Newfoundland and Labrador, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Alberta, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The Federal Court Rules have also been amended to allow for class actions. In some instances, national classes have been certified by Canadian courts, so as to permit defendants residing in jurisdictions without class action legislation to participate. However, unlike the remaining nine provinces, Québec is a civil law jurisdiction and, accordingly, has a significantly different legal regime than the rest of the country. The question of a national class remains an open one there. In Ontario, Canada s most populous province, class actions are regulated under the Class Proceedings Act, Under that legislation, a motion must be made to a judge of the Superior Court of Ontario for an order certifying the proceeding as a class proceeding and appointing the individual plaintiff who started the lawsuit as the representative plaintiff for the class. Before certifying a class proceeding, the court must be satisfied that: the pleadings in the action disclose a cause of action; there is an identifiable class of two or more persons that would be represented by the representative plaintiff; the claims of the class members raise common issues; a class proceeding is the preferable procedure for the resolution of the common issues; and there is a representative plaintiff who (i) would fairly and adequately represent the interests of the class, (ii) has produced a plan for the proceeding that sets out a workable method of advancing the proceedings on behalf of the class 12 Baker & McKenzie

17 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada and of notifying the class members of the proceeding and (iii) with respect to the issues in the case, does not have an interest in conflict with the other interests of the class members. Further, the legislation stipulates that certain issues will not, in and of themselves, constitute restrictions to the certification of the class proceeding. These include: the relief claimed includes damages that require individual assessment after determination of the common issues; the relief claimed relates to separate contracts involving different class members; different remedies are sought for different class members; the number of class members or the identity of each class member is not known; and the class includes a subclass whose members have claims that raise common issues not shared by all. An order certifying a class proceeding is not a determination of its merits. However, the pressure that is brought to bear on a defendant once a class proceeding has been certified often results in the settlement of the lawsuit, as the certification generally constitutes a significant tactical advantage. However, in some instances, if a defendant has a strong case on the merits, certification could be beneficial, in that it would allow for all future potential claims by the members of the class to be addressed at once, rather than the defendant having to defend a multiplicity of lawsuits. Defendants do not wish to certify a class proceeding against them as it would allow many claims that would not be litigated on an individual basis to be asserted en masse with minimal risk or cost. Following class certification, the certified common issues of the proceeding will be litigated. The action on common issues will Baker & McKenzie 13

18 proceed much like traditional litigation, with documentary and oral discovery, pre-trial procedures, exchange of expert reports and, absent any resolution, trial. After the common issues have been litigated, the court has discretion to determine any individual issues that may be litigated separately. Many class proceedings are resolved by way of settlement before the proceeding reaches the trial of common issues. A class proceeding settlement will not be binding unless it has been approved by the court. Such approval cannot be granted until after the class proceeding has been certified. 6. Pre-Trial Proceedings Under Canadian law, a party to a legal proceeding is entitled to seek a broad range of pretrial relief, which is largely designed to protect its legitimate interests pending the ultimate disposition of its case. Interlocutory Injunctions The most common pretrial remedy sought by litigants in Canadian lawsuits is the interlocutory or pretrial injunction, which is an equitable remedy that, among other things, prohibits a party from doing something. In most cases, this usually means an order preventing the defendant from continuing with certain activities pending trial. In order to obtain a pretrial injunction in most cases, the party seeking it must show that: it has a valid complaint against the defendant; it will suffer irreparable harm unless the injunction is granted; and the balance of convenience favors the injunction. In addition, the party asking for the injunction must agree to compensate the other side for any damages that it suffers due to the 14 Baker & McKenzie

19 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada injunction if it turns out that the same was not warranted. A party seeking a pretrial injunction is obligated to do so quickly. In many cases, the courts have dismissed otherwise valid applications based on the moving party s delay. Mareva Injunctions A party involved in a Canadian lawsuit can ask the court to prevent the other side from moving its assets out of the jurisdiction to avoid having them seized in satisfaction of any judgment ultimately obtained. In order to get this relief, called a mareva injunction, the moving party must show that: it has a strong prima facie case; it will suffer serious damage without the order; and there is a genuine risk that the defendant will dispose of its assets either within or outside the jurisdiction. While this is not an easy pretrial remedy to obtain, a court will more readily grant this sort of relief when there is evidence the defendant has defrauded the plaintiff or is clearly planning on moving its assets for the purposes of defrauding the plaintiff or the court. Anton Piller Injunctions A litigant can also ask the court for permission to conduct an undisclosed search of another person s premises in order to look for evidence. These pretrial orders are often sought in intellectual property cases. In order to obtain this extraordinary relief, the moving party must show that: it has a strong prima facie case; it will suffer serious damage without that relief; and Baker & McKenzie 15

20 the other party has evidence at the location that is likely to be moved or destroyed. Interim Recovery of Personal Property A litigant can also ask the court to return his personal property pending trial. To persuade a judge to do so, a party must show that: it appears to be lawfully entitled to the property; it appears that the property was unlawfully taken from it; and the balance of convenience favors the return of the property pending trial. A party can also ask a judge to appoint a receiver or receiver-manager to supervise or manage the assets of an individual or a business. In many cases, the party seeking such an appointment has a contractual right to do so. However, the court can appoint a receiver or a manager where doing so is just and convenient in the circumstances of a particular situation. Security for Legal Costs In most Canadian lawsuits, the successful party is awarded compensation for some or all of its legal costs. When the claimant party does not have adequate assets within the court s jurisdiction to pay an award of costs against it, the responding party can ask the court to make the claimant post security for that contingent obligation as a condition precedent to proceeding with its claim. While these orders are usually granted against foreign litigants asserting claims, the court can also make such an order in an appropriate case against a party who resides within the court s jurisdiction. 16 Baker & McKenzie

21 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada 7. Pre-Trial Conference All Canadian provinces require the parties to a lawsuit to attend a pretrial conference before the trial itself. The conference is generally scheduled within two months before the trial date. The pretrial conference provides the parties with an opportunity to explore the possibility of settlement, and if settlement is not possible, an attempt is made to eliminate unnecessary issues before the case goes to trial. In Ontario, pretrial conferences are presided over by judges and, in some cases, masters or judicial officers with wide-ranging procedural authority. Under no circumstances will the judicial officer presiding over the pretrial conference be the judge who will hear the case. Prior to the pretrial conference, counsels are to file with the court pretrial briefs which summarize the case and set out the issues that remain in dispute, and contain all relevant documents. The pretrial conference is an informal meeting of counsel, often taking place in the judge or master s chambers. While permissible, it is not necessary for the parties to attend personally. The presiding judicial officer normally expresses an opinion on the likely outcome of the case, and communicates this information to the client. While a pretrial judge s view is not decisive, it is nevertheless the opinion of an experienced judicial officer, and it is undoubtedly a view worth considering in assessing the strength of a case prior to trial. A judge presiding over a pretrial conference is also empowered to make procedural orders. Such orders are helpful if there have been problems in obtaining the opponent s agreement to simple matters. The judge or master will strongly support any proposals designed to shorten or simplify the upcoming trial. Baker & McKenzie 17

22 8. Trials The trial stage is conducted alone by a judge or by judge and jury. In either case, an adversarial (as opposed to inquisitorial) form of process is followed with each side advancing its case and being permitted to cross-examine the other side. Jury Trials Jury trials for civil matters are unusual in the Canadian litigation system. Provincial law dictates those actions in which a jury trial is not permitted. For example, in Ontario, jury trials are not permitted when relief is requested against a municipality. When a jury is requested, it is normally comprised of six members of the community where the trial is being heard. The result does not have to be unanimous, as it is sufficient to have five of the six jurors agree. Trial Procedure In a typical trial, the plaintiff s counsel begins by making an opening statement. The defense counsel may then either make an opening statement or defer making the same until the opening of the defendant s case. Next, the plaintiff s counsel will lead his client s case through various witnesses and documentary evidence, and will orally examine each witness called to testify. At the conclusion of the examination of a witness, the defense counsel is then given an opportunity to crossexamine the witness. Upon conclusion of cross-examination, plaintiff s counsel may reexamine the witness on matters arising first in cross-examination and for which there may be a need for clarification or explanation. After the defendant s case has been presented in the same manner, the parties will make summary arguments to the judge (or judge and jury). In trials by jury, the judge will instruct the jury, who will then retire to decide the questions put by the judge. In the case of a judge alone 18 Baker & McKenzie

23 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada trial, the court will either decide the matter immediately or, retire and issue a written or oral judgment shortly thereafter. Witnesses can be compelled to attend the proceedings by summons issued by the court. Such a summons must be served on the person prior to being called to testify and must be accompanied with sufficient monetary support to facilitate the witness attendance. The trial judge is required to exercise reasonable control over the method and conduct of the examination of witnesses. Subject to the permission of the trial judge, trials can be divided into issues relating to liability and damages. The trial judge can, in certain circumstances, direct that a reference before another person be conducted to deal with specific finite issues. The referee then simply acts like the trial judge for the issue in question and may be required to report back once the issue has been adjudicated. Cost of Proceedings At the conclusion of the trial and following judgment, the court will make a determination as to the costs of the proceedings, who shall bear the costs and to what extent. The normal approach is that the winning party is entitled to costs on a partial indemnity scale running roughly one-third to one-half of the total legal bill. Simplified Trial Procedure In Ontario, cases involving less than $100,000, but more than $25,000 are subject to what is known as the simplified procedure. Under this system, parties are permitted to engage in up to two hours of oral examination for discovery, and litigants are able to have a trial of their matter heard in a more efficient and less costly manner by reducing the amount of the procedure available in such cases. While it is possible for a plaintiff in a lawsuit to voluntarily select the simplified procedure for a case involving more than $100,000, defendants can object to that choice and force the matter to be dealt with under the ordinary procedure. The simplified procedure does not apply to Baker & McKenzie 19

24 actions under the Class Proceedings Act, 1992, the Construction Lien Act, or to cases governed by civil case management. 9. Remedies Canadian courts can award a successful litigant a broad range of remedies, including the more common ones discussed below. Damages In most cases, the plaintiff seeks compensation for its losses flowing from something the defendant did or did not do. In Canada, a successful plaintiff can recover compensatory and non-compensatory damages. Compensatory Damages As its name suggests, compensatory damages are designed to compensate the injured party as a consequence of the defendant s wrongful act. In commercial cases, these damages can include lost revenue and profits, lost wages and income opportunities, damage to reputation and goodwill, damage to personal or real property, the costs of repair or replacement and damages to redress personal injuries (e.g., lost wages, mental distress, nervous shock, the cost of future care, pain and suffering, etc.). In significant or complex litigation, the plaintiff may lead expert evidence to prove and quantify the damages. As a general rule, the court will not award compensatory damages that are too remote or that the injured party could have reasonably avoided. Non-compensatory Damages Non-compensatory damages, on the other hand, are unrelated to losses that a litigant has suffered, such as punitive damages which are awarded as a penalty largely designed to penalize a defendant guilty of objectionable conduct and to act as a deterrent to others. Punitive damages are usually only awarded when the defendant s conduct is high-handed, malicious, vindictive or otherwise offends the court s 20 Baker & McKenzie

25 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada sense of justice. Canadian punitive damage awards are not as common or as high as those seen in comparable lawsuits in the United States. Other common non-compensatory awards include awards disgorging a defendant s profits, an unjust enrichment award and nominal damages awards that recognize a wrong where no loss was suffered. Equitable Relief Most Canadian courts also have the ability to award flexible equitable relief, which includes permanent injunctions restraining activity, specific performance of obligations, the rectification of agreements, and even equitable damages. Declaratory Relief Most Canadian courts can and will also grant declaratory relief, which usually involves a judicial statement that a party is the owner of a certain right or piece of property, that conduct is inappropriate or unlawful or that certain activity infringes the rights of another party. Declarations are commonly sought in intellectual and other property disputes. In some cases, the court can and will order the destruction of offending properties and related materials, including infringing products, unlawful copies of protected materials, packaging, labels and molds. In addition, most successful litigants are awarded interest on their losses and compensation for a portion of their legal costs. 10. Judgments Entry of Judgments Once a judge has decided a matter, he or she produces what is known as an endorsement on the court record, indicating the essence of the court s disposition of the matter. The court s reasons for the decision Baker & McKenzie 21

26 will be articulated in the endorsement or, in the case of more detailed reasons for a decision, the court will set these out separately from the endorsement. A preliminary decision of the court that does not dispose of the matter with finality is simply called an order, while a final decision is a special type of order called a judgment. The court signs formal orders, but does not draft them. Rather, the counsel drafts the order and, once all opposing counsels have either agreed that the formal order accurately reflects the court s decision or the court has otherwise settled any dispute in that regard, the court signs the formal order, which may then be enforced. Entry of Default Judgments If a defendant fails to respond to a pleading within the time designated for response, he is in default and is subject to the entry of a default judgment. In that situation, a plaintiff can have the court note that the party in default, whereby the defendant is precluded from taking any step in the lawsuit without first having the noting in default set aside. Once a party has been noted in default, a judgment may be made by the court against that person, without any opportunity for him to present a defense, provided that the defendant has not responded to the action and the plaintiff has pleaded a proper claim and has demonstrated that the relief sought is in an ascertainable sum. The court may, in its discretion, set aside an entry of default. Generally, there is a requirement to show that the defendant has a reasonable explanation for failing to respond to the plaintiff s pleading on a timely basis and that steps have been taken expeditiously to set aside the default. In certain circumstances, a defendant against whom a default judgment has been entered will be required to show that it has a reasonable defense to the merits of the plaintiff s case. 22 Baker & McKenzie

27 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada Enforcement of Orders The enforcement of orders can take various forms, such as requiring one party to pay another a sum of money by filing a writ of seizure and sale. This document, in certain circumstances, allows the local sheriff to seize and sell items of real or personal property belonging to the indebted party, with the proceeds going towards paying the debt to the other party. Another method of enforcing orders is a garnishment, which allows a party that is owed money to collect that sum from a third party that is not involved in the lawsuit, if it can be established that the latter owes money to the judgment debtor. A further method of enforcing orders for the payment of money involves the creditor conducting a judgment debtor examination. This involves the debtor being cross-examined under oath as to any assets or sources of income which may be available to satisfy the order made against that party. Finally, if a party violates the terms of an order made by the court involving some sort of relief other than the payment of money (for example, the violation of an injunction), in further court proceedings, the violating party can be held to be in contempt of the earlier court order and can face fines and, in some cases, imprisonment. 11. Appeals Appeals to Provincial Appeal Courts A party to a legal proceeding may wish to appeal from a decision of a court of first instance, whether the decision in question disposed of the entire dispute or simply some preliminary portion thereof. In the case of final orders of a court of first instance, an appeal exists as of right to a higher court, generally to be heard by a panel of three judges. In the case of most preliminary or interlocutory orders, the appellate or other court must first grant leave to appeal before the same may be argued. If such leave is not granted, the earlier decision stands and there is no right to appeal that may be exercised. In any appeal, it is Baker & McKenzie 23

28 generally difficult to challenge determinations of fact by the lower court because the appellate court will typically defer to the lower court on factual determinations. Accordingly, an appeal is generally taken when there are conclusions of law by the court of first instance that may be successfully challenged. However, in exceptional cases, an appellate court can conclude that a factual finding by a court of first instance was unjustifiable and ought to be overturned. There are a variety of outcomes which may result from the hearing of an appeal. The appellate court can affirm, overturn or alter the decision of the lower court. It can also remit the matter to the court of first instance in order to have the matter determined in accordance with the appellate court s view of the law. Appeals to Supreme Court of Canada The court of final appeal in Canada is the Supreme Court of Canada. While an appeal to the Supreme Court exists as of right in certain circumstances (generally certain types of criminal matters), leave to appeal must typically first be granted before an appeal may be brought to that court. Applications for leave to appeal are heard by three of the nine judges of the Supreme Court and, are conducted entirely in writing, with no written reasons being provided as to the court s determination. Should leave be granted, the appeal will then be heard by five to nine of the judges of the Supreme Court. 12. Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Judgments Statutory Powers Many Canadian provinces, such as Ontario, provide a statutory mechanism for the enforcement of judgments originating out of the United Kingdom under the Reciprocal Enforcement of Judgments legislation. The legislation incorporates the convention between Canada and the United Kingdom providing for the reciprocal recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial 24 Baker & McKenzie

29 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada matters. Under this setup, a party may apply to the court for registration of a judgment granted by a court in the United Kingdom, and if registered under the legislation, the judgment may be enforced as if it had been granted by the Canadian court. In addition, the provinces of Saskatchewan and New Brunswick have also enacted uniform legislation recognizing foreign money judgments. The legislation codifies all the common law defenses available to an action on a foreign judgment. However, before a judgment creditor may avail himself or herself of the provisions of the legislation, the enforcing province must, by executive order, have declared the jurisdiction in which the foreign judgment was obtained to be a reciprocating jurisdiction. Reciprocity on the international level is the basis for the application of the legislation. To declare the foreign court a reciprocating jurisdiction, the Canadian province must be satisfied that the reciprocal provisions exist in the foreign jurisdiction for the enforcement judgments obtained in the Canadian court. Power of the Courts At common law, Canadian courts will recognize and enforce a foreign judgment if: the foreign court had competent territorial jurisdiction; the judgment is for a definite and ascertained sum of money; and the judgment is final and conclusive. Real and Substantial Connection Test Canadian courts will recognize foreign judgments provided that there is a real and substantial connection between the subject matter of the action or the damages suffered by the plaintiff and the jurisdiction rendering the judgment. That is so even if the defendant does not Baker & McKenzie 25

30 attorn to the jurisdiction of the foreign court or is not otherwise within its jurisdiction. Where jurisdiction is established, the courts will then determine whether jurisdiction should be declined based on the doctrine of forum non conveniens. For a Canadian court to enforce a foreign judgment, it must be final and res judicata in the foreign jurisdiction. This occurs when the judgment of the foreign court is final in the sense that the foreign court that made the judgment no longer has the power to rescind or vary it. In addition, the foreign judgment must be conclusive in the sense that it is one that may not at common law be impeached in an action to enforce it in Canada. The principles of uniformity and reciprocity are applied as guiding principles that inform the rules concerning international and interprovincial judgments. The basis of the recognition of a foreign judgment in Canadian common law is that the judgment pronounced by a foreign court of competent jurisdiction creates a new right in the plaintiff and an obligation by the defendant to obey it and pay the amount awarded. It is the role of the court to enforce the right and duty created rather than to enforce the judgment itself. The defendant s liability is a simple contract debt which arises from an implied promise to pay the foreign judgment. Defenses to the Enforcement of a Foreign Judgment A foreign judgment made by a court within its jurisdiction may be impeached in Canada on the following grounds: the foreign court did not have jurisdiction over the subject matter or the parties; there is a lack of identity between the defendant in the Canadian action and the defendant in the foreign action; the judgment was procured by fraud on the foreign court; 26 Baker & McKenzie

31 Dispute Resolution Around the World - Canada there was a failure of natural justice in respect of the procedure by which the foreign judgment was reached; or enforcement of the judgment would be contrary to the public policy in Canada. 13. Arbitration Legislative Framework In Canada, each of the provinces has enacted legislation governing domestic and international arbitration, respectively. In 1986, the Canadian Parliament and the 10 provincial legislatures implemented legislation adopting the United Nations Convention on the Reciprocal Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards ( New York Convention ). Shortly thereafter, the federal government and each of the provinces adopted the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (the ICA Model Law ), thereby ensuring relative conformity in the international arbitration process across Canada. Further, in many provinces, the ICA Model Law principles have been adopted to form the basis of legislation concerning domestic arbitrations. In jurisdictions where the ICA Model Law lays the foundation for arbitration, the parties are granted limited rights to opt out of or vary the application of the ICA Model Law provisions to their arbitration agreements. Each of the federal and provincial acts sets out basic procedural law governing arbitrations, but the detailed rules of procedure for the conduct of any particular arbitration are left to the parties to decide by agreement, or failing agreement, by order of the arbitral tribunal. Role of Courts in Arbitration Canadian courts are generally favorable to arbitration, and are increasingly enforcing arbitration agreements and referring parties to arbitration where they have by contract agreed to do so. Courts will Baker & McKenzie 27

32 stay judicial proceedings in favor of arbitrations and are no longer guarding their jurisdiction over legal disputes. The courts do, however, retain limited authority to refuse a stay of proceedings under the ICA Model Law when they find that the arbitration agreement is null and void, inoperative or is incapable of being performed. In domestic arbitrations, the courts have somewhat broader rights to refuse a stay, although those rights are also premised on the grounds enunciated under the Model Law. In both domestic and international arbitrations, most Canadian legislation allows an arbitral tribunal to grant broad interim relief. Courts are also able to make orders if called upon, such as for the detention, preservation and inspection of property, interim injunctions or such other interim measures of protection deemed by the court to be appropriate in the circumstances. This may even permit a party to seek security for costs in arbitration, if the circumstances so warrant. The party may seek interim relief at any stage of an arbitral proceeding and may do so even before commencing a proceeding, provided that the applicant can demonstrate that the dispute will be taken to arbitration and that the protection of the court is required in the intervening period. Limits on Arbitration While Canada is generally a very favorable climate for arbitration, there are circumstances in which arbitration clauses will be prohibited or of limited effect. This predominantly relates to consumer protection legislation in some provinces which provides that, insofar as an arbitration or other dispute resolution clause in a consumer contract purports to remove the ability of a consumer to commence an action or a class action, the arbitration clause is of no force and effect. Institutional and Ad Hoc Arbitration Arbitrations governed by institutional rules may be heard in Canada, as can ad hoc arbitrations whereby the parties or arbitrators determine 28 Baker & McKenzie