ICT and School Management. A Review of Selected Literature

Transcription

1 ICT and School Management A Review of Selected Literature June 2002 Don Passey Senior Research Fellow Department of Educational Research Lancaster University Lancaster LA1 4YL Tel: Fax: d.passey@lancaster.ac.uk

2 An Introduction to this Review Background ICT is becoming increasingly used in schools and educational institutions, and established in professional and classroom practice. As a consequence, research activity looking at developing and established practices is increasing and becoming more diversified. However, although head teachers, LEAs, companies and policy makers continue to take increasing interest in the scope of this field, relatively little research work is being undertaken which considers aspects of ICT and school management. This claim was supported by feedback at the research conference that Becta organised in the summer of 2001, at which one discussion group considered the scope of research outcomes available in this field to inform practice currently. Although wide interest in the field was apparent in the discussion group, there was little awareness of any extent of research being carried out at that time. As a consequence participants at the conference put forward a number of areas which they considered worthy of future investigation. Areas for further investigation which were suggested at the conference included: the nature of effective support for senior managers; the differences in managing ICT as compared to non-ict facilities; the link between training and effective leadership; the role of project management; the applicability of findings generated from research in secondary schools to the primary sector; the quality and skill levels of senior management teams; and appropriate measures for evaluating ICT in school management. Following the conference, it was agreed that Becta should commission a series of research reviews into a number of fields concerned with ICT and education. This report results from that intention, and is an initial review into this field. Audience This review is written for a general audience with interest in the wider field of research into ICT and education. It is intended to offer an introductory review of the literature, and an overview of the research methodologies and techniques that have been employed to date. It is intended for use by a wide audience, including teacher practitioners, research practitioners, research students, ICT coordinators and curriculum managers, LEA advisers, policy makers, industry managers, and sponsors and supporters of research. Contents This review is divided into seven main sections. Those sections cover: An executive summary of the review. An introduction to the area, suggesting its significance and future importance. An indication as to the amount, type and quality of research available. Identification and discussion of key research documents and findings. Emerging messages at this stage. Suggestions as to key priority areas, issues, and emerging technologies for future research. Selected research for further reading. The review concludes with the list of references cited in this report, and an appendix provides ideas of valuable sources and fields for relevant literature. Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 1

3 An executive summary ICT and school management is an important issue, since it is well recognised that senior managers in schools have a major impact upon classroom and curriculum practices, and that the use of ICT within schools is permeating aspects of school practice to the extent that it will impact upon the practice of all staff (both teaching and non-teaching). The purpose of this review is to begin a process of investigating the width of literature across this field, to find areas of pertinence that can add to our understanding of current practices and current needs. The review arose from the discussions and feedback at a research conference organised by Becta in the summer of This current review provides an indication as to the research available in this field, identifies some key documents and emerging messages, and suggest priority areas for future research. Key emerging messages include the following: the importance of ICT to society and to future prospects is clear within the educational literature, but the real significance of this for educational management has yet to be seen within the literature; the educational management literature is beginning to indicate that attitudes towards ICT are shifting, and often significantly, which is likely to have a major impact upon ICT and school management; the importance of communication systems for education is being highlighted within the literature increasingly, but the personnel effects of this outcome are not yet being studied to any great extent, and it would appear to be difficult to find case study examples from which to extrapolate at this present time; messages arising from the general management and management of change literature appear to be relevant and pertinent within the educational, and ICT and management, areas, but there are a number of key concerns which suggest that some caution needs to be taken with regard to certain areas of that literature in particular personnel, financial, and strategic aspects. Likely priority areas for future research include: how management information systems (MIS) assist effective school management; whether the available research evidence points to certain recurring factors underpinning the effective use of ICT to support and enhance school management for example, school culture, leadership skills, training, and so on; the extent to which messages derived from the wider literature are applicable to education, and in particular, to school management; how development and use of emerging technologies (such as interactive whiteboards) can be managed with and alongside those of other existing technologies (such as computer suites); how out-of-school practices can be managed through and alongside the management needs of in-school practices in order to gain the maximum educational outcomes for pupils in learning situations. Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 2

4 An introduction to the area, and a consideration of its significance and future importance There are two key assertions which imply that the field of ICT and school management is a vital field to explore, to support appropriately both current and future practice: Senior managers in schools have a major impact upon classroom and curriculum practices, and the ways in which changes are introduced. Use of ICT within schools is permeating aspects of school practice increasingly, and will impact upon the practice of all staff (both teaching and non-teaching, and if not at this present time, then in the near future). It is not difficult to find supporting evidence for these assertions. For example, with regard to the first assertion, Fullan (1992) and Everard (1986) indicate the impact that management can have upon classroom practice in a largely non-ict based environment, while Scrimshaw (1997) and Becta (2000, 2001a, 2001b) (at indicate the strong relationship between the two in ICT based environments also. However, linking good or effective management with good or higher attainment outcomes of pupils when ICT is used is likely to be entirely contextual. To develop effective management, or even to understand good management, means that the context, vision, purpose, planning methods, approaches, strategies, tactics and monitoring mechanisms all at least need to be understood within this context. With regard to the second assertion, the permeation of ICT and its implications for future management were highlighted by Scrimshaw (1997) and in the Stevenson Report (1997), and implications for management at school and LEA levels have been explored further in terms of other technological contexts in schools by, for example, Passey et al. (1997) and Somekh et al. (2001) Other studies in the US, such as those by Rockmann et al. (1997) have also looked at implications for management within and beyond school boundaries. The permeation of uses of ICT for educational purposes means that for all those who manage, ICT is likely to have an impact now or in the very near future. From the point of view of those who manage in educational situations this will mean that there will be implications for those who are involved in all types of management, whether it be strategic management, implementation management at a policy or school level, those who are responsible for curriculum management, classroom management, site management, financial management, or personnel management. This width of involvement means that potential shifts in practice arising from the involvement of ICT, or concerns about practice in these different areas, are likely to occur both specifically within the domain as well as locally for individuals. The effects of the pervasive use of ICT will imply changes, in terms of both practice and intention. Managers at all levels of the educational system will need to be able to understand how they can best manage the situation for each group involved (according to their educational purpose and focus), whether they be site managers, financial managers, or those managing the creation of resource content for teachers or pupils, for example. The likely width of shift means that management will need to be informed in order to address educational change effectively, through techniques that adopt appropriate knowledge of the management of change, using pertinent management approaches, and in ways that consider organisational impacts that could arise. Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 3

5 An indication as to the amount, type and quality of research available Looking for a relevant literature in the field of ICT and school management creates particular challenges, since the involvement of ICT requires the enquirer to consider what the relevant domains of literature might be, as well as the sources where ICT might be considered. Many managers are likely to find that sources they have relied upon may well not take ICT into account, and it is relatively easy to find standard texts on management without any reference in them to uses or management of ICT. References to the uses of ICT to manage is even less frequently found within standard texts. The task of finding useful research outcomes is further complicated by the fact that the field is itself within a shifting situation in practice, and research can tend to identify what exists, rather than what will be needed in the future. Looking at sources outside the education arena might be valuable, therefore, but there are certainly no guarantees that the research literature into ICT and company management, for example, can be considered as a viable means to identify future educational needs. For this review a particular categorisation of the subject field is initially used. The categories chosen are as follows: Educational change (this category covers the literature concerned with the reasons for educational change, and the effects and impacts resulting, particularly at an individual teacher or manager level). Management of change (this category covers the literature concerned with the conception of management of change principles, approaches and methods adopted in order to bring about change, and to consider attitudes to change). Management approaches (this category covers the literature concerned with management approaches in general, but more specifically with the types of management approach that lend themselves to particular purpose or outcomes, and the implications). Organisational impacts (this category covers the literature concerned with the impacts of change upon organisations, both from an institutional and a systems viewpoint). ICT management (this category covers the literature concerned with how ICT is managed within organisations, and the concerns and issues that face managers and others in respect of ICT). Strategic and tactical approaches (this category covers the literature concerned with the types of approach that are involved when change and ICT use is introduced into organisations and systems, and the impacts that this has upon support and personnel particularly). Personnel management (this category covers the literature concerned with how the introduction of ICT is shifting the needs for personnel within organisations and institutions, and the future implications that there might be in these respects). Resource and resource development management (this category covers the literature concerned with how resources that are ICT-based can both be developed in a range of ways and by a variety of groups, and how their uses are managed within educational situations). Financial and procurement management (this category covers the literature concerned with aspects of finance and procurement that managers in educational situations now need to consider). Planning and project management (this category covers the literature concerned with the approaches and needs for planning and project management when different ICT uses are being introduced into educational situations). Managing sustainability (this category covers the literature concerned with the ways in which managers in educational situations are now considering maintainability and sustainability, and the implications that arise for the future). Monitoring and evaluation processes in management (this category covers the literature concerned with the methods and approaches which can be used within educational situations to monitor, evaluate and reflect upon outcomes of ICT uses for the variety of purposes originally intended). Using this particular categorisation through which to consider literature sources, it is certainly possible, from the outcomes of a literature search, to find three broad groups emerging: Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 4

6 A group including areas which are well covered currently but in general rather than in ICTspecific ways (these tend to cover broad management aspects, and some come from the traditional educational management literature which was written before ICT became permeated within school and educational systems). A group including areas which are covered either in general or ICT-specific ways (these tend to be more concerned with management approaches, and arise from observation of existing practice within industry and education). A group including areas which are not well covered from an ICT-specific viewpoint (these are often areas which are emerging as management needs, or where only a few specific studies have been undertaken, such as financial, procurement, or personnel aspects). The areas which are well covered currently in general (non-ict specific ways) are: Educational change. It has long been recognised that there are implications when making and bringing about change in educational systems, and the literature covers a wide range of aspects of the implications for educational change, and the effects it has upon teachers and school systems particularly. There is less evidence about the impacts upon LEA and policy making groups, however. The literature includes key work by, for example, Fullan (1992; 1993), and Rogers (1995). Management of change. As individuals are affected by change the need to manage change in educational settings has been well recognised and documented. However, the literature which documented changes in industrial organisations pre-empted the work undertaken in educational contexts. Some key work in industrial settings was undertaken by, for example, Peters (1989), and Pettigrew (1985). Management approaches. There is a rich literature on management approaches, which can be considered in both educational and industrial contexts. The role of management approaches in undertaking change is documented within this literature. Some key work in the educational domain has been undertaken by, for example, Bush et al. (1980), Everard (1986), and Corbett and Rossman (1986). Organisational impacts. Change has implications not just for individuals within organisations, but also for organisational systems as a whole. The impacts and implications for organisational systems has been studied and documented in industrial and commercial contexts far more than it has in educational contexts. The literature includes key work by, for example, Morgan (1986), and Handy (1993). The areas which are covered in general or ICT-specific ways are: ICT management. How ICT is managed within both industrial and educational contexts is increasingly being documented. However, often this literature relies upon case study evidence which therefore by its nature identifies how current situations are managed, rather than how future situations might need to be managed. The literature includes key work of the MIT90s Programme, for example. In the educational area more work has been published on the HE and FE sectors than has been published on the school sectors. Strategic and tactical approaches. The roles of elements of systems within change situations, particularly regarding strategic and tactical elements, and how these relate to one another, has increasingly become the focus of some studies. Studies and articles exist which cover this area, and the outcomes tend to be often more concerned with future implications than with current immediate needs. The literature includes key work by, for example, Checkland (1981). The areas where more ICT-specific coverage is needed are: Personnel management. It is becoming increasingly clear that as ICT becomes more pervasive within educational systems, and becomes more usable in wider circumstances, that this has an effect upon the abilities and qualities of those who need to be employed by organisations. The implications for educational organisations, including schools, are just becoming evident from the outcomes of some studies, but these are not being reported often in the wider public literature. The impact of on-line resources on the management of teaching and learning, and the impact of out-ofschool learning on the personnel needs at a policy and at a school level, are clearly key features that should be considered in this respect. Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 5

7 Resource use and resource development management. Resources that were at one time available from boxes off-the-shelf are becoming increasingly enhanced by the opportunities that ICT-based resources can offer. However, both the management of the development and use of these resources is not well documented within the public domain, nor are ways to approach such developments through public-private financial initiatives, for example, even though some key studies do exist which look at this area. Financial and procurement management. Over the past few years the spending patterns on ICT in educational systems have changed dramatically. However, the patterns of financial and procurement management have not necessarily paralleled this shift. The literature that exists often points to the fact that managers feel they need more professional development in these areas. The development of IPAS is a response to this recognition. The literature contains few documents which enable this area to be explored. Planning and project management. Bringing in change often involves the use of project planning and project management. In the field of ICT this area is not well explored in the literature, and few documents look specifically at this area. Planning can itself be supported by appropriate management information systems (MIS), and again few studies in this area are able to inform a wider application of MIS for curriculum, financial or personnel planning, for example. Managing sustainability. Concepts of sustainability are emerging increasingly in educational systems with regard to ICT. As a consequence, little existing literature covers this area. The need for studies which look at aspects of sustainability certainly also need to go beyond the concept of financial or equipment maintainability or sustainability, since access to resources (as pointed to in the Stevenson and McKinsey Reports (1997), for example) will be a key need in sustainability terms. Monitoring and evaluation processes in management. Generally the importance of monitoring and evaluation in management processes is understood and is clarified within the literature (in the DES publications of Hargreaves, Hopkins et al. (1989), for example). However, the impacts that ICT is making upon the needs for monitoring and evaluation are not yet fully documented. As a consequence, managers may not be fully aware of how to address monitoring and evaluation processes adequately, since they are not clear what needs to be monitored or how it can be monitored using the power of MIS. A recent literature search of this field (using the sources listed in the subsequent section) was undertaken recently by Becta. The outcome of the search showed that there is a paucity of current literature addressing the management of ICT in schools. Only 21 sources were identified as being of most value, and much of the literature identified was more than 2 years old. Some papers identified were focused on management of ICT in the FE or HE sectors of education rather than in the schoolbased sectors. Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 6

8 Identification and discussion of key research documents and findings The range of key documents considered within this review highlight findings which are worthy of particular consideration at this stage. The items included here have been selected because of their pertinence to the specific field of ICT and school management, or because of their pertinence in terms of an historical perspective which underpins the current area of need. The key documents and findings below are grouped into three broad categories: general management and the management of change; educational management; and ICT and educational management. General management and the management of change Pettigrew (1985). Pettigrew undertook a major series of early studies into industrial change. His studies focused upon aspects of change within large multinational organisations, which mirror educational systems in some respects. He identified at an early stage how existing attitudes could shape internal change, and how interest groups needed to be managed. Above all, perhaps, his concept of the mobilisation of support was central, and is as pertinent now as it was then. Peters (1989). Peters looked at implications of change for managers, and, as a consequence, the impacts that managers should consider when change is a necessity or a desirable action. He was concerned with the concept of the potential for rapid innovation within companies, and the need to consider failure as a reasonable and useful element within the entire realm of processes of change. Morgan (1986). Morgan looked at the ways in which organisations can be managed, and the implications that this has for a developing, continuing or changing practice. His work looked at the industrial and commercial fields, and showed that there was a need for those managing change to consider the overall approaches that can be undertaken at an organisational level. Browning (1990). Browning offered what might be considered a realistic viewpoint on commercial change. He argued that change for individuals was not easy, and that change for groups or organisations was even more difficult. However, he argued further that the need for change was certain, and that therefore the control of change must be a major consideration for all organisations. He argued that those who had some control over processes of change would be more successful than those who did not. Carnall (1990). Carnall identified an important series of effects on working practices that individuals move through when they experience change. He noted that individuals go through a series of five stages shock, denial, testing, owning, and implementing. Carnall showed that effectiveness can be affected by change, and that some lowering of effectiveness should be anticipated at the early stages before the positive outcomes of change from later stages emerge. He showed that the stages individuals work through need to be managed from both an individual and a group point of view. Mevarech (1997) also showed this effect in an educational context, and argued that the lowering of effectiveness at early stages could halt the emergence of higher level outcomes at later stages. Educational management Fullan (1992, 1993) and Fullan and Hargreaves (1992). Fullan has written a range of significant books and articles on educational change and educational change management. Some aspects of the implications of ICT change have been considered within these texts. His messages have often been concerned with identifying reasonableness in terms of change, and indicating the need for all those within an educational system to take on board the meaning of uncertainty and features of change if change itself is to be accepted and implemented. He pointed to the need for positive support to bring about change; however, the fact that ICT brings about future needs where support has to be identified by implication can clearly be a difficult aspect for organisations and groups to address at certain times. His concept of the learning organization is central to this concern the capacity to live in a state of continuous imbalance. Davies (1991). Davies pointed to the need to consider how to manage a wide range of different attitudes in change situations. She identified the need for school managers to consider a range of attitudes - threat, anxiety, inadequacy, and antagonism as major negative effects. However, she did not from her studies look at the needs and implications for managing positive attitudes in change Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 7

9 situations it can be just as hard to manage enthusiasm, commitment and endeavour when resources and access to those resources are limited, for example. Rogers (1975). Rogers undertook an important early study on the effects that change has upon the time for its implementation. His work indicated a long time need of some 25 years to introduce change effectively into practice. Other later studies (Scrimshaw, 1997; Passey et al., 2000; Somekh et al., 2001) have pointed to the fact that ICT implementation in schools is now happening over shorter time intervals. However, the fact that technological change can happen more rapidly than an integration of ICT into practice means that the development of uses of ICT into practice need to be managed all the more. ICT and educational management Scrimshaw (1997). In his synopsis of the Superhighways Evaluation report, Scrimshaw reported on the clear need for positive and supportive management to enable all those involved in educational endeavours to gain from the potential that ICT can bring to learning and teaching. He indicated the pervasive effect that ICT was having upon the pilot schools being studied, and the implications that this would have for the future. The report highlighted the need for all those involved in educational systems (whether they be parents, pupils, teachers, managers, or supporters) to become conversant with the concepts being introduced and developed, to become aware that their needs would enlarge and widen, and that their awareness of the potential that communication systems could offer educational outcomes would need to be enhanced in order for each group to utilise and work together for specific purpose. Passey et al. (1997). Passey et al. identified a range of management implications of using on-line resources in schools and in homes. A particular outcome highlighted the need for groups to consider purpose carefully before investing heavily in communication technologies, since practical use did not merge unless users had some pre-existing concepts of potential applications. The impact upon management when laptop technologies were used was reported further in a series of later studies (1999, 2000). Of particular note was the outcome that parents would be likely to use ICT more in the future for communication with schools, and that this would require managing, just as any other area of important relationship needs to be managed between homes and schools. Most recently the implications for management in terms of personnel needs, financial needs, and procurement needs have been studied and reported (2000, 2002). It is becoming clear that as ICT use pervades to greater extents, so the range of roles and responsibilities shifts, and the importance of managing finance and procurement becomes all the greater. There have been very few research studies or reports into financial and procurement aspects of ICT for managers in schools. An exception, an earlier study by Hunt into the financial management needs of ILS, was published in Somekh et al. (2001) and DfES (2001). Somekh et al. have studied implications for management at national, regional, LEA, and school levels when ICT uses are implemented widely within schools. They have reported on the needs this brings for those within schools as well as in homes. It is clear from these studies that even lines of responsibility are becoming unclear, and need to be regularly reviewed and clarified. When resources become used within homes and schools to the extent that is now happening, for example, it is unclear where insurance responsibilities might lie, or where educational activity begins or ends. Aspects for future consideration in this respect are also considered in Bentley (1998). Twining (2001). Twining reports in one article on aspects of ICT and school management in the primary school sector specifically. He reports on the use of a particular technique as a means to bring strategic vision and implementation need closer together. He argues that strategic vision is important, but that implementation requires the use of techniques which will offer the teacher more opportunity to plan for educational practice. Visscher, Wild, and Fung (2001). Visscher, Wild and Fung bring together a series of studies from a range of countries that explore current features of computerised school information systems, their implementation in a range of schools, the outcomes of this implementation, and implications for the future in terms of further research. This text offers perhaps the widest view of ICT and school management from the perspective of MIS. However, it is clear from this literature that most concern currently is being focused on data entry and collation, rather than upon data transfer or analysis (and particularly so at the teacher level). Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 8

10 North et al. (2000). North et al. have looked at the impact that the use of management information systems (MIS) can have on the abilities of schools to manage more effectively. Their study looks at the role of support in bringing about such processes, and the implications there are for the future, if MIS is to have a wider effect than it has currently. However, it is clear that an important feature to consider will be the relationship of data collection and collation to data use, since school managers need quite different forms of analysis in some respect to those that are needed by teachers. Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 9

11 Emerging messages at this stage There are messages emerging from the literature which are of significance at this time, especially in view of the need that school managers register in this respect. The messages offered here tend to be concerned at a strategic rather than at an implementation level. However, these messages can perhaps alert managers to some key strategic or visionary concerns worthy of reflection upon at this time. The importance of ICT to society and to future prospects is clear within the educational literature. However, the real significance of this for educational management has yet to be seen within the literature. The educational management literature is beginning to indicate that attitudes towards ICT are shifting, and often significantly. This is likely to have a major impact upon ICT and school management. The importance of communication systems for education is being highlighted within the literature increasingly. However, the personnel effects of this outcome are not yet being studied to any great extent, and it would appear to be difficult to find case study examples from which to extrapolate at this present time. Messages arising from the general management and management of change literature appear to be relevant and pertinent within the educational, and ICT and management, areas. However, there are a number of key concerns which suggest that some caution needs to be taken with regard to certain areas of that literature in particular personnel, financial, and strategic aspects. Both business and commerce, and education, have undergone, and are undergoing, shifts and changes as a result of the integration of ICT within management systems. However, while business and commerce is concerned with major shifts towards service industry aspects and away from manufacturing concerns to some extent, this should not be taken at face value as the focal need for school shifts and management. The core business of schools is concerned with preparing youngsters to be able to deal with the needs of this shifting environment not preparing them to work within this environment per se. Schools have a potentially major role to play in terms of the needs to manage attitudinal shifts to work (and wider social) environments of the future. Similarly, business and commerce have been concerned with shifts in terms of the need to consider personnel, financial and procurement needs where ICT is concerned. However, the core need for education is different in some respects, and this should be considered carefully. For example, businesses and commerce now consider how ICT can lead their businesses and services to greater extents; whether this outcome in management terms is applicable to education is not yet known. It is clear that ICT and the management of ICT in education requires an increasing understanding and application of management of change approaches. At this present time the management of change is itself a fluid or shifting area where ICT is concerned; it is clear that continuous management of change approaches are needed rather than investing in a single application of managing change as a once-and-for-all remedial support. It is clear that ICT integration involves risk at certain levels, and the need to be concerned with and accepting of failure as well as success. It is not clear currently whether the educational literature has fully integrated this approach and need. The integration of ICT within business and commerce has tended to be accompanied by a parallel shift in management approach from stratified or tayloristic approaches, to flatter or more bottomup approaches. The educational literature also indicates that this parallel shift may well be needed in some respects, but not necessarily in others. The challenge for education is to work out in which respects these shifts are not needed. The increasing and shifting roles of parents and others within education are being recognised, but the management implications are only beginning to be recognised. Research into this area is only beginning to emerge at this present time. It is clear that the research being carried out indicates that there are areas where school managers could be supported more. The provision of techniques and approaches arising from research is an area which is only beginning to be developed and explored. Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 10

12 The role of ICT in supporting school management is an area of clear developmental as well as research need. Research in this area is often not yet critical enough to gain a wider understanding of the future directions it would be worth working towards. Certainly there are a number of critical gaps in the research literature - the role of data bases within management information systems in the research literature is not being translated into practice at this time; the role of analytical and presentation techniques for teachers is not being translated into practice; the needs of different groups in respect of management information systems is not being explored within the research literature at this time. Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 11

13 Suggestions as to key priority areas, issues, and emerging technologies for future research It is clear that there are a range of aspects of ICT and school management which could benefit from further research study, particularly where this could support management practice further in schools. Research outcomes are emerging over time, and a potentially useful practice would be to chart the literature emerging in key areas. One way to approach this task would be to use the categorisation offered earlier, to produce a review in each of these more specific areas, namely: Educational change. Management of change. Management approaches. Organisational impacts. ICT management. Strategic and tactical approaches. Personnel management. Resource and resource development management. Financial and procurement management. Planning and project management. Managing sustainability. Monitoring and evaluation processes in management. Some key priority areas, issues and emerging technologies for future research include: How management information systems (MIS) assist effective school management. The current research literature is not being fully considered yet in practice, and research into the current practice is not critical enough to be of value to those involved. There are issues in this area both with the forms of technology being used, and with the lack of techniques available to enable users to make use of data currently available. Research could have a major role to play in supporting educational endeavour and practice in this area. Whether the available research evidence points to certain recurring factors underpinning the effective use of ICT to support and enhance school management for example, school culture, leadership skills, training, and so on. The literature already points to a range of such factors (some of which are included within the text of this review). However, a fuller appreciation of the recurring factors could help to support effective management with and of ICT. The extent to which messages derived from the wider literature are applicable to education, and in particular, to school management. Some of the extent of applicable messages is explored within this review, but it is likely that a more structured review will need to be undertaken if the scope of these messages is to be understood fully (of the type indicated in the preceding text sub-section above). How research in this field should develop in the future, and which methodologies should be used. It is clear that research methodologies influence the messages being presented. If research is to be of more value in the future, then all research studies must identify the methodologies and their implications so that readers can be clear about their potential use within given situations. How development and use of emerging technologies (such as interactive whiteboards) can be managed with and alongside those of other existing technologies (such as computer suites). Over the past two decades there has seen a succession of technologies arising in education which have tended to overtake those already existing. The future will be unlikely to be shaped in this way new technologies will work in parallel with others rather than overtake them. This will have a direct impact upon the needs of research in the management area. How out-of-school practices can be managed through and alongside the management needs of inschool practices in order to gain the maximum educational outcomes for pupils in learning situations. Out-of-school learning is a major focus of policy and practice. Research not only needs to be concerned with what happens to the outcomes of these policies, but also with how to support those who are managing such processes. Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 12

14 How current and likely shifts in ICT uses and practices will affect the need for personnel management in the future. It is clear that new roles are emerging in education as a result of new technologies being introduced the need for web-surfers, for example, to inform teachers across a school about potentially useful resources. It is also clear that all roles within a school are being affected by uses of ICT. Both of these aspects need to be researched further if policy and practice are to benefit from research experience. How resource uses and resource development can be managed most effectively. A range of current practices are being developed and deployed. It is likely that some are more effective than others, and that contexts determine the degree of success that could be measured in particular ways. If future learning and teaching is to be supported by increasing ranges of web-based resources available, then research has a role to play in identifying worthwhile or potential management practices in these respects. What elements of financial and procurement management need to be integrated within wider management practice, and how support for this process can be most effectively gained. The financial and procurement needs for management awareness and action with regard to ICT are increasing. Currently, research practice in this area is not paralleling this increase. How planning and project management can be utilised to develop specific practice and then wider integrated practice across organisations. Project management approaches are being used to support implementation practice at local, regional and national levels. The means by which this can occur, and the implications of this practice on future policy requirements is an area which has yet to be explored within the research literature. How the managing of sustainability should be considered in the present and in the future. Sustainability is a concept which is developing within practice. It is clear so far that concepts of sustainability are wide and different. This is an area where research exploration could support the development of appropriate concepts for educational practice. Which monitoring and evaluation processes in management need to be integrated to successfully address ICT involvement and practices. It is well recognised that successful management requires successful monitoring and evaluation practice. In the area of ICT and management there is little known as to whether wider monitoring and evaluation practices have a part to play when ICT is involved, or whether different practices need to be considered. Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 13

15 Selected research outcomes for further reading A current selected research for further reading would include the following texts, which have been placed in three broad categories used earlier. In each category the literature is listed in chronological order. General management and the management of change Pettigrew, A.M. (1985) The Awakening Giant: Continuity and Change in Imperial Chemical Industries. Oxford: Blackwell Morgan, G. (1986) Images of Organization. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications Peters, T. (1989) Thriving on Chaos. London:Pan Carnall, C. (1990) Managing Change in Organisations. London: Prentice-Hall. Rogers, E. (1995) Diffusion of innovations. The Free Press: New York Educational management Davies, S. (1991) Developing a Programme in a Rural School. In M. Sullivan (ed.) Supporting Change and Development in the Primary School. London: Longman Fullan, M.G. (1993) Change Forces: Probing the Depths of Educational Reform. London: Falmer Press ICT and educational management Scrimshaw, P. (1997) Preparing for the Information Age: Synoptic Report of the Education Departments' Superhighways Initiative. Cardiff, Belfast, Edinburgh, London: Welsh Office, Department of Education for Northern Ireland, The Scottish Office, Department for Education and Employment. Passey, D. (1999) Strategic evaluation of the impacts on learning of educational technologies: Exploring some of the issues for evaluators and future evaluation audiences. In Education and Information Technologies, 4, 2, 1-28 North, R.F.J, Serain, D.M. and Abbott, L. (2000) Training Teachers in Computer-based Management Information Systems. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 16, 1, Visscher, A J., Wild, P. and Fung, A.C.W. (eds.) (2001) Information Technology in Educational Management: Synthesis of Experience, Research and Future Perspectives on Computer-assisted School Information Systems. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 14

16 References Becta (2000) A Preliminary Report for the DfEE on the Relationship Between ICT and Primary School Standards. Becta (2001a) Primary Schools of the Future Achieving Today. Coventry: Becta Becta (2001b) The Secondary School of the Future A Preliminary Report to the DfEE by Becta. Coventry: Becta Bentley, T. (1998) Learning Beyond the Classroom. London: Routledge Browning, J. (1990) A Curriculum for Change. The Economist, 16 June Bush, T., Glatter, R., Goodey, J. and Riches, C. (eds.) (1980) Approaches to School Management. London: Harper and Row Carnall, C. (1990) Managing Change in Organisations. London: Prentice-Hall. Checkland, P. (1981) Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester: Wiley Corbett, H.D. and Rossman, G.B. (1986) Three Paths to Implementing Change: A Research Note. In Curriculum Inquiry, 19, 2, Davies, S. (1991) Developing a Programme in a Rural School. In M. Sullivan (ed.) Supporting Change and Development in the Primary School. London: Longman DfES (2001) NGfL Research and Evaluation Series No. 4 Using ICT to enhance home-school links: An evaluation of current practice in England. DfES: London Everard, K.B. (1986) Developing Management in Schools. Oxford: Blackwell Fullan, M.G. (1992) Successful School Improvement: The Implementation Perspective and Beyond. Buckingham: OUP Fullan, M.G. (1993) Change Forces: Probing the Depths of Educational Reform. London: Falmer Press Fullan, M. and Hargreaves, A. (eds.)(1992) Teacher Development and Educational Change. London: Routledge Falmer Handy, C.B. (1993) Understanding Organizations. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books Hargreaves, D.H., Hopkins, D., Leask, M., Connolly, J. and Robinson, P. (1989) Planning for School Development: Advice to Governors, Headteachers and Teachers - School Development Plans Project. London: DES Hunt, M.R. (1997) Counting the cost of ILS. In J. Underwood and J. Brown (eds.) Integrated Learning Systems: Potential into Practice. London: Heinemann McKinsey and Company (1997) The Future of Information Technology in UK Schools. London: McKinsey and Company Management in the Nineties Program (MIT90s) MIT's Sloan School of Management in conjunction with a number of sponsors, including ICL Mevarech, Z.R. (1997) The U-curve process that trainee teachers experience in integrating computers into the curriculum. In D. Passey and B. Samways (eds.) Information Technology: Supporting Change through Teacher Education. London: Chapman and Hall. Morgan, G. (1986) Images of Organization. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications North, R.F.J, Serain, D.M. and Abbott, L. (2000) Training Teachers in Computer-based Management Information Systems. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 16, 1, Passey, D. (1999) Strategic evaluation of the impacts on learning of educational technologies: Exploring some of the issues for evaluators and future evaluation audiences. In Education and Information Technologies, 4, 2, 1-28 Passey, D. (2001) Anytime Anywhere Learning Pilot Programme: A Microsoft UK supported laptop project: Learning gains in Year 5 and Year 8 classrooms. Reading: Microsoft Passey, D., Forsyth, K., Hutchison, D., Scott, A. and Steadman, S. (2000) Anytime Anywhere Learning Pilot Programme: End of First Phase Implementation (September 1998 December 1999) Summary Report. Reading: Microsoft Passey, D., Forsyth, K., Hutchison, D., Scott, A. and Williams, N. (1997) Group D - Home-School Links: Final Report. Coventry: NCET. Peters, T. (1989) Thriving on Chaos. London:Pan Pettigrew, A.M. (1985) The Awakening Giant: Continuity and Change in Imperial Chemical Industries. Oxford: Blackwell Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 15

17 Rockmann, S. et al. (1997). Report of a Laptop Program Pilot: A Project for Anytime Anywhere Learning by Microsoft Corporation, Notebooks for Schools by Toshiba America Information Systems. Rockman et al: San Francisco, CA Rogers, E. (1995) Diffusion of innovations. The Free Press: New York Scrimshaw, P. (1997) Preparing for the Information Age: Synoptic Report of the Education Departments' Superhighways Initiative. Cardiff, Belfast, Edinburgh, London: Welsh Office, Department of Education for Northern Ireland, The Scottish Office, Department for Education and Employment. Somekh, B., Barnes, S., Triggs, P., Sutherland, R., Passey, D., Holt, H., Harrison, C., Fisher, T., Joyes, G. and Scott, R. (2001) NGfL Research and Evaluation Series No. 2 NGfL Pathfinders: Preliminary Report on the roll-out of the NGfL Programme in ten Pathfinder LEAs. London: DfES Stevenson, D. (1997) Information and Communications Technology in UK Schools: An Independent Inquiry. London: Independent ICT in Schools Commission. Twining, P. (2001) Planning to Use ICT in Schools? In Education 3-13, 29, (1) Visscher, A J., Wild, P. and Fung, A.C.W. (eds.) (2001) Information Technology in Educational Management: Synthesis of Experience, Research and Future Perspectives on Computer-assisted School Information Systems. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 16