Effectiveness of corporate employment web sites How content and form influence intentions to apply

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1 The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at Effectiveness of corporate How content and form influence intentions to apply Marcel J.H. van Birgelen Nijmegen School of Management, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Martin G.M. Wetzels Department of Management, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands, and Willemijn M. van Dolen Department of Business Studies, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 731 Received 3 February 2006 Revised 11 March 2008 Accepted 18 March 2008 Abstract Purpose Although research is emerging, the knowledge base on the evaluative determinants of the effectiveness of corporate is still limited. This paper attempts to narrow this gap by investigating how potential job applicants evaluations of web site content- and form-related attributes contribute to corporate web site effectiveness. Design/methodology/approach The approach takes the form of an empirical study using PLS path modeling. Findings Applicants attitude toward a corporate web site is found to be differentially influenced by the web site s content- and form-related evaluations. In turn, attitude toward the web site influences intentions to apply. This relationship is fully mediated by attraction toward the organization. The latter is also influenced by attitude toward corporate in general, which consequently contributes indirectly to application intentions. Research limitations/implications Using a non-laboratory setting and a broader sample, future research should further apply a person-organization fit perspective to corporate online recruitment and investigate effects of personality-related factors such as risk/security-seeking tendencies. Furthermore, it may be worthwhile to include technology-oriented variables such as technological self-efficacy as well. Practical implications used to inform potential applicants about opportunities should be easy to use. In addition, firms should provide applicants with updated information and make sure that the information provided matches the applicants needs during their information search process.. Persons who hold a more favorable overall predisposition toward corporate are more attracted toward an organization using such sites. This suggests that corporate may be particularly effective for certain groups of applicants, beyond the effects of web site content and form. Originality/value Drawing on literature in areas such as job applicant decision making, information systems, and web site effectiveness, the paper develops the understanding of the role of web site features in determining intentions to apply for a job via corporate. Keywords Recruitment, Employment, Worldwide web Paper type Research paper The authors would like to thank Jhara Nolten for her assistance in collecting the data for this study. International Journal of Manpower Vol. 29 No. 8, 2008 pp q Emerald Group Publishing Limited DOI /

2 IJM 29,8 732 Introduction In times of fierce competition, being able to attract high-quality human resources is considered a true competitive advantage for organizations (e.g., Gatewood et al., 1993; Rynes, 1991; Turban and Greening, 1997). One way of doing so is via online recruitment, a method of attracting job candidates via the internet (Cullen, 2001). Strategically, online recruitment is part of the organizational recruitment process, which has been defined as the activity encompassing all organizational practices and decisions that affect either the number or types of individuals who are willing to apply for or to accept a given vacancy (Rynes, 1991, p. 429). Operationally, online recruitment contributes to recruitment process effectiveness by informing potential applicants about opportunities available at an organization. In particular, this paper focuses on the use of corporations own for doing so. Other applications may include online job boards or online search sources such as social networking (e.g., Jobster and LinkedIn). In practice, the use of technology for recruitment purposes is substantial. Recruitment continue to multiply in numbers (Cober et al., 2000) and according to the Forrester Research Institute, expenditures on internet-based recruiting totaled $ 7 billion in Furthermore, about 96 percent of all companies use the internet for recruitment purposes. In addition, a survey of leading USA companies released in February 2006 by Booz Allen Hamilton (2007) found that over 50 percent of all new hires in 2005 originated from the internet with the greatest number of those hires coming from corporations own. In light of these figures, it is not surprising that technology-based recruitment has also been acknowledged in the academic arena by various scholars, resulting in specific future research agendas (e.g., Anderson, 2003; Cober et al., 2004a; Lievens and Harris, 2003). Among the specific issues to be investigated in this paper is the role of the internet in recruitment activities. Clearly, there is a need for a better understanding of how job seekers psychologically engage with an organization through its own corporate web site. Several studies have already dealt with this issue. Cober et al. (2003), for instance, demonstrated that organizational web site s content and style act as determinants of job-seeker attraction to the organization. Harris et al. (2003) focused on the role of privacy perceptions and internet knowledge and found these factors to influence the reluctance to submit -related information over the internet. Furthermore, Williamson et al. (2003) concluded that web site orientation and outcome expectancy influence perceptions of organizational attractiveness through perceived usability of the site. Finally, in an attempt to describe the online exploration process from first viewing a web site to eventually becoming attracted to the organization, Cober et al. (2004b) proposed an interesting conceptual model of job seekers reactions to and use of organizational. Although this model provided a promising point of departure for future online recruitment research, its empirical validation is still limited. Furthermore, behavioral intentions of applicants have not been incorporated in the framework. It is our intention to narrow this gap. Driven by the argument that evaluating effectiveness of interactive media from a customer perspective is crucial (Rosenbloom, 2003; Stewart and Pavlou, 2002), this study develops and tests a model of job seekers psychological mechanisms behind online recruitment effectiveness. In doing so, we rely on insights from literature in several areas of investigation, including job applicant decision-making, information systems, and web

3 site effectiveness. Specifically, we aim at investigating how applicants perceptions and attitudes influence intentions to apply for a job through online recruitment via corporate. We expect that applicants perceptions of corporate web site content (based on evaluating the relevancy, accuracy, and timeliness of the information presented) as well as web site form (based on evaluating the ease of web site use) determine the overall attitude toward the web site. In addition, we posit that an applicant s attitude toward corporate in general plays a moderating role in determining web site attitude. In turn, web site attitude is expected to stimulate intentions to apply for a job via attraction toward the organization. The structure of the paper is as follows: first, based on previous research, we will provide a conceptual review of online recruitment effectiveness. Second, we will develop our hypotheses on the psychological determinants of corporate web site effectiveness. Third, we will present the details and results of an empirical study designed to validate the hypotheses. Finally, the paper will conclude with a discussion of managerial and theoretical implications. 733 Online recruitment effectiveness Attracting new employees via the internet is likely to be a matter of providing the right type of information, at the right time, to the right person. Indeed, Williamson et al. (2003) have shown that differences in the informational orientation of a recruitment web site influence perceptions of organizational attractiveness. Furthermore, research on applicant decision-making concluded that applicant s decisions and attraction are a critical outcome of the amount and quality of information about potential employers, as well as the fit between a person and the organization (e.g., Barber et al., 1994; Dineen et al., 2002; Rynes and Barber, 1990). The main advantage of recruiting via the internet over more traditional recruitment activities, such as advertising in newspapers and magazines, is the nearly unlimited space to communicate career information. Furthermore, information may be more customized to the potential new employee, based on known preferences. Barber et al. (1994) identified two subsequent stages in the information search process of an applicant. The first stage is characterized by a broad search to identify as many potential employers as possible. The second stage is the sorting and selecting from this pool of potential future employers in order to deepen the knowledge of career opportunities at hand. If a company is not considered to be a potential employer during the first stage, it is very unlikely that it will be taken into account during successive stages of applicant decision making. Information will thus play a critical role in this two-stage decision-making process (Barber et al., 1994). Since the funneling approach leads to the use of fewer information sources as the applicant progresses through his/her search for information (Barber et al., 1994), the information provided needs to effectively draw the applicant s attention as early as possible in the process. Compared to more traditional recruitment techniques, the internet, with its global reach and real-time adaptability, has the potential to reach many more job seekers in the first stage of their information search process with better and more appropriate information. Information systems research provides insight into specific informational properties that may play a role in determining the effectiveness of corporate (e.g., DeLone and McLean, 1992; Doll and Torkzadeh, 1988, 1998; Downing, 1999). The acknowledgment of such specificities seems crucial as there is reason to believe that a badly designed information system hampers the effective

4 IJM 29,8 734 communication of information to users (DeLone and McLean, 1992). Indeed, information system effectiveness is becoming more closely linked to the user perspective in the literature (Doll and Torkzadeh, 1988, 1998; Gelderman, 1998; Igbaria and Tan, 1997). Research on web site effectiveness, which has grown exponentially since the mid-1990s (e.g., Jeong and Lambert, 2001; Zeithaml et al., 2002), shows that the internet can be an effective channel for organizations to provide service to stakeholders, among which (future) employees. Integrating the above findings, we argue that applicant attitude toward two informational properties will determine the effectiveness of using corporate to recruit new employees: the what and how of information transfer. The former pertains to the informational content that is communicated to a potential applicant, the latter to the form or way in which the applicant is able to obtain the informational content. In general, we posit that a corporate web site effectively attracts new employees only when it is able to provide users with adequate information ( what ) in a satisfactory manner ( how ). In the next section, specific hypotheses will be formulated on how applicants perceptions of both informational properties, combined with the attitude toward corporate, may contribute to the effectiveness of corporate. Formulation of hypotheses How content influences web site attitude Information system s research conclusively found informational quality to play a decisive role in determining user evaluative judgments (DeLone and McLean, 1992). Doll and Torkzadeh (1988, 1998) and Downing (1999) found the content of information provided via an informational system to be an important determinant of system user satisfaction. The relevance of taking informational content characteristics into account can also be derived from previous studies in the field of online recruitment. For instance, Williamson et al. (2003) found that the informational orientation of company recruitment (i.e. screening-oriented, recruiting-oriented, or dual purpose) influences organizational attraction via perceptions of web site usability. Various specific properties seem to be relevant with respect to the informational content of a corporate recruitment web site, and we expect these properties to influence the applicant s overall attitude toward the web site. First, research on web site effectiveness indicates that which are evaluated more positively contain information demonstrating a high level of personal relevance to their visitors (Eighmey and McCord, 1998; Liu and Arnett, 2000). With respect to recruitment, informational relevancy may be reflected in the extent to which potential applicants perceive the career information provided by an organization to be personally applicable as well as matching specific needs, depending on their stage in the information search process. Informational accuracy may also play a role and pertains to the precision of the information provided. Information perceived to be incorrect is likely to have a negative effect on information system effectiveness (Doll and Torkzadeh, 1988, 1998; Downing, 1999). For recruitment purposes via the internet, it can be expected that if the career information presented on a web site is perceived to provide an inaccurate picture of the organization as well as its job opportunities, this will result in a less favorable overall attitude toward the web site. Finally, timeliness of the information provided relates to the degree to which the information is perceived as being recent. Doll and Torkzadeh

5 (1988, 1998) and Downing (1999) related information timeliness to user satisfaction with respect to more traditional information systems. Additionally, Liu and Arnett (2000) found the timeliness of information to be an important predictor of web site effectiveness. For recruitment via corporate, the importance of timeliness originates from the fact that when the recruitment-related information provided by an organization appears to be out-dated, it may not be possible to attract potential applicants. This can also be expected to negatively influence the applicant s overall attitude toward the web site. Summarizing the above, we formulate the following hypotheses: H1. There will be a positive relationship between the perceived relevancy of career information and overall attitude toward the corporate web site; H2. There will be a positive relationship between the perceived accuracy of career information and overall attitude toward the corporate web site; H3. There will be a positive relationship between the perceived timeliness of career information and overall attitude toward the corporate web site. 735 How form influences web site attitude Besides information s content-related quality, form-related quality can also be expected to contribute to the effective communication of information (e.g., DeLone and McLean, 1992). In our perspective, online information of a workable form manifests itself in the ease of using the web site. In this respect, Doll and Torkzadeh (1988, 1998), as well as Downing (1999) suggested that system quality, indeed specified as the ease of using a system, may be an important determinant of overall user attitude. Substantial evidence for a positive relationship between ease of use, a construct also extensively studied in the domain of technology acceptance (e.g., Davis et al., 1989), and user attitude can also be found in research on web site effectiveness (e.g., Liu and Arnett, 2000; Szymanski and Hise, 2000). We argue that ease of use should not be neglected when studying the effectiveness of corporate. Support for focusing on ease of use can also be derived from various studies in the field of online recruitment (e.g., Cullen, 2001). Cober et al., and Cober et al. (2003, p. 160) confirmed that perceptions of web site usability partially determined by ease of use (e.g., Cober et al., 2004b; Williamson et al., 2003) play an important role in determining organizational attraction beyond that accounted for by perceptions of web site content. Based on the above, we hypothesize that corporate perceived by applicants as easy to use will lead to a more favorable overall attitude toward the web site: H4. There will be a positive relationship between the perceived ease of use of the corporate web site and overall attitude toward the corporate web site. The role of attitude toward corporate People tend to differ with respect to the level of comfort they experience when using more advanced ways to interact with persons or organizations. As a consequence, they may hold different predispositions toward recruitment via corporate. In this paper, this will be referred to as attitude toward corporate,

6 IJM 29,8 736 which we also consider a relevant variable when investigating the effectiveness of recruitment. Based on source credibility theory, stating that people are more likely to be persuaded when the source itself is seen as more credible (Hovland et al., 1953), we hypothesize a moderating effect of attitude toward corporate in general on the relationship between perceptions of content- and form-related informational properties and web site attitude. Specifically, we posit that the effects of information relevancy, accuracy, and timeliness, as well as ease of using the site on overall attitude toward the site will be stronger for applicants who generally perceive corporate to be a credible recruitment tool, compared to persons who prefer to be informed about recruitment opportunities via other online sources such as specialized job boards, or more traditional sources such as newspapers, magazines, or by visiting job-fairs. In line with this, the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) that was developed by Petty and Cacioppo (1981) also links information content and form to subsequent attitudes and behavior. Petty and Cacioppo (1981) devised the ELM to explain the process and outcomes of persuasive communication (Karson and Korgaonkar, 2001). There are two methods of persuasion in the ELM: motivation and ability. If a person, in this instance, has the motivation to investigate the corporation s web site and the ability to process the information, it is possible that they will be persuaded to apply for a job. Petty and Cacioppo (1981) also defined two routes by which a message recipient will assimilate the information they are presented with. These two routes are peripheral (emotions, assumptions, and superficiality) and central (logic, reflection, and consideration). It is the central route that users of an organization s web site are likely to take if the information is relevant, accurate, and timely and the site is overall easy to use. The central route is deemed more persuasive as it is taken when information is based on critical thinking and the message is given due consideration (Tam and Ho, 2005). Factors that lead to positive attitude changes under the central route are called central cues (Yang et al., 2006). On a recruitment web site the central cues are the job description, the attributes and the benefits of the job at hand, and these thus must be communicated well. If the web site does not offer the user an interface that they are able to process (for example is not easy to use) they will take the peripheral route and the person will undertake less thoughtful processing (Tam and Ho, 2005). We argue that it is likely that users who have a more positive attitude towards corporate web sites as a recruitment tool also have more motivation to browse the site, and this involvement will stimulate substantial amounts of message processing (Karson and Korgaonkar, 2001) along the central route. This being the case, the effects of the information s relevancy, accuracy, and timeliness, and the ease of using the site on overall attitude toward the site will be stronger for applicants who generally perceive corporate to be an adequate recruitment tool (and thus use the central processing route as described by Petty and Cacioppo s ELM), compared to persons who prefer to be informed about recruitment opportunities via other online sources (e.g., job boards) or more traditional sources such as newspapers, magazines, or by visiting job-fairs. The latter group would be more likely to take the peripheral message processing route. The above discussion leads to the following hypothesis: H5a. The positive relationship between perceptions of information relevancy. H5b. The positive relationship between perceptions of information accuracy.

7 H5c. The positive relationship between perceptions of information timeliness. H5d. The positive relationship between perceptions of web site ease of use and overall attitude toward the corporate web site will be strengthened by attitude toward corporate. How web site attitude influences intentions to apply In order for an information system to be effective as a means to disseminate information, it is crucial that its users hold a positive attitude toward it (e.g., Chen et al., 2000; DeLone and McLean, 1992; Doll and Torkzadeh, 1988, 1998; Downing, 1999; Gelderman, 1998; Igbaria and Tan, 1997). In the context of online recruitment, effective communication of career-related information should result in attracting potential employees to the organization, and ultimately in intentions to apply for a job at the organization. The potential of more positive attitudes to influence behavioral intentions has been demonstrated in various studies, especially in the (e-)services domain (e.g., Cronin et al., 2000; Szymanski and Hise, 2000; Zeithaml et al., 1996). However, in applicant s decision-making and (online) recruitment research, the behavioral consequences of applicant s attitudes have not been tested extensively. It is this paper s premise that the potential of an applicant s attitude toward the corporate recruitment web site to influence application intentions emanates from its impact on organizational attractiveness. Specifically, we posit that holding a positive attitude toward the site does not automatically imply that the organization will also be considered as a future employer. In the recruitment literature, organizational attractiveness is considered a phenomenon that results from the processing of career related information (Gatewood et al., 1993; Turban and Greening, 1997; Turban and Keon, 1993). Career sections of corporate often offer additional information that enable candidates to develop a better understanding of the company s culture prior to applying for a job (Cullen, 2001). Such information helps job seekers to determine whether there is a fit between the organization and their own interests. Earlier research has indicated that this person-organization fit is a critical factor in influencing successful recruitment (e.g., Dineen et al., 2002; Rynes and Miller, 1983). In fact, through organizational attractiveness, the applicant s personality is incorporated in the decision to apply for a job at a potential organization (e.g., O Reilly et al., 1991). This decision is preceded by an evaluation phase, resulting in positive, neutral, or negative attitudes. Perceptions that drive this evaluative attitude formation will be processed by the potential applicant (Barber et al., 1994). Thus, career-related information and the way it is provided are likely to be processed and evaluated, which subsequently helps to shape one s attraction toward the potential employer (Gatewood et al., 1993; Turban and Greening, 1997; Turban and Keon, 1993). Depending on the direction in which the attitudinal balance is tipping, the applicant is likely to be attracted toward or turned away from the organization. In sum, we hypothesize that: H6. There will be a positive relationship between overall attitude toward the corporate web site and applicant attraction to the organization. Finally, evidence exists in the literature of organizational attraction being a vital antecedent of application intentions (e.g., Collins and Stevens, 1999; Harris and Fink, 1987; Taylor and Bergmann, 1987; Turban and Greening, 1997). It is quite unlikely that one would pursue with an organization that one does not feel attracted to 737

8 IJM 29,8 738 in the first place. Therefore, in order to validate this relationship, our final hypothesis will be: H7. There will be a positive relationship between applicant attraction to the organization and intentions of applying for a job at that organization. Our hypotheses are summarized in Figure 1. Further details on the empirical study conducted to validate the hypotheses will be presented in the next section. The empirical study Research methodology and sample design In order to test our hypotheses, we conducted an empirical study among final-year university students and recent university graduates. Research participants were invited to a computer laboratory setting, randomly assigned to one of four company, and asked to browse this site with the purpose of possibly applying for a job at the company. The four companies, all multinationals, were carefully selected by the researchers based on differences in the factors relevant for this study. In order to avoid biases due to a difference in corporate image and a-priori respondent attraction to the companies involved (Collins and Stevens, 1999; Gatewood et al., 1993; Turban and Greening, 1997), two well-known and two relatively unknown companies were included in the research. After having browsed the assigned web site, participants were asked to complete a questionnaire pertaining to our focal constructs. The browsing took about ten to 15 minutes per respondent. In total, 199 respondents, evenly distributed over the four company web site conditions, participated in the research. A total of 135 were male and 64 were female. The average age was 23. Furthermore, 56 percent of the respondents indicated to be interested in learning more about career opportunities, 21 percent were actively involved in the collection of career-related information, and 18 percent were willing to get into contact with future Figure 1. Research hypotheses

9 employers. Overall, these numbers provide support for the suitability of our sample for the specific purpose of this research. Questionnaire design Constructs were measured on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from (1 ¼ completely disagree) to (7 ¼ completely agree). First, the respondent s attitude toward corporate in general was measured by five items partially based on D Ambra and Rice (2001) and Liu and Arnett s (2000) research (e.g., I am more likely to find career information by visiting corporate than through other sources of information; Composite Reliability ðcrþ ¼0:87Þ. In order to reduce the chances of biasing the measurement of this construct due to variation in web site perceptions, the respective items were presented before the respondents actually interacted with one of the four and filled out the remainder of the questionnaire. Information relevancy was operationalized by four items based on previous research by Liu and Arnett (2000) and Eighmey and McCord s (1998) research (e.g., the information provided in the career section applies to me; CR ¼ 0:88). A four-item scale, based on Doll and Torkzadeh (1988, 1998), was used to measure information accuracy (e.g., the career information seems truthful to me; CR ¼ 0:87). Career information timeliness was represented by three items adapted from Doll and Torkzadeh (1988, 1998) and Liu and Arnett (2000) (e.g., the career section provides up to date information; CR ¼ 0:89). Web site s ease of use was operationalized by a six-item scale, based on the investigations by Doll and Torkzadeh (1988, 1998), Szymanski and Hise (2000), and Cullen (2001) (e.g., I can quickly and easily obtain the career information I need; CR ¼ 0:92). Three items, partially based on Doll and Torkzadeh (1988, 1998), measured the overall attitude toward the corporate web site (e.g., by visiting this career section I obtained a satisfying view of the career possibilities at this company; CR ¼ 0:93). Next, a five-item scale was used to measure applicant attraction toward the organization (e.g., in my opinion, this company is a good place to work; CR ¼ 0:87). These items were based on Taylor and Bergmann (1987), Zeithaml et al. (1996), and Brewer and Henscher (1998). Finally, application intentions were operationalized by four items adapted from Taylor and Bergmann (1987), Harris and Fink (1987), and Zeithaml et al. (1996) (e.g., I intend to apply for a position with this organization; CR ¼ 0:92). Table I presents an overview of the measurement items. 739 Data analysis We used PLS-Graph Version 3.0 to obtain Partial Least Squares (PLS) estimates for both the measurement and structural parameters in our structural equation model (Chin et al., 2003; Hulland, 1999). PLS path modeling is generally preferred in case the theoretical framework is not fully crystallized yet (Falk and Miller, 1992). Moreover, PLS allows for the testing of complex models with a large number of constructs, indicators and/or relationships (Chin, 1998). PLS path modeling allows assessing the psychometric properties of the measurement instruments (Chin, 1998; Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Tenenhaus et al., 2005). For the structural model, we use the R 2 value for the endogenous latent variables as a measure of model fit (Chin, 1998; Tenenhaus et al., 2005). To test the moderating effect hypothesis we used PLS path modeling with an interaction term. PLS allows us to employ a product indicator approach, while

10 IJM 29,8 740 Table I. Psychometric properties of measures Items Information relevancy (CR ¼ 0:88; AVE ¼ 0:66) 1. Visiting the career section provides me with relevant information The information provided in the career section applies to me The information given in the career section does not relate to me a The career section provides information that does not seem relevant to me a 0.80 Information accuracy (CR ¼ 0:87; AVE ¼ 0:63) 1. The career section is accurate The career information seems truthful to me The career information provided seems to be incorrect a The career information looks inaccurate a 0.83 Information timeliness (CR ¼ 0:89; AVE ¼ 0:73) 1. The career section provides up to date information The career information is current enough to meet my needs The web site seems to provide the latest career information of the organization 0.88 Web site ease of use (CR ¼ 0:92; AVE ¼ 0:66) 1. The corporate web site is easy to use The corporate web site is user-friendly I can quickly and easily obtain the career information I need I have to search too much to find information of interest to me a The career section provides easy to follow search paths The content of the career page is brief and focused, whereas more specific information is 0.60 provided on demand Overall attitude toward web site (CR ¼ 0:93; AVE ¼ 0:82) 1. Overall, I am satisfied with the information provided in the career section By visiting this career section I obtained a satisfying view of the career possibilities at 0.92 this company 3. I am positively surprised by the information presented in the career section 0.88 Attraction to organization (CR ¼ 0:87; AVE ¼ 0:58) 1. Overall, I think this company is an attractive potential employer In my opinion, this company is a good place to work I would say positive things about this company to other people I would encourage friends and relatives to consider this company as a future employer Overall, my perception of the company as a future employer is positive 0.52 Intentions to apply (CR ¼ 0:92; AVE ¼ 0:75) 1. I intend to apply for a position with this organization I consider this company as a potential future employer If I was offered a job interview at this company, I would not accept it immediately a I would be very likely to accept a job offer of this company 0.91 Attitude toward corporate (CR ¼ 0:87; AVE ¼ 0:59) 1. The use of corporate has made me more aware of future career opportunities By visiting corporate, I have increased my knowledge of future career 0.84 opportunities 3. I make better career decisions because of information I get on corporate Using corporate provides me with career information that would lead to better 0.82 career decisions 5. I am more likely to find career information by visiting corporate than through 0.62 other sources of information Note: a Reverse-coded item SL

11 simultaneously accounting for measurement error. For the moderator analysis, the indicators were standardized and subsequently the indicators of the product term were obtained by creating all possible products from the two sets of indicators (Chin et al., 2003). Based on the work by Cohen (1988), we would require a sample size of 113 for a medium effect size (f 2 ¼ 0:15) and a sample size of 54 with a large effect size (f 2 ¼ 0:35) assuming a ¼ 0:05 and ð1 2 bþ ¼0:80. As we generally can assume medium effect sizes for behavioral research (see Cohen, 1988) our sample size of 199 appears to be quite adequate for this study. 741 Construct validation To assess the psychometric properties of the measures, we tested a measurement model without structural paths in PLS-Graph Version 3.0, which is analogous to confirmatory factor analysis in covariance based SEM. Convergent validity can be evaluated by inspecting the factor loadings of the measures on their respective constructs (Chin, 1998; Hulland, 1999; Tenenhaus et al., 2005). If we assume a minimum loading of 0.70, item reliability will be approximately 0.5 (Hulland, 1999). Reliability of the measures was assessed using composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE). For CR a threshold value of 0.70 is suggested (Chin, 1998; Hulland, 1999), whereas for AVE Fornell and Larcker (1981) propose a threshold value of Discriminant validity can be assessed by examining the cross-factor loadings of the measures (Chin, 1998; Hulland, 1999). The measures should not exhibit any loadings substantial in magnitude on constructs for which we have not hypothesized. Furthermore, the correlations of residual terms (Q) across blocks should not exceed 0.20 in absolute terms (Falk and Miller, 1992). Additionally, a construct should share more variance with its measures than it shares with other constructs in the model (Chin, 1998; Hulland, 1999). Consequently, the square root of the average variance extracted should exceed the intercorrelations of the construct with the other constructs in the model. In our study, using reflective measures, almost all the measures showed factor loadings exceeding 0.70 and no factor cross-loadings were substantial in magnitude. The between-block correlations of the residual terms (Q) did not exceed 0.2 in absolute terms. Moreover, none of the intercorrelations of the constructs exceeded the square root of the average variance extracted for the constructs. To assess the reliability of the measures, we calculated the composite scale reliability and the average variance extracted (Chin, 1998; Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Hulland, 1999). As far as composite scale reliability is concerned, all reflective measures exceeded a value of 0.85 and as far as AVE is concerned six out of eight sets of reflective measures were higher than Moreover, the square root of the average variance extracted exceeded the intercorrelations of the construct with the other constructs in the model, indicating discriminant validity (Chin, 1998; Hulland, 1999). Tables I and II summarize the psychometric properties of the measures and the intercorrelations among the latent variables in our study. Hypotheses testing For the structural model, we used the R 2 value for the endogenous latent variables as a measure of model fit (Chin, 1998; Tenenhaus et al., 2005). Tenenhaus et al. (2005) have developed a global fit measure for PLS, GoF, which is defined as the geometric mean of average communality (AVE) and average R 2 for the endogenous constructs. Since communality equals average variance extracted (AVE) in the PLS approach, we

12 IJM 29,8 742 Table II. Intercorrelations among latent variables Mean SD Correlations a Construct Info relevancy Info accuracy Info timeliness Web site ease of use Overall web site attitude Attraction to organization Intentions to apply Attitude corporate Note: a Figures in italic on diagonal denote square root of AVE

13 propose a cut-off value of 0.5 for communality, as suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981). Moreover, in line with the effect sizes for R 2 (small: 0.02; medium: 0.13; large: 0.26) proposed by Cohen (1988), we derived the following GoF criteria for small, medium, and large effect sizes of R 2 : 0.1, 0.25 and The GoF found in our study is 0.61 and can be classified as large. To test the effects and the statistical significance of the parameters in the structural model we used a bootstrapping procedure with 500 resamples (Chin, 1998). The empirical results of the hypotheses testing procedure are presented in Table III and visualized in Figure 2. More specifically, attitude toward the corporate web site is significantly and positively influenced by perceived relevancy of the career information (b ¼ 0:26, p, 0.01), career information accuracy (b ¼ 0:14, p, 0.01), career information timeliness (b ¼ 0:29, p, 0.01), and the ease of using the recruitment web site (b ¼ 0:40, p, 0.01). Consequently, H1 to H4 are supported. Surprisingly, none of the proposed moderating effects of attitude toward corporate are found to be significant. Therefore, H5a, H5b, H5c and H5d are not supported. In support of H6, attitude toward the corporate web site positively contributes to the level of applicant attraction toward the organization (b ¼ 0:67, p, 0.01). Finally, organizational attraction has a positive effect on intentions to apply at the organization (b ¼ 0:79, p, 0.01). Consequently, support for H7 is also found. Interestingly, a non-hypothesized effect of attitude toward corporate on attraction to the organization is found (b ¼ 0:11, p, 0.05). Apparently, organizations that make use of their web site for recruitment purposes are found particularly attractive by persons who generally hold a more favorable attitude toward using corporate as a medium to recruit people. In terms of the fit of the structural model, inspection of the R 2 for the endogenous variables shows large effect sizes in terms of R 2 (R ) for web site attitude 743 Relationship Coefficient Conclusion R 2 1. Info relevancy! overall web site attitude 0.26 ** H1 supported 0.73 ** Info accuracy! overall web site attitude 0.14 ** H2 supported Info timeliness! overall web site attitude 0.29 ** H3 supported Web site ease of use! overall web site attitude 0.40 ** H4 supported Attitude corporate info n.s. H5a not supported relevancy! overall web site attitude Attitude corporate info n.s. H5b not supported accuracy! overall web site attitude Attitude corporate info n.s. H5c not supported timeliness! overall web site attitude Attitude corporate web site n.s. H5d not supported ease of use! overall web site attitude 2. Overall web site attitude! attraction to 0.67 ** H6 supported 0.48 ** organization Attitude corporate web 0.11 * Not hypothesized sites! attraction to organization 3. Attraction to organization! intentions to apply 0.79 ** H7 supported 0.49 ** Notes: * p, 0.05; ** p, 0.01 Table III. Empirical model results

14 IJM 29,8 744 Figure 2. Empirical results (R 2 ¼ 0:73), attraction to organization (R 2 ¼ 0:48), and intentions to apply (R 2 ¼ 0:49); significant at a ¼ 0:01. Finally, we tested for the mediating effect (Baron and Kenny, 1986; Judd et al., 2001) of attraction to the organization on the relationship between attitude toward the web site and intentions to apply. Our results suggest that attraction to organization indeed constitutes a mediator between web site attitude and intentions to apply (b indirect ¼ 0:53, z ¼ 10:22, p, 0.001)[1]. Conclusion Discussion In this investigation, we answer the call of several scholars to further investigate the specificities of internet-based recruiting (e.g., Anderson, 2003; Lievens and Harris, 2003). Drawing on the extant literature available in areas such as applicant decision-making, information systems, and web site effectiveness, hypotheses on information content and form-related determinants of corporate web site effectiveness have been formulated and tested. The results add detail to previous research on applicant decision-making and online recruitment effectiveness (e.g., Cober et al., 2003[1]; Dineen et al., 2002[1]; Harris et al., 2003[1]) and have important implications for managerial practice. Specifically, our data provide support for Cober et al. (2004b) theoretical argumentations and substantiate Cober et al. (2003, p. 158) findings by showing that web site content and style are important precursors of organizational attraction. As also suggested by Cober et al. (2004a), we find this influence to occur indirectly through the potential candidate s overall attitude toward the web site. Web site attitude thus serves as a mediator between antecedents related to web site content and form on the one hand and attraction toward the organization on the other hand. In turn, more

15 favorable attitudes toward the corporate web site stem from an applicant s perception that the information provided is personally relevant, in line with his or her needs, accurate, and up-to-date. Ease of using the corporate recruitment web site is found to be the strongest determinant of web site attitude, supporting findings from e-services and web site effectiveness literature (Liu and Arnett, 2000; Szymanski and Hise, 2000) and the conclusion by Cober et al. (2003, p. 160) that web site style accounts for variance beyond that accounted for by perceptions of web site content. As suggested by Ahuja and Webster (2001), a possible explanation for this finding may be that a corporate web site that is easy to use is less likely to disorientate potential applicants, which will in turn improve their performance of retrieving the information wanted when browsing the site. Taking Cober et al. (2003) investigation one step further, our findings also indicate that attraction toward the organization mediates the effect of web site attitude on intentions to apply for a job. The potential of a well-evaluated corporate web site to influence application intentions is thus derived from its impact on organizational attractiveness. Apparently, a more favourable attitude toward the site does not necessarily imply that the company actually will be considered as a potential employer. Being attracted toward the organization seems to play a prominent role here, suggesting that other factors, such as corporate image, compensation, culture, and career development opportunities will be important as well. Clearly, the relevance of such issues should be acknowledged when using online recruitment, as it has been shown for traditional recruitment channels (Barber and Roehling, 1993). Our investigation extends existing research on online recruitment by including the sway of the user-related characteristic attitude toward corporate web sites as a variable. The hypothesized moderating effects of attitude toward corporate in general on the relationship between information content- and form-related characteristics and web site attitude are not confirmed by our data. A possible reason for this may be derived from the relatively high mean and lower standard deviation of the attitude toward corporate variable (see Table II), which could be due to the fact that our sample mainly includes younger people, who tend to hold more positive attitudes toward using the internet in general (Assael, 2005). A more fundamental explanation, however, could lie in the notion that attitude toward corporate does not operate at the instrumental level (such as information content and form aspects), but on the more abstract level of general predispositions. This abstract level may in fact prevent attitude toward corporate from triggering the central route of message processing in the Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty and Cacioppo, 1981) and cause users to take the peripheral route. Even though the peripheral route does result in attitude change, it is noted that in this case only part of the information is processed (Tam and Ho, 2005). The peripheral message processing route to persuasion would also explain why in this investigation information content- and form-related aspects are found to be differentially influential for the user as they may make assumptions and infer from more simple cues (such as ease of use, having the strongest effect on web site attitude) for overall judgment formation (Tam and Ho, 2005). Nevertheless, attitude toward corporate in general is found to directly and positively influence overall organizational attraction. Apparently, organizations making use of their web site for recruitment purposes are found particularly attractive by persons 745

16 IJM 29,8 746 who consider corporate to be appropriate for doing so. This attraction will then trigger intentions to apply for a job at the organization. Consequently, attitude toward corporate contributes to the organization s internet-based hiring potential, in an indirect manner as conceptualized, but at a higher-order level of abstraction than hypothesized. HR implications Our results can provide firms with information for strategic decisions on how to attract human resources via the internet. First, the finding that all three information content-related factors trigger more positive attitudes toward the corporate web site suggests that these attributes should be specifically underscored when providing web site content. The information provided should be relevant to potential applicants and match their current needs in the information search process. As also suggested by Cober et al. (2004b), organizations might create several sections on their web site that are in line with the different stages of the recruitment process (e.g., career opportunity information for orientation purposes; useful hints for preparing for a job interview at the organization, insight into primary and secondary working conditions for the negotiation phase). Information should also be accurate: jobs posted on the recruitment web site should really be vacant. This requires careful and continuous monitoring and updating of the site. In addition, when visiting the recruitment section of a corporate web site, users must get the impression that the information provided is recent. Perceptions of information timeliness may be generated by putting the date of modification of the information on the site. Although the effects of such actions may seem straightforward, an investigation among best corporate e-recruitment services showed that information quality is at least moderate on average (Cullen, 2001), suggesting that room for improvement exists. Second, organizations should actively and explicitly communicate to potential job candidates that relevant, accurate, and timely information can be found on the organization s web site. Traditional media such as print magazines, TV, and radio, as well as visiting job fairs where potential applicants gather may be very useful for promoting the online service. Firms should also make sure that their corporate web site is easy to use. Given the strong effect on web site attitude (stronger even than web site content), designing user friendly sites that provide the information in a quick and easy manner, without having to search too much or getting disoriented, is crucial in this respect. Extensive pre-testing of the site should serve to improve applicant perceptions of ease of use. Furthermore, although their implementation will certainly have important logistical and practical (mostly personnel-related) implications, tools like call-me-now buttons or the possibility to chat real-time with an employee in case of a need for assistance or more specific information may enhance web site usability as well. Finally, since persons who hold a more favorable overall predisposition toward corporate are more attracted toward an organization using such a web site, it seems that corporate may be particularly effective for specific groups of applicants, beyond the effects of web site content and form. Given the possible diversity in potential applicants predispositions, this also implies that more traditional ways of recruiting people (e.g., via magazines or job fairs) can still be considered adequate for attracting new employees in the future.

17 Study limitations and suggestions for future research Our study has certain limitations which hold implications for future research. First, it took place in a laboratory setting, making use of a sample of final year university students and recent graduates instructed to imagine that they were looking for a job. This imposes restrictions with respect to the generalizability of our results to other target groups and to real-life situations. Since our sample does not offer much variance on other potentially relevant factors such as age, education, and working experience, a possible sample bias may exist. For instance, the chances of being a heavy internet user are negatively related to age (Assael, 2005). Younger people may thus hold more positive attitudes toward online recruitment activities. In addition, professionals who consider switching jobs may find other information- or technology-related elements important as well. Future research should broaden the sample to further study the influence of demographic variables, as well as differences in attitude toward corporate, on applicant perceptions, attitudes, and intentions. Focusing on actual job-seekers may also lead to more valid conclusions. Second, our investigation was restricted to a single time period. Future studies should investigate how the judgments of applicants may develop over time, especially since it has been argued that respondents need time to process information in computer-mediated environments (Walther, 1992). In addition, research done over time would allow a study of actual applicant behavior instead of behavioral intentions. Third, driven by the potential impact that individual differences may have on the experience a job seeker has of a corporate web site (Cober et al., 2004a; Turban and Keon, 1993), future research should further build on the insights from this investigation. Specifically, in line with research on traditional recruitment strategies (e.g., Rynes and Miller, 1983), our results seem to indicate that the match or fit between an organization and a job seeker is a relevant factor to consider, also when non-personal recruitment techniques are employed. Personality-driven issues thus seem relevant and future corporate online recruitment research could merit from further applying a person-organization fit perspective. Extending the model by incorporating applicant personality-related variables that may play a role in determining organizational attraction in an online recruitment context seems to be an interesting avenue here. For instance, factors such as the tendency to seek risk or security, ambition levels, ideological considerations, technological self-efficacy, inherent novelty seeking, and self-consciousness may be worthwhile to consider (e.g., Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002), since the presence of these characteristics differs across persons and may influence how individuals approach technology in general and online recruitment specifically.. Finally, although the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) seemed to provide a theoretical framework for the proposed moderating effects in our model, the underlying processes of ELM are not explicitly measured in our study. A replication of our study along with measurement of peripheral or central information processing may provide more insights into how attitude toward corporate ultimately influences intentions to apply. A more in-depth study of these processes may provide us with a more fundamental explanation of why the moderating effects tested were not significant. 747

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21 Walther, J.B. (1992), Interpersonal effects in computer-mediated interaction: a relational perspective, Communication Research, Vol. 19, pp Williamson, I.O., Lepak, D.P. and King, J. (2003), The effect of company recruitment web site orientation on individuals perceptions of organizational attractiveness, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 63, pp Yang, S., Hung, W., Sung, K. and Farn, C. (2006), Investigating initial trust toward e-tailers from the Elaboration Likelihood Model perspective, Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 23 No. 5, pp Zeithaml, V.A., Berry, L.L. and Parasuraman, A. (1996), The behavioral consequences of service quality, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 60, pp Zeithaml, V.A., Parasuraman, A. and Malhotra, A. (2002), Service quality delivery through web sites: a critical review of extant knowledge, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 30 No. 4, pp About the authors Marcel J.H. van Birgelen (PhD, Maastricht University) is Associate Professor of Marketing at the Nijmegen School of Management at Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands. His main research interests include consumer behavior, services marketing, multi-channel marketing strategy, international marketing, marketing research, and new product development. He is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected] Dr Martin G.M. Wetzels (PhD, Maastricht University) is Professor of Marketing and Supply Chain Research in the Department of Marketing at Maastricht University, the Netherlands. His main research interests are customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction, customer value, services marketing, business-to-business marketing, (online) marketing research, supply chain management, cross-functional cooperation, e-commerce, new product development, technology infusion in services, and relationship marketing. Willemijn M. van Dolen (PhD, Maastricht University) is Associate Professor of Marketing in the Department of Business Studies at the University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. In 2001 and 2002, she spent two years as a visiting scholar at the University of California, Berkeley. In 2003, she was a visiting researcher at the New York University. Her research interests include service provider performance, electronic encounters, chat selling, measuring group dynamics through multi-level modeling, and corporate social responsibility. To purchase reprints of this article please [email protected] Or visit our web site for further details: