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1 QUT Digital Repository: http;;//eprints.qut.edu.au Garner, Gary O. (2003) The Christian Faith and its Relevance to Counselling - Attempts at "Integration". Copyright 2003 Gary O. Garner

2 The Christian Faith and its Relevance to Counselling - Attempts at Integration 15 May 2003 Gary Garner Bible College of Queensland

3 CONTENTS CONTENTS... 2 SYNOPSIS... 3 INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELLING & THE RELEVANCE OF THE CHRISTIAN FAITH... 5 INTEGRATION... 9 THE POTENTIAL EFFECTIVENESS OF INTEGRATION IN CHRISTIAN COUNSELLING A COMPARISON OF THE INTEGRATION MODEL BIBLIOGRAPHY INTERNET REFERENCES Page 2

4 SYNOPSIS Counselling, and its more intense process counterpart (psychotherapy) is concerned with helping people cope with normal problems and opportunities, and at the extreme end focuses on behavioural difficulties or deep seated personalities. The Christian faith implies involvement of Christian Counselling which deals with man spiritually, mentally, physically, and emotionally. Biblical Counselling - sometimes used interchangeably with Christian Counselling is that "which flows from a Biblical view of revelation, God, man, sin, and sanctification.", sometimes expressed as the God-ordained system of progressive sanctification. Within the general gambit of Christian Counselling, there are different approaches or techniques, however the distinction between Christian and Biblical counselling can often be quite fine. Nouthetic Counselling goes further by totally rejecting the need for secular psychiatrists often touted as being Christ centered using the authority of God. Psychoheresy is a related term to describe a so-called problem of mixed up secular psychological counselling ideas and concepts with the teachings of the Bible, where the main teachings of psychology often contradict or compromise the teachings of Scripture. Theophostic Ministry - arguably a derivative of the nouthetic concept is a relatively new technique of prayer for emotional healing, whereby the Lord s healing presence is invoked to deal with unresolved past traumas. Jesus that replaces the lies resulting from such past traumas with His truth. Integration, in a counselling context, describes the relationship between psychology, and theology. At one extreme, there is no integration with a blanket opposition to the integration of humanistic philosophies and all psychiatric-psychotherapeutic treatment regimes with Christian counselling and teaching. Some practitioners actually question whether there is even any legitimate place for the psychiatrist at all. The psychoheresy doctrine is closely promoted by such people, suggesting it distracts believers, dilutes Scripture, dishonours God, develops the flesh, and debilitates spiritual growth Page 3

5 The more orthodox methodology offered by most Christian organisations is a balanced integration of theology, psychology and spirituality. However, whilst some modern practitioners or scholars claim Godly revelation concerning integration, most are able to merely state their commitment to integration. Integration ultimately involves bringing God s truth from all areas of His creation, both special and natural revelation, to bear on the therapeutic endeavour. The writer s contention is that there is no fundamental incompatibility between the truth of the Bible and accurate, observable truth about man. Nonetheless, integration should always be based on the thorough study and interpretation of the Scriptures and the human condition, in order to equip us to apply truth. Whilst the Bible is the ultimate authority, both disciplines retain their own distinct identities and offer complete compatibility. This is not to say that Christian Counselling professionals provide (or even attempt to provide) genuine Christian counselling care. Studies conducted appear to suggest a low rate of involvement here.. Nonetheless, the integration of both psychology and theology represents the very best that mankind, in all his imperfection, can offer. Page 4

6 INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELLING & THE RELEVANCE OF THE CHRISTIAN FAITH Prior to considering the question of the relevance of the Christian faith to counselling, it is prudent to define just what is meant by counselling, and a related term psychotherapy. In the context of Christianity, it is necessary to define resultant terminology such as Christian or Biblical Counselling and certain other linkages. It is only after having first tested the boundaries of the subject matter, will it be then possible to conduct an examination of various attempts at integration in the context of Counselling and the Christian faith. Counselling, in its secular context, has been described by Ivey 1 as that activity concerned with helping people cope with normal problems and opportunities; most often associated with the professional fields of human services, social work, guidance, psychology, pastoral counselling, and, to a limited extent, psychiatry. Ivey 2 suggests that the more intense process of psychotherapy focuses on behavioural difficulties or deep seated personalities, and is conducted by professional psychologists, psychiatrists and others specialising in the field. The aim of counselling may be described as an opportunity to explore, discover and clarify ways of living a more satisfying, and resourceful life, whilst the task of the counsellor is to provide a safe, non-judgmental and confidential environment for this process to occur 3. In considering the Christian faith in the context of counselling, there is an implied involvement of Christian Counselling: Irving 4 suggests that unlike other methods of dealing with individuals, Christian Counselling deals with man in his totality... 1 Ivey A.E. & Ivey M.B, Intentional Interviewing and Counseling (Fifth Edition. Thompson, Brooks / Cole, 2003) CD ref:\chp01\ch01exe6.html. 2 ibid CD:\chp01\ch01exe6.html 3 Derived from the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy website located at 4 Derived from Irving Christian Counseling Centers, Inc What is Christian Counselling?, Website located at Page 5

7 spiritually, mentally, physically, and emotionally. Bufford 5, in looking at the distinctives of Christian counselling, states that Christian counselling is primarily distinguished by the personal qualities of the Counsellor. His view is that the question of the relationship of psychological and Christian beliefs is one which has a long history and contemporary significance. This leads to the common use of another related term - Biblical Counselling - sometimes used interchangeably with Christian Counselling 6. One definition is that Biblical Counselling is that "which flows from a Biblical view of revelation, God, man, sin, and sanctification.". The Biblical Counseling Association (United States) define this further by suggesting that Biblical counselling is a God-ordained system of progressive sanctification 7 ; i.e. the power of biblical counselling principles revealed in the Scriptures, the power of the Holy Spirit, and the power of prayer combine to achieve God's plan for believers. In any event, few would disagree with Irving s 8 conclusion that the Christian counsellor obviously must be a believer and follower of the Lord Jesus Christ, and God's Word and wisdom are the foundation of his 5 Bufford, R., Consecrated Counseling: Reflections on the Distinctives of Christian Counseling. 1997, Rosemead School of Psychology, Biola University (Article appearing in the Journal of Psychology and Theology, Vol 25, No. 1, ), p111 6 Miller in Biblical Counseling: Powerful and Effective (1997) suggests that these two names for counselling ( Christian and Biblical ) are used somewhat interchangeably. Biblical counselling" refers to counselling in which biblical principles are used exclusively. Some counsellors call this kind of counselling by the broader term, "Christian counselling." Miller further suggests that Biblical Counselling represents power for overcoming problems: anger, resentment, bitterness, guilt feelings, depression, sexual abuse, eating disorders, anorexia, bulimia, divorce, marriage, & parenting. Biblical counselling is best understood by considering its intended results, its sources of power, its process, and its hope. The intended result of biblical counselling is progressive sanctification of each believer who is counselled--each counselee making changes that are pleasing to God--each counselee being conformed to the image of His Son (Rom. 8:29). But progressive sanctification of believers is a work of God, not of a human counsellor. The power of progressive sanctification is of God--the Holy Spirit of God using the Word of God to progressively bring about changes in the counselee's life according to His plan. (Extracted from: 7 Derived from Biblical Counseling Association. What is Biblical Counselling? Website located at 8 ibid Page 6

8 principles. Nonetheless, it may therefore be not too surprising to see that, even within this unique type of counselling, there are different approaches or techniques. Jesus dealt with men differently, yet there was a foundation to begin with. He was personable, practical, and patient. It would seem that, depending on the commentator, the distinction between Christian and Biblical counselling can often be quite fine. However, careful observation reveals that whilst Christian Counselling is typically used as a fairly generic term. On the other hand, Biblical Counselling is frequently associated with Nouthetic Counselling where the utilisation of psychology is totally rejected in favour of the so-called purely biblical approach, where the Word of God is accepted as the only valid authority. For example, the American Nouthetic Psychology Association advances it support of psychology that is based on the Bible as the inspired Word of God 9. They contend that the Christian psychologist or counsellor, by definition, is committed to the Old and New Testaments as the only authoritative rule of faith and practice. Taken to its extreme, the nouthetic approach therefore totally rejects the need for secular psychiatrists. This is most clearly expounded by the acknowledged father of Nouthetic Counseling, Dr. Jay Adams 10. Veerman 11 expands upon this definition by describing Nouthetic counselling as being Christ centered and a "directive" way of counselling, as opposed to most secular "non-directive" counselling methodology. It uses the authority of God. Therefore it is claimed as being neither arbitrary nor oppressive. The method therefore does not function merely as a sounding board but is confrontational and discerning. 9 Nouthetic Counseling - the Biblical Approach, as derived from This extract states that the word nouthetic comes from the Greek word nouthesia and is translated "counsel," "admonish," "exhort," and various other ways in the New Testament Scriptures. It is one of the Biblical words for pastoral counselling that is committed to a thorough grounding in the Scripture as the only rule of faith and practice. 10 Dr. Jay Adams The Big Umbrella - IS THERE A NEED FOR PSYCHIATRIST? 11 Dr.Trudy Veerman, Nouthetic counseling. (2001), Webmaster. As extracted from Page 7

9 The nouthetic approach is an important model for consideration in order that a fairly recent concept may be properly understood psychoheresy. Basically, psychoheresy is a term to describe what you have when secular psychological counselling ideas and concepts are mixed with the teachings of the Bible 12. Supporters of this notion believe that for Christians, it is a problem. The basis for this belief is that whilst the Bible deals with exactly the same issues as psychology (i.e. the nature of man, how he lives, and how he changes), the main teachings of psychology often contradict or compromise the teachings of Scripture. The final term having significant contemporary usage is that of Theophostic Ministry. This term is arguably a derivative of the nouthetic concept, however it does not specifically exclude all psychology like the behavioural mode of the nouthetic. It is more Freudian in its flavour. The real difference lies in its technique of prayer for emotional healing, whereby the Lord s healing presence is invoked to deal with unresolved past traumas. The concept 13 suggests that the healing process is otherwise hindered by such things as bitterness, demonic interference, and unconfessed sin. It is claimed that the intervention of Jesus results in benefit to the client in every case however, the healing can be rapid, profound and dramatic. The Counsellor in this method merely facilitates the prayer session. It is Jesus that replaces the lie with His truth. In summary, although it may be said that Christian Counselling is often very distinctive in style and outcomes, it is contended that much of Christian counselling may in fact be generally categorised into secular model derivatives as follows: 12 This definition is based on information contained in the following website: Australian Reformed Network - William Farel Forum, Consultancy Ethics - Opposition to the integration of humanistic philosophies and all psychiatric-psychotherapeutic treatment, 13 Theophostic concepts have been derived and concluded from source material contained in Lehman K & C, Theophotic, What is Unique? (2002). Unpublished paper Page 8

10 Secular Psychological Model or Category Behavioural Cognitative Theory (Thinking) Freudian (Problems are due to past experiences in our life) Examples of Christian Derivatives Nouthetic (e.g. Jay Adams 14 ) Christian Counselling (orthodox 15 ) Biblical Counselling - Minds being renewed e.g. Romans 12:2 16 Theophostic counselling, Prayer Counselling, Hypnotherapy Comments / Features Generally excludes any psychological (secular) interference Christian models generally accept at least some psychological (secular) approaches The Christian models general feature deliverance and healing (especially theophostic) Source: Lecture Notes taken by Gary Garner: PC605 - Principles of Christian Counselling (Bible College Queensland 2003) INTEGRATION Integration, in a counselling context, describes the relationship between psychology, and theology. As may be gleaned in the previous section, for some Counsellors, there is an easy fit. For others, there is, or can be, no fit at all. 14 Source material for Adams has been located in Adams, Jay E. The Christian Counselor s Manual Baker Book House, and Adams, Jay. Matters of Concern to Christian Counselors: A Potpourri of Principles & Practices Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co. 15 Orthodox Christian Counselling is defined by thee writer as professional counselling undertaken by a licensed / qualified professional, distinguished by the fact that he is a active and committed Christian. 16 Romans 12:2 - Do not conform any longer to the pattern of this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind. Page 9

11 Integration may be best summed up by considering Crabb s 17 description of the four approaches to the relationship of psychology and Christianity. The concept is summarised on the graphic located in the last section of this essay: A COMPARISON OF THE INTEGRATION MODEL. The four approaches can be summarised as follows 18 : 1. SEPARATE BUT EQUAL There is a wall established between the theological and psychological disciplines. 2. TOSSED SALAD The two disciplines of theology and psychology are equal but mixable. Unlike (4) below, no filter is applied to the psychology discipline. 3. NOTHING BUTTERY Psychology is irrelevant and unnecessary; only the Scriptures are needed to deal with human problems and needs. This is by nature the Nouthetic approach 4. SPOILING THE EGYPTIANS Using whatever concepts or methods from secular psychology that are consistent with Scripture, hence subjecting them to the authority of Scripture. In Crabb s model, it is claimed that a person s view of the validity of any aspect of secular knowledge often depends on his view of natural revelation. At one extreme, as expressed by organisations such as the William Farel Forum 19, there is no integration 17 Crabb L., Effective Biblical Counseling., (Zonervan, 1977) 18 Morrison in Misunderstanding People (1992) (Extracted from suggests that whilst Crabb objects to criticism about his teachings having a "man-centred focus on fulfilment rather than a God-centred emphasis on obedience to Him and preoccupation with His glory," what he teaches does indeed lead to a humanistic rather than godly emphasis. The reason why this happens is because Crabb's integration includes the doctrines of men whose psychologies centre on man and his innate goodness, his worthwhileness, his psychological reasons for behaviour, and his goal of fulfilment. 19 Australian Reformed Network - William Farel Forum, Consultancy Ethics - Opposition to the integration of humanistic philosophies and all psychiatric-psychotherapeutic treatment, Page 10

12 whereby there is almost blanket opposition to the integration of humanistic philosophies and all psychiatric-psychotherapeutic treatment regimes with Christian counselling and teaching. The only advice proffered even to non-christians is an evangelical exhortation to repentance and faith in Christ. This represents the Nothing Buttery approach in the Crabb model. Adams 20 is one Counsellor vehemently opposed to integration. He seriously questions whether there is any legitimate place for the psychiatrist. He sees that Physicians, psychologists, ministers of the gospel, all have legitimate separate functions - but not psychiatrists who stand midway between the physician and the pastor His major point is that in order to justify his very existence the psychiatrist has had to take a little bit of land from the physician and a great deal from the minister. Subsequently, Adams claims he fenced off this land and called it his own. And it is on this stolen property that he has posted "NO TRESPASSING" signs! Other Christian Counsellor s are criticised as being closet integrationists by their peers. For example, Charles Solomon s approach to counselling is one that seems initially to most Nouthetics as one offering a promise a truly biblical methodology. Specifically, his counselling method promises to be grounded in "the truth of freedom through union with Christ in His death and resurrection." He claims the cross, and the power of God s Spirit, to be central to his approach. Dewart 21 however severely criticises Solomon by pointing out that unfortunately, Solomon emerges as yet another integrationist promising an approach that is accurate in its combination of psychology and theology. Such attempts at integration are fundamentally flawed, and 20 Adams, Dr. Jay An Essay By Dr Jay E Adams, extracted from source: 21 Dewar in Charles Solomon s Integration (extract from suggests that severe criticisms of modern psychotherapy, scattered throughout Solomon s writings, hide the fact of his integration. He rightly criticizes the strengthening of self, the therapeutic relationship, and the practice of making counseling referrals outside the church. However, he admits his willingness to use psychological categories to understand human nature, yet insists that he uses solely biblical solutions. What we need is a biblical understanding of man s problems and solutions grounded solely in God s truth and power. Page 11

13 this one is no exception. In any event, Solomon does correctly remind us of the important concept of our union with Christ. Certainly that is an essential concept in the area of sanctification. The psychoheresy doctrine is closely promoted by such people. Attempting to integrate psychological counselling theories with the Bible is described in less than favourable terms such that it distracts believers, dilutes Scripture, dishonours God, develops the flesh, and debilitates spiritual growth And further, that psychotherapy is the integration of secular psychology counselling theories and therapies with the Bible. Psychotherapy is also the intrusion of such theories into the preaching and practice of Christianity, especially when they contradict or compromise biblical Christianity in terms of the nature of man, how he is to live, and how he changes. 22 In contrast to these approaches were have the more orthodox offered by most Christian organisations involved in Counselling: namely, the balanced integration of theology, psychology and spirituality. This is true integration. Examples include nearly all the Australian academic institutions offering accredited Christian Counselling courses, as well peak body organisations such as the Australian Institute of Family Counselling Ltd, the Christian Counsellors' Association of Australia, and the Christian Counsellors' Association of Queensland (CCAQ) 23. The latter organisation promotes the integration of theology, psychology and counselling theories and practice. 22 Endtime Ministries, Christian Resource Centre (Editor of Despatch W. B. Howard) Sourced from Purpose/Policy Statement, by Martin and Deirdre Bobgan. "What is psychotherapy?", as located at Change Agents No.4...Dr. James Dobson Expose QUOTE FROM "PSYCHO-AWARENESS" LETTER...USA, extracted from 23 Refer: Christian Counsellors' Association of Queensland (CCAQ) website located at Information on that site states that the Christian Counsellors' Association of Queensland (CCAQ) was formed to promote excellence in counselling by and for Christians. It aims to do this by providing an umbrella association for Christians who are involved in counselling. Page 12

14 The Association of Personal Counsellors also promotes and supports professional Christian counsellors who seek to integrate their understanding of faith with clinical practice 24. Some modern practitioners or scholars such as Riddell 25 even claim Godly revelation concerning integration. On his website, the integration of psychology and Christianity was described as along a model which God revealed to me some years ago. Other such as Brown merely state their commitment to integration for example, Brown lists her professional interests as Integration of spirituality and counselling; Personal development of students in academic/spiritual contexts; Feminist theology. 26 THE POTENTIAL EFFECTIVENESS OF INTEGRATION IN CHRISTIAN COUNSELLING Integration involves bringing God s truth from all areas of His creation, both special and natural revelation, to bear on the therapeutic endeavour. It is based on the presupposition that there is no fundamental incompatibility between the truth of the Bible and accurate, observable truth about man. Incompatibility and conflict comes in man s faulty observation or interpretation of either or both of these bodies of truth. Careful study, selection, and orderly combination of compatible concepts from a variety of sources, based on the principle that all truth is God s truth. At the same time, integration is not simply an amalgamation of two equal systems of thought. Integration should always be based on the thorough study and interpretation of the Scriptures and the human condition, in order to equip us to apply truth. Indeed, 24 Data sourced from The Association of Personal Counsellors Incorporated website, located at 25 Riddell, David J. Letter of introduction to our training course in Wisdom and Counselling Practice. Extracted from 26 Staff Member Information: Dr Irene Brown, Dean, School of Social Sciences, Christian Heritage College, as extracted from website Page 13

15 the Bible is the ultimate authority, yet both disciplines retain their own distinct identities. Many of the people-helping skills in the Bible overlap with those of psychology, such as listening, providing hope, forgiveness, confrontation, responsibility, grief, and love. Psychologists and theologians share these fundamental human concepts. As stated by Ralph 27, it is not about syncretism, that is, taking various aspects of several models which fit our needs without reference to analysing each system s presuppositions and synthesizing the whole. It is difficult to determine the level at which integration is accepted into the practice of Counselling. However, there are a number of studies that have attempted to look at the personal faith of Counsellors and the possible impact on methodologies employed, and indeed the pervasiveness of their faith. For example, Ralph 28 quotes The Journal of Psychology and Theology in their 1992 study to determine the implications of personal faith on counselling practice for Christian counsellors. He reports that the results were disturbing and instructive, with their survey of alumni from three doctoral and four masters level Christian graduate programs in psychology having asked people to indicate which statement they were most in agreement. The statements and percentages of respondents are: "My faith shapes my professional practice in a substantive way." (51.9%) "My faith provides the foundation for my beliefs, but the majority of my professional practice is guided by psychological principles." (28.4%) "My faith is moderately related to some aspects of my professional practice." (12.5%) From this study, Ralph is able to conclude that barely half of the professionals surveyed provide (or even attempt to provide) genuine Christian counselling care. The writers estimation is that in Australia, the percentages would be even less. 27 Source: Putting Christ Back Into Christian Counseling, as adapted from Rapha s Critical Concerns for Christian Counselors, 1994, and excerpted from The Shepherd s Way, Ibid 2 Page 14

16 Gary Collins 29 (1988) wrote about several uniqueness of Christian counselling, including Unique Assumptions. Most psychological paradigms involve the study of man in a closed system, that is, the only way to find out about man is to study man himself. The Christian view, however, is an open system in which God reveals the nature of man as well as His own nature. Though Christians differ on points of doctrine, we generally agree on the basic tenets of the faith about God, man, truth and the authority of Scripture. In summary, there is little doubt that the Christian Counsellor has a critical role to play in the unfolding self-revelation of God s love. As stated by Baglow 30, The Christian Counsellor is a sacrament of liberation and therefore participates in the Universal sacrament of salvation which is the church. The Christian Counsellor challenges the Church to join realistically with each counselee in his / her struggle to be free to love. The integration of both psychology and theology represents the very best that mankind, in all his imperfection, can offer. The Christian faith therefore is an adjunct that ensures that people really can cope with normal problems and opportunities 29 Collins Gary R. Christian Counselling A Comprehensive Guide (Revised Edition). W Publishing Group (1988) Baglow, L, Contemporary Christian Counseling. (1996. E J Dwyer (Australia) Pty Ltd), 112 Page 15

17 A COMPARISON OF THE INTEGRATION MODEL Page 16

18 BIBLIOGRAPHY Please note: all quotations of Scripture are derived from the NIV New International Version as extracted from the NIV Study Bible. 10 th Edition. Zondervan Corporation, 1995, as originally copyrighted by the International Bible Society 1973, 1978 and Where required, further analysis / reference may be undertaken utilising Goodrick EW & Kohlenberger JR III/ Zondervan NIV Exhaustive Concordance. Second Edition. Zondervan Publishing House Adams, Jay E. The Christian Counselor s Manual Baker Book House. Adams, Jay. Matters of Concern to Christian Counselors: A Potpourri of Principles & Practices Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co. Baglow, Len. Contemporary Christian Counseling E J Dwyer (Australia) Pty Ltd Benner David G (Editor). Christian Counseling and Psychotherapy Baker Book House. Bufford, Rodger K. Consecrated Counseling: Reflections on the Distinctives of Christian Counseling. 1997, Rosemead School of Psychology, Biola University. Article appearing in the Journal of Psychology and Theology, Vol 25, No. 1, Clinebell, H. Basic Types of Pastoral Care & Counseling (Resources for the Ministry of Healing & Growth) (Revised & Enlarged Edition), Abingdon Press. Collins Gary R. Christian Counselling A Comprehensive Guide (Revised Edition). W Publishing Group (1988) Crabb L. Effective Biblical Counseling Zonervan (extracts only) Gramenz, Stuart. How You Can Heal the Sick The Believers Do It Yourself Guide to Divine Healing International Outreach. Ivey A.E., Ivey M.B. Intentional Interviewing and Counseling. Fifth Edition. Thompson, Brooks / Cole, Gary Garner. Lecture Notes: PC605 - Principles of Christian Counselling (Bible College Queensland 2003). Unpublished data and material. Page 17

19 Internet References British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy, What is Counselling?. Extracted from Irving Christian Counseling Centers, Inc What is Christian Counselling?. Extracted from Biblical Counseling Association. What is Biblical Counselling?. Extracted from Miller, Wendell E.. Biblical Counseling: Powerful and Effective. (1997) Downloaded from Nouthetic Counseling - the Biblical Approach. Extracted from Veerman, Trudy. Nouthetic Counseling. Webmaster (2001). Extracted from Australian Reformed Network - William Farel Forum. Consultancy Ethics - Opposition to the integration of humanistic philosophies and all psychiatricpsychotherapeutic treatment. Extracts from Lehman Karl & Charlotte. Theophotic, What is Unique? (2002). Unpublished paper (extracted from the internet address unknown) Adams, Dr. Jay An Essay By Dr Jay E Adams, Extracted from described as the father of Nouthetic Counseling Dewart, Debbie. Charles Solomon s Integration. Extract from Source material derived from: Christian Counsellors' Association of Queensland (CCAQ) website located at David J Riddell (Principal. Living Wisdom School of Counselling (NZ)) in Letter of introduction to our training course in Wisdom and Counselling Practice. Extracted from Page 18

20 Staff Member Information: Dr Irene Brown, Dean, School of Social Sciences, Christian Heritage College, as extracted from website The Association of Personal Counsellors Incorporated website, located at Morrison, Trevor J. Misunderstanding People (1992). Extracted from Page 19