MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series Pediatrics 1

Transcription

1 PEDIATRICS Dr. S. Bernstein, Dr. J. Friedman, Dr. R. Hilliard, Dr. S. Jacobson and Dr. R. Schneider Karen Dang, Hani Hadi, Ra Han and Anita Jethwa, editors Eyal Cohen, associate editor PRIMARY CARE PEDIATRICS Regular Visits Nutrition Colic Child Injury Prevention Immunization Delayed Immunization Other Vaccines Developmental Milestones Normal Physical Growth Failure to Thrive Short Stature Tall Stature Obesity CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT DEVELOPMENTAL AND BEHAVIORAL PEDIATRICS Developmental Delay Language Delay Prevasive Developmental Disorder (PDD) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) and Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE) Chronic Recurrent Abdominal Pain Elimination Disorders Enuresis Encopresis GENETICS Approach to the Dysmorphic Child Down Syndrome Other Trisomies Turner Syndrome Klinefelter Syndrome Fragile X Muscular Dystrophy Cleft Lip and Palate Inborn Errors of Metabolism Vacterl Association NEONATOLOGY Infant Mortality Normal Baby at Term Gestational Age and Size Neonatal Resuscitation Routine Neonatal Care Respiratory Distress in the Newborn Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS) Transient Tachypnea of the Newborn (TTN) Meconium Aspiration Syndrome (MAS) Pneumonia Diaphragmatic Hernia Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension (PPHN) Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia (BPD) Cyanosis of the Newborn Apnea Jaundice Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC) Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) NEUROLOGY Seizure Disorders Benign Febrile Seizures Floppy Baby (Hypotonia) Cerebral Palsy Hydrocephalus Neural Tube Defect Neurocutaneous Syndromes GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE Vomiting Vomiting in the Newborn Vomiting after the Newborn Period Acute Diarrhea Chronic Diarrhea Chronic Diarrhea without Failure to Thrive Chronic Diarrhea with Failure to Thrive Acute Abdominal Pain Chronic Abdominal Pain Constipation Abdominal Mass Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage INFECTIOUS DISEASES Fever Sepsis in the Neonate Meningitis Pediatric Exanthems HIV Infection Periorbital/Orbital Cellulitis Otitis Media Streptococcal Infections Pertussis/Whooping Cough Infectious Mononucleosis Urinary Tract Infection DERMATOLOGY Diaper Dermatitis Seborrheic Dermatitis Candida Eczema Impetigo Scabies Erythema Multiforme Stevens-Johnson Syndrome Pediatric Exanthems CARDIOLOGY Heart Murmurs Congenital Heart Disease Congestive Heart Failure Infective Endocarditis Dysrhythmias MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series Pediatrics 1

2 PEDIATRICS... CONT. HEMATOLOGY Approach to Anemia Physiologic Anemia Iron Deficiency Anemia Sickle Cell Disease Spherocytosis Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency Bleeding Disorders ONCOLOGY Leukemia Lymphoma Brain Tumours Wilm s Tumour (Nephroblastoma) Neuroblastoma RHEUMATOLOGY Evaluation of Limb Pain Growing Pains Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis (JRA) Henoch-Schonlein Purpura Kawasaki Disease ENDOCRINOLOGY Diabetes Mellitus Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism Normal Sexual Development Precocious Puberty Delayed Puberty GENITOURINARY Hematuria Proteinuria Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome Nephritic Syndrome Nephrotic Syndrome Urinary Tract Obstruction Vesicoureteral Reflux (VUR) Genital Abnormalities RESPIROLOGY Upper Respiratory Tract Diseases Stridor Croup and Epiglottitis Foreign Body Aspiration Lower Respiratory Tract Diseases Wheezing Bronchiolitis Pneumonia Asthma Cystic Fibrosis ADOLESCENTS Health Issues Pediatrics 2 MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series

3 PRIMARY CARE PEDIATRICS REGULAR VISITS purpose: prevention, screening, advocacy usual schedule: newborn, 1 week post-discharge, 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 24 months yearly until age 6, then every other year yearly after age 11 history pregnancy and neonatal history feeding and diet (see Table 1) immunizations (see Tables 2 and 3) developmental assessment (see Table 4) growth, energy, appetite, sleep and review of systems past medical history, family and social history, allergies and medications physical exam growth: serial height, weight, head circumference head and neck: dysmorphic features, red reflex, palate, fontanelles (anterior closes between 9-18 months, posterior between 2-4 months), strabismus, vision, tympanic membranes, hearing cardiovascular: auscultation, peripheral pulses (including femorals), BP yearly after age 3 chest, abdominal, GU, skin MSK: hips (Barlow and Ortolani tests), scoliosis, lumbosacral spine (hairy patch, pigmentation, sinus tract) neurologic: primitive reflexes in newborns and in early infancy counselling/anticipatory guidance (see Nutrition, Colic, and Child Injury Prevention Sections) healthy infants should be positioned for sleep on side or back (decrease incidence of SIDS - see Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Sections) NUTRITION Breast Feeding colostrum (100 ml) for first few days clear fluid with nutrients and immunologic protection for baby full milk production by 3-7 days (mature milk by days) support for mothers who want to breast feed (e.g. La Leche League, lactation consultant) should start while in hospital assessment of adequate intake: weight gain, number of wet diapers, number of bowel movements, pause during sucking, swallowing feeding schedule premature infants: q 2-3 hours term infants: q hours breast-fed babies require supplementation with vitamin K (given IM at birth) vitamin D (Tri-Vi-Sol or Di-Vi-Sol) fluoride (after 6 months if not sufficient in water supply) iron (premature infants): 8 weeks to 1st birthday iron (exclusively breast-fed infants): after 6 months contraindications mother receiving chemotherapy or radioactive compounds mother with HIV/AIDS, active untreated TB, herpes (primary or in breast region) mother using alcohol and/or drugs (affects breast milk in 2 ways: decrease milk production and/or directly toxic to baby) mother taking certain medications (most are safe): e.g. antimetabolites, bromocriptine, chloramphenicol, high dose diazepam, ergots, gold, metronidazole, tetracycline Advantages of Breast Feeding breast is best" composition of breastmilk energy: 20 kcal/oz. carbohydrate: lactose protein: whey 80% (more easily digested than casein), casein 20%, essential amino acids (lower content than cow s milk, lower renal solute load for developing kidneys) fat: cholesterol, triglycerides, essential free fatty acids (up to 50% energy from fat) iron: higher bioavailability (50% of iron is absorbed vs. 10% from cow's milk), supply for first 6 months MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series Pediatrics 3

4 PRIMARY CARE PEDIATRICS... CONT. immunologic lower allergenicity than cow s milk (protein) IgA, macrophages, active lymphocytes, lysozyme, lactoferrin (lactoferrin inhibits E.coli growth in intestine) lower ph promotes growth of lactobacillus in the GI tract (protective against pathogenic intestinal bacteria) bonding economical convenient Complications of Breast Feeding sore/cracked nipples: try warm compresses, massage, frequent feeds breast engorgement: continue breast feeding and/or pumping mastitis (usually due to S. aureus acquired from baby): treat with cold compresses between feeds, cloxacillin for mother, continue nursing +/ incision and drainage breast milk jaundice: 1% of newborns (see Jaundice Section) poor weight gain: consider dehydration or failure to thrive thrush: check baby s mouth for white cheesy material; treat with antifungal Alternatives to Breast Feeding formulae: kcal/kg/day = cc/kg/day (minimum) cows based formulae, e.g. SMA, Similac, Enfalac with iron soya protein based formulae e.g. Isomil, Prosobee with iron iron fortified formula recommended use one formula consistently special formulae: for protein hypersensitivity, lactose intolerance, galactosemia, PKU, other malabsorption syndromes (all rare) cow's milk should not be used under 9 months of age because of high renal solute load, poor iron absorption and inappropriate energy distribution homo milk starting 9-12 months until 24 months, then 2% or skim milk vegan diet is not recommended in first 2 years Table 1. Dietary Schedule Age Food Comments 0 to 4 months breast milk, formula can be used exclusively until 6 months of age 4 to 6 months iron enriched cereals rice cereals first because less allergenic 4 to 7 months pureed vegetables yellow/orange vegetables first and green last (more bulk) avoid vegetables with high nitrite content (beets, spinach, turnips) introduce vegetables before fruit 6 to 9 months pureed fruits and juices avoid desserts pureed meats, fish, poulty, no egg white until 12 months (risk of allergy) egg yolk 9 to 12 months finger foods, peeled fruit, cheese NO peanuts or raw, hard vegetables till age 3 to 4 years and cooked vegetables no added sugar, salt, fat or seasonings COLIC rule of 3 s: unexplained paroxysms of irritability and crying for > 3 hours/day and > 3 days/week for > 3 weeks in an otherwise healthy, well-fed baby occurs in 1:5 babies etiology: generally regarded as a lag in the development of normal peristaltic movement in GI tract other reasons why babies cry: hunger or gas pains, too hot or cold, overstimulated, need to suck or be held timing: onset 10 days to 3 months of age; peak 6-8 weeks average minutes/day for first 3 months child cries, pulls up legs and passes gas soon after feeding Pediatrics 4 MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series

5 PRIMARY CARE PEDIATRICS... CONT. suggestions for management parental relief, rest and reassurance (it is not their fault!) hold baby, soother, car ride, music, vacuum, check diaper drugs (ovol drops, ancatropine) are of little benefit elimination of cow milk protein from mother's diet (effective in small percentage of cases) CHILD INJURY PREVENTION Injuries not accidents - predictable and preventable leading cause of death from 1-44 years of age leading cause of potential years of life lost main causes of injury: motor vehicle, burns, drowning, suicide, falls Newborn to 6 Months falls: do not leave infant alone on a bed, change table, in a bath; place in crib or playpen before answering phone or door; keep crib rails up burns: check water temperature before bathing, check milk temperature before feeding, do not hold cup of hot liquid and infant at same time sun exposure car seats, smoke and carbon monoxide detectors Poison Control Centre number next to telephone 6 to 12 Months stair barriers, discourage walkers plastic covers for electrical outlets, appliances unplugged when not in use keep small objects, plastic bags, and medications out of reach avoid play areas with sharp-edged tables and corners never leave unsupervised in tub 1 to 2 Years burns: turn pot handles to back of stove poisoning: keep drugs and cleaning products out of reach, Poison Control Centre number next to telephone, ipecac syrup in house choking: no nuts, raw carrots, orange segments, hot dogs, running while eating toddler seat at 20 lbs, fence around swimming pool watch for unsafe toys, balloons and plastic bags 2 to 5 Years street safety, bicycle helmet, seat belt and booster seat at 40 lbs stranger safety swimming lessons never leave child unsupervised at home, on driveway, in pool MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series Pediatrics 5

6 PRIMARY CARE PEDIATRICS... CONT. IMMUNIZATION Table 2. Immunization Schedule Age Vaccination Route Type Contraindications 2 months DTaP+IPV+Hib IM diptheria - toxoid previous anaphylaxis to vaccine; pertussis - killed bacteria defer if progressive, evolving, tetanus - toxoid unstable neurologic disease polio - inactivated virus Hib - conjugated to diphtheria relative contraindication if child becomes hypotonic or hyporesponsive after vaccine 4 months DTaP+IPV+Hib IM 6 months DTaP+IPV+Hib IM 12 months MMR SC live attenuated viruses immunocompromise (but healthy HIV positive children should receive MMR vaccine); within 3 months of immunosuppressive therapy; pregnancy 18 months DTaP+IPV+Hib IM 4-6 years MMR DTaP+IPV SC IM no Hib after age 7 grade 7 Hepatitis IM purified HBsAg (in Ontario) B vaccine in 3 doses years TdP IM immunodeficiency; pregnancy and q 10 years thereafter Administration of Vaccines injection site infants (<12 months old): anterolateral thigh children: deltoid DTaP+IPV+Hib: these five vaccines are given as one IM injection (Pentacel) oral polio vaccine is available and used in some provinces, but not in Ontario Contraindications to Any Vaccine moderate to severe illness +/ fever allergy to vaccine component (e.g. egg) Possible Adverse Reactions to Any Vaccine local: induration or tenderness systemic: fever, rash allergic: urticaria, rhinitis, anaphylaxis Possible Adverse Reactions to Regular Vaccines DTaP+IPV minor: fever, local redness, swelling, irritability major: prolonged crying (1%), hypotonic unresponsive state (1:1750), seizure (1:1950) prophylaxis: acetaminophen mg/kg 4 hours prior to injection and q4h afterwards Hib safe; almost no reaction MMR fever, measle-like rash in 7-14 days, lymphadenopathy, arthralgia, arthritis, parotitis TdP anaphylaxis TB Skin Test (Mantoux) screen high risk populations only (HIV, from foreign country with increased incidence, substance abuse in family, homeless, aboriginal) evidence against screening healthy populations Pediatrics 6 MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series

7 PRIMARY CARE PEDIATRICS... CONT. intradermal injection (do not administer with MMR vaccine) positive result (TB-positive) > 15 mm: children > 4 years with no risk factors > 10 mm: children < 4 years, environmental exposure > 5 mm: children with close TB contact, immunosuppressed BCG history irrelevant - does not usually give positive response positive reaction means active disease or previous contact DELAYED IMMUNIZATION Table 3. Delayed Immunization Schedule Unimmunized Children Aged 1-6 Years Visit Vaccine initial visit DTaP + Hib, MMR no pertussis after age 7 2 months after first visit DTaP 2 months after second visit DTaP 12 months after third visit DTaP 4-6 years old DTaP, MMR grade 7 Hepatitis B (0,1,6 months) in Ontario years old TdP Unimmunized Children Aged 7 years and Over Visit Vaccine initial visit TdP, MMR 2 months after first visit TdP 6-12 months after second visit TdP q 10 years thereafter Td no polio OTHER VACCINES BCG vaccine infants of parents with infectious TB at time of delivery groups/communities with high rates of disease/infection offered to aboriginal children on reserves Pneumovax protects against 23 serotypes of S. pneumoniae for children with HIV or splenectomized children; e.g. sickle cell disease, splenic dysfunction, thalassemia for these high risk groups, give vaccine at 2 years of age, then revaccinate 3-5 years after initial dose Influenza A given annually in the fall since strains vary from year to year for children with severe or chronic disease, e.g. cardiac, pulmonary, or renal diseases, sickle cell disease, diabetes, endocrine disorders, HIV, immunosuppressed, long-term aspirin therapy, residents of chronic care facilities contraindicated if allergic to eggs or < 6 months of age Hepatitis B now recommended routinely in Canada set of 3 vaccinations given in mid-childhood to early teens (0, 1, 6 months) given in Grade 7 in Ontario schools (given at different grades in other provinces) if mother is HBsAg +ve, then give HBIG + vaccine at birth, and vaccine at 1 and 6 months Varivax live attenuated varicella virus vaccine protects against chicken pox must be stored at -15ºC can be given after age 12 months (1 dose = 0.5 ml subcutaneous injection) after age 13, give two doses 4-8 weeks apart seroconversion rates of > 95% (20-30% yearly loss of antibody over 6 years); likely lifelong immunity, but longer studies are as yet unavailable MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series Pediatrics 7

8 PRIMARY CARE PEDIATRICS... CONT. mild local reactions in 5-10% (higher in immunocompromised) efficacy: protection rate is > 90% benefits avoid chicken pox (5-7 days of fever, itchy rash, malaise, possible bacterial superinfection, encephalitis or pneumonia) (see Colour Atlas J1) milder illness if chicken pox does develop avoid parental cost of being off work or hiring babysitter costs $65-75, currently not covered by many drug plans contraindicated in pregnant women and in women planning to get pregnant in the next 3 months DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES Table 4. Developmental Milestones Age Gross Motor Fine Motor Speech and Language Adaptive and Social Skills 6 weeks prone-lifts chin intermittently social smile 2 months prone-arms extended forward pulls at clothes coos 4 months prone-raises head reach and grasp, responds to + chest, rolls over objects to mouth voice F > B, no head lag 6 months prone-weight on hands, tripod sit ulnar grasp begins to babble, responds to name stranger anxiety 9 months pulls to stand finger-thumb grasp mama, dada - plays games appropriate, separation anxiety imitates 1 word 12 months walks with support, pincer grasp, throws 2 words with plays peek-a-boo, cruises meaning besides drinks with cup mama, dada 15 months walks without support draws a line jargon points to needs 18 months up steps with help tower of 3 cubes, 10 words, follows uses spoon, scribbling simple commands points to body parts 24 months up 2 feet/step, tower of 6 cubes, 2-3 words phrases parallel play, runs, kicks ball undresses uses I, Me, you helps to dress 25% intelligible 3 years tricycle, up 1 foot/step, copies a circle and prepositions, dress/undress down 2 feet/step, a cross, puts on shoes plurals, fully except stands on one foot, 75% intelligible, buttons, jumps knows sex, age counts to 10 4 years hops on 1 foot, copies a square, tells story, cooperative play, down 1 foot/step uses scissors normal dysfluency, toilet trained, speech intelligible buttons clothes 5 years skips, copies a triangle, fluent speech, knows 4 colours rides bicycle prints name, future tense, ties shoelaces alphabet Table 5. Primitive Reflexes Reflex Appears Disappears grasp birth 1-4 months Moro birth 3-4 months rooting/sucking birth 3-4 months stepping/placing birth 2-5 months Galant birth 2-3 months tonic neck ( fencing ) birth 2-3 months Pediatrics 8 MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series

9 PRIMARY CARE PEDIATRICS... CONT. Moro Reflex elicited by placing infant supine, head supported by examiner s hand, sudden withdrawal of support, head allowed to fall backward reflex is abduction and extension of the arms, opening of the hands, followed by adduction of the arms as if in an embrace absence of Moro suggests CNS injury asymmetry of Moro suggests focal motor lesions, e.g. brachial plexus injury or fracture of clavicle or humerus Galant s Reflex stroking one side of the back along paravertebral line results in lateral curvature of the trunk toward the stimulated side NORMAL PHYSICAL GROWTH newborn size influenced by maternal factors (placenta, in utero environment) premature infants: use corrected age until 2 years not linear: most rapid growth during first two years; growth spurt at puberty different tissue growth at different times first two years: CNS mid-childhood: lymphoid tissue puberty: genital tissues body proportions: upper/lower segment ratio newborn 1.7; adult male 0.97; female 1.0 increased ratio: achondroplasia, short limbs, hypothyroidism decreased ratio: Marfan Syndrome Weight Gain birth weight: kg some weight loss after birth (maximum 10%); birthweight regained by 10 days 2x birth weight by 4-5 months; 3x birth weight by 1 year; 4x birth weight by 2 years half adult weight at 10 years Linear Growth birth length: 50 cm 75 cm at 1 year, 87 cm at 2 years (half adult height); 93 cm at 3 years measure length until 2 years of age, then measure height Head Circumference birth HC: 35 cm increase 2 cm/month for first 3 months, then 1 cm/month for 3-6 months, then 0.5 cm/month for 6-12 months Dentition primary dentition (20 teeth) first tooth at 5-9 months (lower incisor), then 1 per month to 20 teeth 6-8 central teeth by 1 year secondary dentition (32 teeth) first adult tooth is 1st molar at 6 years 2nd molars at 12 years, 3rd molars at 18 years FAILURE TO THRIVE (FTT) definition: weight < 3rd percentile, or falls across two major percentile curves, or < 80% of expected weight for height and age 50% organic, 50% non-organic inadequate caloric intake most important factor in poor weight gain energy requirements 0-10 kg: 100 kcal/kg/day kg: 1000 cal + 50 cal/kg/day for each kg > kg+: 1500 cal + 20 cal/kg/day for each kg > 20 may have other nutritional deficiencies, e.g. protein, iron, vitamin D deficiency Approach to a Child with FTT history detailed dietary and feeding history pregnancy, birth, and postpartum history developmental and medical history, including medications social and family history (parental height and weight) MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series Pediatrics 9

10 PRIMARY CARE PEDIATRICS... CONT. assess 4 areas of functioning: child s temperament, child-parent interaction, feeding behaviour and parental psychosocial stressors physical examination height, weight, HC, arm span, upper:lower segment ratio assessment of nutritional status, dysmorphism, pubertal status observation of a feeding session and parent-child interaction signs of neglect or abuse laboratory investigations: as indicated by clinical presentation CBC, smear, electrolytes, urea, ESR, T4, TSH, urinalysis bone age x-ray karyotype in all short girls and in short boys where appropriate any other tests indicated from history and physical exam: e.g. renal or liver function tests, venous blood gases, ferritin, immunoglobulins, sweat chloride, fecal fat organic cause: usually apparent on full history and physical exam non-organic cause: often no obvious diagnosis from history and physical exam Causes of Organic FTT inadequate intake inadequate absorption inappropriate utilization of nutrients increased energy requirements decreased growth potential Causes of Non-Organic FTT inadequate nutrition, poor feeding technique, errors in making formula emotional deprivation, poor parent-child interaction, dysfunctional home child abuse and/or neglect parental psychosocial stress, childhood abuse and/or neglect treatment: most are managed as outpatients with multidisciplinary approach primary care physician, dietitian, psychologist, social work, child protection services SHORT STATURE Assessment of Short Stature height << 3rd percentile, height crosses 2 major percentile lines, low growth velocity (< 25th percentile) history: perinatal history, growth pattern, medical history, parental height and age of pubertal growth spurt physical exam: growth velocity (over 6 month period), sexual development (see Failure to Thrive Section) calculate Mid-Parental Height (predicted adult height) +/ 8 cm for 2 SD range boy = [ father height (cm) + mother height (cm) + 13 cm]/2 girl = [ father height (cm) + mother height (cm) 13 cm]/2 true growth hormone deficiency is rare; associated with other congenital anomalies (midline defects, vocal abnormalities, micropenis, height affected more than weight) Pediatrics 10 MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series

11 PRIMARY CARE PEDIATRICS... CONT. Table 6. Short Stature NORMAL GROWTH VELOCITY (non-pathological short stature) constitutional (delayed bone age); delayed adolescence and may have family history of delayed puberty, may require treatment with androgen/estrogen short-term familial (normal bone age) (no treatment helpful) DECREASED GROWTH VELOCITY (pathological short stature) primordial (height, weight, and HC are affected) - chromosomal (e.g. Turner, Down syndrome, dysmorphic features) - skeletal dysplasias - IUGR (teratogen, placenta, infection) endocrine (height more affected than weight) - short and fat - growth hormone deficiency - hypothyroidism - Cushing s syndrome - hypopituitarism Investigations bone age x-ray karyotype in girls to rule out Turner syndrome other tests as indicated by history and physical chronic disease (weight more affected than height) - short and skinny - Celiac disease, IBD, CF - chronic infections - chronic renal failure (often height more affected) Management no treatment for the short normal child criteria for growth hormone (GH) therapy: GH has been shown to be deficient by physiological and pharmacological tests (2 required) patient is short (below 3rd percentile) and not growing x-rays show that there is still growth potential, with low growth velocity no etiological factor found that can be fixed signs and symptoms of GH deficiency - e.g. infantile features and fat distribution, hypoglycemia, prolonged hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn period, delayed puberty other endocrine abnormalities that are contributing to short stature should be corrected (e.g. thyroid hormone for hypothyroidism, insulin for diabetes) TALL STATURE also constitutional and familial variants assessment history and physical examination: differentiate familial from other causes calculate Mid-Parental Height (predicted adult height) look for associated abnormalities (e.g. hyperextensible joints in Marfan syndrome) etiology constitutional: most common, advanced bone age/physical development in childhood but normal once adulthood reached endocrine: e.g. hypophyseal (pituitary) gigantism, precocious puberty, thyrotoxicosis, Beckwith-Wiedeman syndrome genetic: e.g. Marfan, Klinefelter syndromes treatment: depends on etiology estrogen used in females to cause epiphyseal fusion psychosocial neglect (psychosocial dwarfism) - usually decreased height and weight (and HC if severe) MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series Pediatrics 11

12 PRIMARY CARE PEDIATRICS... CONT. OBESITY weight > 20% greater than expected for age and height history: diet, activity, family heights and weights, growth curves physical examination: may suggest secondary cause, e.g. Cushing's syndrome caliper determination of fat is more sensitive than weight organic causes are rare (< 5%) genetic, e.g. Prader-Willi, Carpenter, Turner syndrome endocrine, e.g. Cushing's, hypothyroidism complications low correlation between obese children and obese adults some association with: hypertension, increased LDL, increased acute respiratory infection, slipped capital femoral epiphysis may predispose to adult hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular disease boys: gynecomastia girls: polycystic ovarian disease, early menarche psychological: discrimination, teasing, isolation, decreased self-esteem, treated as stupid or inferior management encouragement and reassurance diet: qualitative changes; do not encourage weight loss but allow for linear growth to catch up with weight evidence against very low kilojoule diets for preadolescents behavior modification: increase activity, change meal patterns insufficient evidence for or against exercise, family programs for obese children education: multidisciplinary approach, dietitian, counselling CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT Definition an intentional act of commission or omission (physical, sexual, or emotional) by another person that harms a child in a significant way Legal Obligation to Report upon suspicion of abuse, physicians in Canada are required by law to call the Children's Aid Society (CAS) Risk Factors family factors social isolation poverty stressful life events or situation domestic violence caregiver factors parents were abused as children (most commonly associated) psychological dysfunction / psychiatric illness substance abuse parenting style poor social and vocational skills, below average intelligence child factors difficult child (temperament) handicap or disability special needs, e.g. mental retardation Physical Abuse history inconsistent with physical findings doctor shopping, multiple visits to different hospitals delay in seeking medical attention injuries of varied ages, recurrent or multiple injuries distinctive marks: e.g. belt buckle, cigarette burns, hand atypical patterns of injuries: face, abdomen, buttocks, inner thighs, upper back, symmetrical pattern altered mental status: head injury, drug ingestion, poisoning Pediatrics 12 MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series

13 CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT... CONT. shaken baby syndrome most common cause of severe closed head injury in infants < 1 year old violent shaking of infant resulting in intracranial hematomas and retinal hemorrhages diagnosis confirmed by CT or MRI poor prognosis for infants presenting in coma: 50% die, 25% have significant neurologic damage Sexual Abuse prevalence: 1 in 4 females, 1 in 10 males peak ages at 2-6 and years most perpetrators are known to child most common: father, stepfather, uncle diagnosis usually depends on child telling someone clinical signs specific or generalized fears, depression social withdrawal, lack of trust psychosomatic symptoms, school failure sexual preoccupation, play behavior: seductive, acting out, aggressive, pseudomature recurrent UTIs, pregnancy, STDs, vaginitis, vaginal bleeding, genital injury investigations depend on presentation, age, sex, and maturity of child up to 72 hours: rape kit R/O STD, UTI, pregnancy (consider STD prophylaxis or morning after pill) R/O other injuries Neglect failure to thrive, developmental delay inadequate or dirty clothing, chronic lack of personal hygiene child exhibits poor attachment to parents Management of Child Abuse and Neglect history: from child and caregiver(s) physical exam: head to toe (do not force), emotional state, development document all injuries: type, location, size, shape, colour, pattern report all suspicions to CAS and/or police acute medical care; hospitalize if indicated or if concerns about further or ongoing abuse investigations: bloodwork, throat and/or genital swabs, skeletal survey, bone scan, CT/MRI, photos arrange consultation to social work, psychiatry arrange appropriate follow-up D/C directly to CAS or to responsible guardian under CAS supervision MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series Pediatrics 13

14 DEVELOPMENTAL AND BEHAVIORAL PEDIATRICS DEVELOPMENTAL DELAY Differential Diagnosis chromosomal: Down syndrome, trisomy 13, trisomy 18 metabolic: Tay-Sachs, PKU, adrenoleukodystrophies cerebral degenerative: Huntington's chorea, SSPE prenatal infection: TORCHS, HIV postnatal infection: meningitis, encephalitis, HIV toxic agents/drugs: alcohol, street drugs trauma/hypoxia: birth trauma, intracerebral hemorrhage other syndromes: cerebral malformations, neurofibromatosis, autism sensory defects: vision, hearing LANGUAGE DELAY Differential Diagnosis hearing impairment not responsive to sounds out of sight prelinguistic skills (e.g. cooing, babbling) may initially develop normally but may decrease due to lack of feedback no impairment in social interaction causes genetic (30-50%) congenital infection (e.g. rubella, CMV) meningitis ototoxic medications (e.g. aminoglycosides) cognitive disability global developmental delay, mental retardation both receptive and expressive language components affected child often has interest in communication pervasive developmental disorder (including autism) poor social interaction and language impairment, especially expressive (see Pervasive Developmental Disorder Section) selective mutism only speaks in certain situations, usually at home usually starts at age 5-6 years when child goes to school healthy children with no hearing impairment often above average intelligence Landau-Kleffner syndrome (acquired epileptic aphasia) presents in late preschool to early school age years child begins to develop language normally, then sudden regression of language child has severe aphasia with EEG changes often has overt seizure activity initial presentation may be similar to autism mechanical problems cleft palate cranial nerve palsy social deprivation PERVASIVE DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDER (PDD) broad generic term which describes a spectrum of related disorders, including autism, Asperger s syndrome, child disintegrative disorder, and PDD not otherwise specified autism prevalence M:F = 4:1 risk in sibling 8-9% onset prior to 3 years of age Asperger s syndrome prevalence M>F impaired social interaction language and cognition better than in autism restricted, repetitive, stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities better prognosis than in autism 4 main areas of functioning affected Pediatrics 14 MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series

15 DEVELOPMENTAL AND BEHAVIORAL PEDIATRICS... CONT. 1) lack of reciprocal social interaction lack of interest in peers and poor group participation higher functioning individuals with PDD lack depth in their interactions with people: inflexibility, lack of reciprocity and empathy 2) problems with verbal and non-verbal communication delay in onset of expressive and receptive language characteristics of autism: echolalia, perseveration, abnormalities in volume, pitch and rate of speech 3) restricted and repetitive behaviours stereotypic: hand-flapping, head-banging, rocking, repetitive finger movements, spinning, etc. ritualistic: checking, touching 4) abnormal cognitive function majority exhibit mental retardation may have good memory and visuospatial function poor symbolization and understanding of abstract ideas and theoretical concepts higher functioning PDD children may have consuming interest in one topic to the exclusion of other topics FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME (FAS) AND FETAL ALCOHOL EFFECTS (FAE) prevalence FAS: 1 in FAE: 1 in not known how much alcohol is harmful during pregnancy no "safe" level of alcohol consumption during pregnancy Criteria for Diagnosis of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome A: Growth deficiency low weight and/or short length at birth that continues through childhood B: Abnormal craniofacial features small head, small eyes, long smooth philtrum, thin upper lip, maxillary hypoplasia C: Central nervous system dysfunction microcephaly and/or neurobehavioral dysfunction (e.g. hyperactivity, motor problems, attention deficits, learning disabilities, cognitive disabilities) D: Strong evidence of maternal drinking during pregnancy Fetal Alcohol Effects child born to a mother who was known to be drinking heavily during pregnancy child has some but not all of physical characteristics of FAS CHRONIC RECURRENT ABDOMINAL PAIN prevalence: 10% of school children common in early childhood and early adolescence < 10% have organic disease characteristics of psychogenic abdominal pain seldom wakes child poorly localized, periumbilical, constant aggravated by exercise, alleviated by rest school avoidance psychosocial factors related to onset and/or maintenance of pain absence of organic illness psychiatric comorbidity: anxiety, somatoform, mood, learning disorders, sexual abuse, eating disorders, elimination disorders assessment: interview child alone and with parents, R/O organic illness management identify psychosocial stressors individual and family psychotherapy MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series Pediatrics 15

16 DEVELOPMENTAL AND BEHAVIORAL PEDIATRICS... CONT. ELIMINATION DISORDERS ENURESIS involuntary urinary incontinence by day and/or night in a child > 5 years old not due to neurological disorder resulting in poor bladder control, epilepsy, or structural abnormality of the urinary tract prevalence: 10% of 6 year olds, 3% of 12 year olds, 1% of 18 year olds Primary Nocturnal Enuresis (90%) wet only at night during sleep developmental disorder or maturational lag in bladder control while asleep more common in boys, family history common investigations: urinalysis treatment time and reassurance (~20% resolve spontaneously each year) bladder retention exercises conditioning: "wet" alarm wakes child upon voiding (40-75% success rate) medications: DDAVP Secondary Enuresis develops after child has sustained (3 months or more) period of bladder control nonspecific regression in the face of stress or anxiety, e.g. birth of sibling, significant loss, family discord may be secondary to UTI, DM, DI, neurogenic bladder, CP, sickle cell disease, seizures, pinworms may occur if engrossed in other activities Diurnal Enuresis daytime wetting (60-80% also wet at night) timid, shy, temperamental problems R/O structural anomaly, e.g. ectopic ureteral site, neurogenic bladder treatment depends on cause remind child to go to toilet mental health treatment focus on verbal expression of feelings ENCOPRESIS fecal incontinence in a child at least 4 years of age prevalence: 1-1.5% of school aged children (rare in adolescence) M:F = 6:1 must exclude medical causes, e.g. Hirschsprung s disease, hypothyroidism, hypercalcemia, spinal cord lesions, anorectal malformations Retentive Encopresis (psychogenic megacolon) causes physical: anal fissure (painful stooling) emotional: disturbed parent-child relationship, coercive toilet training genetic: 75% have enuretic relative, MZ > DZ twins history child withholds bowel movement, develops constipation, leading to fecal impaction and seepage of soft or liquid stool crosses legs to resist urge to defecate distressed by symptoms, soiling of clothes toilet training: coercive or lackadaisical physical exam rectal exam: large fecal masses in rectal vault treatment clean out bowel completely (e.g. Golytely, fleet enemas) stool softeners (e.g. Senokot, Lansoyl at bedtime) enemas and suppositories regular schedule to defecate positive reinforcement Pediatrics 16 MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series

17 DEVELOPMENTAL AND BEHAVIORAL PEDIATRICS... CONT. Non-Retentive Encopresis continuous: present from birth (never gained primary control of bowel function) bowel movement randomly deposited without regard to social norms family structure usually does not encourage organization and skill training child has not had adequate consistent bowel training treatment: consistent, firm and kind toilet training discontinuous: previous history of normal bowel control bowel movements as an expression of anger or wish to be seen as a younger child breakdown occurs in face of stressful event, regression displays relative indifference to symptoms treatment: psychotherapy if persists for many weeks Toilet Phobia relatively young child views toilet as a frightening structure child thinks they may be swept away by toilet treatment gradual series of steps with rewards desensitization GENETICS APPROACH TO THE DYSMORPHIC CHILD 3/100 infants are born with a congenital defect, many are associated with a degree of developmental disability genetic disorders and birth defects account for approximately 40% of childhood deaths history prenatal/obstetrical history: maternal age and past health, alcohol/drug/meds use, difficulties during pregnancy/labour/delivery, investigations done and results (see Obstetrics ) complete 3 generation family pedigree: consanguinity, stillbirths, neonatal deaths, specific illnesses, mental retardation, multiple miscarriages, ethnicity (thalassemia, Tay-Sachs) developmental milestones and growth in an older child physical examination careful observation growth parameters (height/weight/head circumference) compare child's features with parents and sibs investigation ask for serial photographs if child is older x-rays if bony abnormalities or if suspect a congenital infection cytogenetic/chromosome studies +/ skin fibroblasts biochemistry: specific enzyme assays molecular biology for specific testing genetic probes now available e.g. Fragile X counselling and recurrence risk assessment Patterns of Inheritance autosomal dominant 50% risk with an affected parent e.g. Neurofibromatosis I and II, Marfan syndrome, Achondroplasia autosomal recessive risk is 25% when both parents carry the affected gene carrier states can sometimes be detected; consanguinity increases chance e.g. sickle cell anemia, CF, Tay-Sachs X-linked recessive gene for the disease carried on X chromosome, inherited through mother; most are recessive with homozygous females being rare female carriers may sometimes be detected, e.g. G6PD deficiency cannot have male to male transmission e.g. Duchenne MD, Fragile X, G6PD, Hemophilia A and B MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series Pediatrics 17

18 GENETICS... CONT. multifactorial genetic predisposition with environmental factors required for disease to be expressed recurrence risk 4-10% (disease specific) ; if mother and one child affected, risk is up to 15% e.g. neural tube defects, cleft lip and palate mitochondrial genes from mother only; M=F e.g. Leber optic neuropathy, MELAS spontaneous mutations DOWN SYNDROME in humans, the most common abnormality of autosomal chromosomes trisomy % nondisjunction 5% translocations 3% mosaics (may be less noticeable/less severe) incidence: most common autosomal chromosomal abnormality, 1 in live births, rises with advanced maternal age to 1 in 20 by age 45 years affected fetuses have increased risk of spontaneous abortion clinical features hypotonia at birth (80%), low IQ, developmental delay neurologic: hypotonia, premature senility, Alzheimer s onset in 40 s facies: flat occiput, microcephaly, small midface, small mandible and maxillae, upslanting palpebral fissures, epicanthal folds, Brushfield's spots in iris ENT: furrowed prominent tongue, high arched palate, ear anomalies, frequent acute otitis media CVS: 40% have congenital cardiac defects, particularly endocardial cushion defects GI: duodenal, anal atresia and TE fistula MSK: lax joints including dysplastic hips, vertebral anomalies, atlantoaxial instability skin: Simian (palmar) crease, abnormal dermatoglyphics hematologic: leukemias (1% lifetime risk) endocrine: hypothyroidism prognosis: shorter life expectancy management recommended testing: echo, thyroid tests, atlanto-occipital x-ray at 2 years (controversial) treat any life-threatening defects immediately (e.g. duodenal atresia) mainly symptomatic wide range of severity, early intervention programs to help children reach full potential OTHER TRISOMIES Trisomy 13 incidence 1:5000 live births increased risk of spontaneous abortions features: seizures, deafness, microcephaly, cleft lip/palate, polydactyly, retinal anomalies, single umbilical artery, cardiac defects, scalp defects midline anomalies: scalp, pituitary, palate, heart, umbilicus, anus prognosis: 44% die in 1 month < 10% survive past 1 year (profound MR in survivors) Trisomy 18 incidence: 1/8000 live births, female: male = 3:1 increased risk of spontaneous abortion features: prominent occiput, micrognathia, ocular abnormalities, cleft lip and palate, low set ears, rocker bottom feet, short stature, clenched fist with overlapping digits, hypoplastic nails, clinodactyly, polydactyly, cardiac defects, hernia, severe CNS malformation, urogenital abnormalities (cryptorchidism, polycystic kidneys) key point: small babies (SGA, microcephaly, short) prognosis of severe FTT: 33% die in 1 month, 50% by 2 months, 90% by 12 months, profound MR in survivors Pediatrics 18 MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series

19 GENETICS... CONT. TURNER SYNDROME most common genotype is 45X; mosaic also possible with most common being (45X/46XX) incidence 1:2,500 live female births risk not increased with advanced maternal age clinical features intelligence usually normal, may have mild learning disabilities lymphedema, cystic hygroma in the newborn with polyhydramnios, lung hypoplasia short stature, wide carrying angle at elbows short webbed neck, low posterior hair line broad chest, wide spaced nipples infertility, gonadal dysgenesis primary amenorrhea, lack of development of secondary sexual characteristics heart defects: coarctation of the aorta, bicuspid aortic valve renal abnormalities, increased risk of HTN prognosis: normal life expectancy if no complications; risk of X-linked diseases increases to that of males management to facilitate growth and development of secondary sexual characteristics hormone/estrogen replacement growth hormone (controversial) KLINEFELTER SYNDROME 1/1,000 live male births, 47 XXY (most common) associated with late maternal age doesn t present until male post-pubertal mild mental retardation, long limbs, hypogonadism, hypospermia gynecomastia, lack of facial hair treatment: testosterone in adolescence FRAGILE X most common genetic cause of developmental delay in boys incidence 1/1250; X-linked recessive clinical features overgrowth: prominent jaw, forehead, ears; elongated, narrow face; marcroorchidism hyperextensibility, high arched palate, mitral valve prolapse often hyperactive and/or autistic IQ typically but 20% of affected males have normal intelligence female carriers may show some intellectual impairment diagnosis cytogenetic studies: region on Xq which fails to condense during mitosis molecular testing: overamplification of a trinucleotide repeat, length of segment is proportional to severity of clinical phenotype (genetic anticipation) MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY a group of inherited diseases characterized by progressive skeletal (+ cardiac) muscle degeneration Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy X linked recessive, 1/3000 males, 1/3 spontaneous mutations missing structural protein dystrophin, leads to muscle fibre fragility, fibre breakdown, necrosis and regeneration clinical features by age 3, proximal muscle weakness, Gower's sign pseudo-hypertrophy of muscles decreased reflexes may develop mild mental retardation, obesity diagnosis pedigree creatine phosphokinase, lactate dehydrogenase increased muscle biopsy, EMG complications patient usually wheelchair bound by 12 years old early flexion contractures, scoliosis death due to pneumonia/respiratory failure or congestive heart failure MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series Pediatrics 19

20 GENETICS... CONT. treatment supportive (physiotherapy, wheelchairs, braces), prevent obesity surgical (for scoliosis) use of steroids experimental gene therapy trials underway Becker's Muscular Dystrophy dystrophin gene abnormal, symptoms similar to Duchenne but onset is later and progression is slower CLEFT LIP AND PALATE multi-factorial inheritance see ENT section INBORN ERRORS OF METABOLISM an inherited disorder of intermediary metabolism treatment is sometimes possible because the biochemical basis of the disorder is understood presentation seizures, encephalopathy developmental delay, FTT renal tubular disease, diffuse liver disease hypoglycemia, hyperammonemia, wide anion gap metabolic acidosis VACTERL ASSOCIATION number of congenital anomalies occuring together v=vertebral anomalies,a=imperforate anus, c=cardiac abnormalities, te=tracheoesophageal fistula, r= radial and renal dysplasia, l=limb deformity NEONATOLOGY INFANT MORTALITY 9-10/1,000 births causes congenital prematurity (RDS, intracranial hemorrhage) asphyxia infections sudden infant death syndrome NORMAL BABY AT TERM HR /per min RR 40-60/per min weight g glucose > 2.2 BP systolic 50-80, diastolic (dependent on GA) GESTATIONAL AGE AND SIZE Definitions gestational age pre-term: <37 weeks term: weeks post-term: > 42 weeks SGA: measurements < 2 SD below mean for gestational age (GA) AGA: within 2 SD of mean for GA LGA: > 2 SD above the mean for GA GA can be estimated using the Ballard Score Pediatrics 20 MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series

21 NEONATOLOGY... CONT. Table 7. Infant Maturity Sites < = 36 Weeks Weeks > = 39 Weeks skin pale, translucent pinker, smoother pink, thick sole creases smooth progresses anterior progresses increasing depth to anterior creases to heal creases of sole creases breast nodule 2 mm 4 mm 5-10 mm diameter scalp hair fine and fuzzy fine and fuzzy thick and silky ear lobe flat, pliable, some cartilage stiffened by thick cartilage no cartilage testes and testes in lower intermediate pendulous, scrotum canal, small scrotum full covered with rugae scrotum, few rugae labia and prominent clitoris, clitoris nearly clitoris covered by prepuce clitoris small labia covered by prepuce large labia Table 8. Abnormalities of Gestational Size and Maturity Features Features Causes Problems pre-term infants infection (TORCH) RDS, respiratory diseases < 37 weeks maternal pathology recurrent apnea drugs/etoh feeding difficulties chromosomal hypocalcemia, hypoglycemia smoking anemia multiple pregnancy jaundice infections intracranial hemorrhage, cerebral anoxia placental causes hypothermia edema NEC retinopathy of prematurity SGA infants asymmetric undergrowth: extrinsic causes: late onset, growth arrest diabetes, nutrition, asphyxia hypertension, multiple hypoglycemia pregnancies, drugs, hypocalcemia EtOH, smoking symmetric undergrowth: intrinsic causes: early onset, lower growth infections (TORCH) hypothermia potential meconium aspiration, hyperviscosity (polycythemia) chromosomal, genetic, NEC congenital abnormalities, PDA syndromal, idiopathic LGA infants - large features maternal DM, asphyxia, meconium racial or familial factors aspiration, respiratory distress, TTN, PPH jaundice, hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia polycythemia, congenital abnormalities post-term infants severe asphyxia, meconium aspiration wisened looking, leathery skin hypoglycemia meconium staining birth trauma if large infant NEONATAL RESUSCITATION How Ready Is This Child? Assess Apgar at 1, 5 minutes, if < 7 at 5 min then q 5 min Table 9. Apgar Score Sign Heart Rate absent < 100/minute > 100/minute Respiratory Effort absent slow, irregular good, crying Irritability no response grimace cough or sneeze Tone/Muscle limp some flexion of extremities active motion Color blue, pale body pink, extremities blue completely pink MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series Pediatrics 21

22 NEONATOLOGY... CONT. Initial Resuscitation always remember ABC's anticipation - know maternal history, history of pregnancy, labor, and delivery all infants prevent heat loss by drying, warming (on radiant heater, remove wet towels) position head and neck to open airway for suction stimulate infant Airway gentle suction of mouth then nose: < 100 mmhg, < 5 seconds with thick meconium, suction the nasopharynx as the head is delivered, then intubate and suction trachea prior to first breath if possible Breathing check for spontaneous respirations bag and mask if apneic/gasping/hr < 100, bag at a rate of 40-60/minute with % O2 intubation is indicated if prolonged ventilation is required bag and mask are not effective tracheal suctioning is needed (thick meconium) HR remains < 100 diaphragmatic hernia is suspected Circulation heart rate is the most important indicator of the need for intervention "80 or less compress" - if bradycardic (apex < 80 and no improvement with bagging) or asystolic, compressions begin at rate of 120/minute coordinate 3 compressions with 1 ventilation (120 compressions/minute, 40 ventilations/minute) - check after 30 seconds if HR > 80 stop compressions but continue ventilation Drugs epinephrine - for asystole or severe bradycardia HCO3 (4.2% solution given slowly) CaCO3 - electrical abnormalities Narcan - if mother given opioids, general anesthetic ROUTINE NEONATAL CARE eye care - erythromycin ointment to prevent ophthalmia neonatorum - gonorrhea, chlamydia vitamin K - to avoid hemorrhagic disease of newborn HBIG plus vaccine if mother is Hep B +ve screening test in all neonates: PKU, TSH usually after 24 hours of life if indicated: blood group, sickle cell, G6PD deficiency (varies by province) blood group and direct antiglobulin test if mother Rh-ve RESPIRATORY DISTRESS IN THE NEWBORN Presentation tachypnea > 60 / per min audible grunting intercostal retractions/indrawing nasal flaring duskiness/central cyanosis decreased A/E on auscultation tachycardia > 160 / per min Diagnosis chest x-ray ABG, CBC, blood glucose blood cultures, Gram stain Differential Diagnosis pulmonary respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) transient tachypnea of the newborn (TTN) meconium aspiration (group B strep and others) atelectasis Pediatrics 22 MCCQE 2000 Review and Lecture Series