Rudy Hirschheim. E.J. Ourso College of Business Louisiana State University

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1 Scientific Knowledge Creation Rudy Hirschheim E.J. Ourso College of Business Louisiana State University

2 What is science Science is to develop laws and theories to explain, predict, understand and control phenomena in nature The scientific method deems that science rests on the ability to empirically test objective observations Science should achieve maximum consensus from its reference groups

3 Objective of science Laudan, Popper and Kuhn state that the objective of science is to solve problems providing acceptable solutions to interesting problems

4 Two views of science In the search for truth in nature there are two views of science s role Imaginative and explorative exercise Critical and analytic activity

5 Scientific knowledge The product of a collective human enterprise to which researchers make individual contributions which are purified and extended by mutual criticism and intellectual cooperation

6 Consensual view of science Science is cumulative Science is a product of the scientific community Science is the product of social consensus and societal convention

7 Science as dissention Feyerabend states it is undesirable for scientists to ever reach consensus on anything Kuhn states that is the differences among scientists views allow for the creation of new ideas and theories

8 Research traditions Laudan states that research tradition consists of a number of specific theories, along with a set of metaphysical and conceptual assumptions that are shared by those scientists who adhere to the tradition

9 Observation Kuhn and Popper noted that observation is made with the context of prior knowledge and experience So is anything ever truly objective?

10 Logical positivism Based on Wittgenstein s* verification theory of meaning The verification theory of meaning states that propositions or hypotheses are meaningful only if they can be empirically verified * early Wittgenstein

11 Popper s Falsification observation always presupposes the existence of some system of expectations Scientific method begins when observations clash with existing theories or preconceptions If deductively derived hypotheses are proved false then the theory itself is false Science progresses through conjectures and refutations

12 Problems with Falsification According to Popper if a deductively created theory is proved false with empirical data then the theory is false but Durham (1953) has noted that it is impossible to conclusively refute a theory because realistic test situations depend on much more than just the theory that is under investigation

13 Logical empiricism It is less strict than logical positivism because it does not require absolute empirical truth but only empirical proof toward gradual increasing confirmation Science progresses through the accumulation of multiple confirming instances obtained under a wide variety of circumstances and conditions Knowledge begins with observation leading to empirical generalizations among observable entities This view embodies the inductive statistical method Follows the flow: science data theory understanding

14 Problems with logical empiricism Observations are always subject to measurement error Observations may be based on multiple realities

15 Critical realism Critical realism aims to: (1) re-establish a realist ontology while accepting the relativism of knowledge as socially and historically conditioned in the epistemological domain*, and (2) to argue for a critical naturalism (i.e. there is one general approach to science that applies to all domains). The notion critical reflects two themes: First, critical realism is not naively realist or naturalist, accepting significant limitations on the objectivity of our knowledge. Second, related to critical social theory, is that no social theory can be purely descriptive, it must be evaluative, and thus there can be no split between facts and values, and, following from this, the view that social theory is inevitably transformative, providing an explanatory critique that logically entails action. (Mingers 2003) *As opposed to scientific realism/naive realism/classical realism where it is believed that our perceptual processes can yield genuine knowledge about the external world.

16 Critical relativism It is a multifaceted philosophy of science stating there is no single scientific method but rather disciplinary knowledge is contingent on the beliefs, values, methods, and cognitive aims of its practitioners Rejects positivist approaches that claim reality can be discovered via the scientific method It recognizes there are multiple scientific objectives and alternative methods for attaining research objectives

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