SOCIAL WORK IN THE NEW CENTURY. SUB Hamburg EDITOR MICHAEL REISCH. University of Maryland, Baltimore DSAGE

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1 SOCIAL WORK IN THE NEW CENTURY SUB Hamburg EDITOR MICHAEL REISCH University of Maryland, Baltimore DSAGE Los Angeles London New Delhi Singapore Washington DC

2 Brief Contents Preface Coverage of EPAS Core Competencies in Social Policy & Social Justice ^ Part I.The Context of Social Policy xvii xxi I Chapter I. U.S. Social Policy in the New Century 5 Michael Reisch, PhD, ' i. i. ' Chapter 2. U.S. Social Policy and Social Welfare: A Historical Overview 43 Michael Reisch, PhD " ' Chapter 3.The Political Economy of U.S. Social Policy 101 Joel Blau, DSW... Chapter 4. Social Policy and the Racial Regulation of People of Color 125 Jerome H. Schiele, DSW Chapter 5. Women and Social Policy 151 Susan J. Roll, PhD Part II. Policy Practice 181 Chapter 6. Policy Analysis 185 Richard K. Caputo, PhD Chapter 7. Federal and State Budget Basics for Social Workers 215 Karen M. Staller, PhDJD Chapter 8. Policy Advocacy at the Federal Level: A Case Study of AmeriCorps How the Little Guys Won 237 Monica Heaty and Gene Sofer, PhD Chapter 9. State and Local Policy Advocacy 259 Richard Hoefer, PhD

3 Chapter I O.The Judiciary and Social Policy Vicki Lens, PhD,JD Part III. Key Areas of Social Policy Chapter I I. Social Security: Past, Present, and Future Benjamin W.Veghte, PhD Chapter 12. Poverty and Unemployment: Does a "Work First Remedy Work? Roberta Rehner Iversen, PhD Chapter 13. Welfare and Welfare Reform in the Age of Neoliberal Paternalism Sanford F. Schram, PhD;Joe Soss, PhD; and Richard C. Fording, PhD Chapter 14. Health and Mental Health Policy Stephen Corin, PhD, and Cynthia Moniz, PhD Chapter 15. Human Services in the United States: A Focus on Safety Net Programs for Ethnic Minority Families and Children Julian Chun-Chung Chow, PhD, and Catherine M.Vu, PhD ^ Glossary Photo Credits Index About the Authors

4 Contents Preface _ xvii Coverage of EPAS Core Competencies in Social Policy & Social Justice xxi Part I.The Context of Social Policy - I Chapter I. U.S. Social Policy in the New Century, ' 5 Michael Reisch, PhD' i ' ' The Meaning of Social Welfare. ' '. > ' / ' ' ^» 5 What Is a Social Policy? -,... 6 The Purpose of Social Policy. 7 Perspectives on Social Welfare and Social Policy. - 8 Contemporary Approaches to Social Policy,,, 9 Social Policy and Social Justice J t " 10 The State and Social Policy,. ( ',.' 12 Social Class and Social Policy, 15 Race and Social Policy. 16 From Private Troubles to Public Issues: The Stages of Policy Development 18 The Social Construction of Social Problems ' 20 Models of Policy Development 21 Key Policy Concepts 24 The Social Division of Welfare, - 24 Taxes and Social Policy 25 Deficits and Debt " 27 Economic Concepts. 29 Politics and Social Policy r ' 31 Political Feasibility * ' * 31 The Privatization of Social Policy " *' - "" 32 A Framework for Policy Analysis ' 34 ) Additional Evaluative Concepts ' '' / ' " 35 Conclusion: The Future of Socially Just Social Policy ' _ 36 Discussion Questions. ^. 28

5 Suggested Websites 39 Suggestions for Further Reading - 40 References 40 Chapter 2. U.S. Social Policy and Social Welfare: A Historical Overview 43 Michael Reisch, PhD The Roots of U.S. Social Welfare 44 Major Trends Between Independence and the Civil War 46 The Civil War and Social Welfare 51 Industrialization and Social Welfare - 52 Context and Change 53 Continuity and Conflict ~ 54 Charity and Coercion * ' 55 The Progressive Era ( ) 56 The Charity Organization Societies s 56 The Settlement House Movement 57 Social Welfare Legislation Before the Great Depression > 60 The New Deal and the Foundation of Modern U.S. Social Policy.. 61 From the New Deal to the Rediscovery of Poverty. 68 The War on Poverty and the Great Society 69 From the War on Poverty to the War on Welfare 73 The Reagan-Bush War on Welfare _ The Clinton Years. * 78 Social Policy in the G. W. Bush and Obama Years ' ' ' ' 79 Social and Economic Consequences Summary: The Transformation of U.S. Social Policy. 86 Conclusion: U.S. Social Policy in the 21st Century 1. ' 88 Discussion Questions Suggested Websites ' - - '89 Suggestions for Further Reading '90 References ' 91 Chapter 3.The Politicail Economy of U.S. Social Policy 101 Joel Blau, DSW The Modern Political Economy 102 The Large Corporation 102 Finance Capitalism The Tendency to Boom and Bust ; 104 Inequality and Under-Consumption t 106 Social Costs and Social Welfare -..,. 108 Three Conservative Myths About Social Welfare and the Economy 110 The Interaction of Social Policy and the Economy. 112 Tax Expenditures 116 Spending on the Public Infrastructure 116

6 The Political Economy of U.S. Social Policy ~ Social Justice and the Political Economy of U.S. Social Policy 119 Discussion Questions Exercise 120 Suggested Websites 120 Suggestions for Further Reading - 1 ; ; ^ 121 i References * "-a ' ' v?' 121 Chapter 4. Social Policy and the Racial Regulation i of People of Color, a ' t. = Jerome H. Schiele, DSW White Racial Domination and Racial Regulation _ 127 Social Policies and Racial Regulation,.. t, 128 Old-Style Racial Regulation New-Style Racial Regulation t 133 A Look Into the Future. 140 Conclusion, ( Discussion Questions. 144 Suggested Websites t i 145 Suggestions for Further Reading ' 145 References,... " ' f t 146 Chapter 5. Women and Social Policy 151 Susan J. Roll, PhD Framework, ',i 152 A Brief History of Women and Social Policy in the United States 155 A Century of Change Second Wave 1960s to 1990s 160 Restructuring and Retrenchment, 1980 to Changing Policy. 164 Women in Formal Positions of Power 165 Women With Informal Power: Organizing for Change 167 Fair Wages ' ~ The Battered Women's Movement <170 MADRE: International Organizing 171 Women and Social Policy in the 21st Century, 173 Families in the 21st Century ;. 173 Women, Employment, and Social Class. 174 Women and Social Policy: Where Do ;We Go From Here?. 174 Conclusion 176 Discussion Questions, 176 Suggested Websites 177 Suggestions for Further Reading 177 References. 178

7 Part II. Policy Practice 181 Chapter 6. Policy Analysis 185 Richard K, Caputo, PhD Historical Roots and Development of Policy Analysis.. as a Discipline of Study 187 Academic Disciplines, Professional Schools, and Think Tanks 188 Policy Studies ' ~ -191 Proliferation of Ideologically Driven Think Tanks ~,192 Value Neutrality, Value Relevance, and Critical Thinking in the Social Sciences and Social Work Practice 193 Formulation of Policy Agendas and Alternatives 196 Policy as Product. ' ' 198 Policy Products * 198 Policy as Process ' r 202 Making Policy " 202 Conceptual and Theoretical Considerations '' 202 Practical Considerations ' 204 Implementing Policy '' 204 Theoretical Considerations " 205 Addressing Unplanned or Unintended Consequences 205 The Role of Street-Level Bureaucrats 206 Policy as Performance Pseudo-Evaluation 207 Formal Evaluation ' 207 Decision-Theoretic Evaluation; *" -- * '* 208 Conclusion 208 Discussion Questions Suggested Websites 209 ; Suggestions for Further Reading 210 References 210 Chapter 7. Federal and State Budget Basics for Social Workers 215 Karen M. Staller, PhD,JD Author's Note 215 Federal Budget: An Overview 217 What Goes In and What Goes Out 219 Federal Budgeting Process * '' 226 Ideological Debates on Budgets in Historical Perspective' 227 State Budgets 230 Overview and Balanced Budgets ' 230 State Revenues 231 State Expenditures ' 232 State Budgets in the Midst of the Great Recession ' 233

8 Conclusion ; ' 233 Discussion Questions ' ' Suggested Websites - * 235 Suggestions for Further Reading " j > ' 235 References 235 Chapter 8. Policy Advocacy at the Federal Level: A Case Study of AmeriCorps How the Little Guys Won 237 Monica Healy and Gene Sofer, PhD ' ' ' ' The Legislative Process in Congress ~ " 238 Background < f «>; ' 239 Mismanagement 241 The Coalition Gets Activated 242 Senate Action 244 House Roadblock '. 245 What Happened to the $100 Million in Emergency Funding? FY 2004 VA-HUD Appropriations Bill 248 DeLay Redux ~. 248 Funding/Appropriations Bill " The White House Comes Through 249 Senate Reaction/Funding 1 ' 250 Creating Controversy Lessons Learned " ' ', ' 252 Discussion Questions " 1 ' 255 Suggested Websites 256 Suggestions for Further Reading 256 References *. 257 Chapter 9. State and Local Policy Advocacy 259 Richard Hoefer, PhD The Current Context for State and Local Advocacy.» 260 Decentralization of Policymaking 260 Decrease in Federal, State, and Local Government Funding 260 Development of Social Networking and ' x. Communications Technology ' ' ' ' ' 262 Barriers Affecting State and Local Advocacy by Social Workers Structural Variables Affecting State and Local Advocacy 265 Advocacy at the National Level Is Not the-same as at State and Local Levels * 265 State Political Culture - ", 266 Partisan Control of Governmental Institutions 268 Best Practices for State and Local Advocacy < <- - ' 270 What Are Advocacy Activities? Research on Advocacy at the State Level 271

9 Future of State and Local Advocacy ; " Greater Use of Electronic Advocacy and Social Media Software * 273 More Powerful Connections Between Advocacy and Funding 274 Social Justice Battles Will Intensify at the State.and Local Leyels. :. 275 Conclusion, 276 Discussion Questions and Exercises 276 Suggested Websites > -., s. 277 Suggestions for Further Reading * References % - v -. Chapter I O.The Judiciary and Social Policy * 281 Vicki Lens, PhDJD Historical Overview. 281 Types of Policy Disputes Before the Judiciary 282 The Structure of the Court System 283 How Courts Decide Cases 285 Making Law Where None Exists ',." 285 Interpreting Laws ' 286 Interpreting the Constitution 287 Due Process Clause ~ 290 Equal Protection Clause ' ' 293 Commerce Clause " 297 The Role of Social Workers in the Judicial Policymaking Process _ 300 The Judiciary's Role as Social Change Agent: Help or Hindrance? 301 Discussion Questions '. 302 Suggested Websites. 303 Suggestions for Further Reading 303 Court Cases Cited 304 '. '"t. ' Part III. Key Areas of Social Policy 305 Chapter I I. Social Security: Past, Present, and Future 309 Benjamin W.Veghte, PhD. '' "T. j 4'. ' ' Why Do We Have Social Security? _ r.., 309 The Historical Roots of Social Security v, The Evolution of Social Security - 7.!..., 311 Expansions in Coverage. 311 Increases in Contribution Levels,. 312 How Social Security Works. 313 Financing Mechanisms 313 Eligibility for Social Security,. ; v ] { : Calculation of Benefits.. < 315 Retirement Benefits 315

10 ' ' Adjustments in Retirement Benefits for Early Retirement ' Adjustments in Retirement Benefits for Family Status 318 Cost-of-Living Adjustments, " *< -!,» 318 Disability Benefits Survivors Benefits - ' 319 Who Receives Social Security Today? j'. t. 319 Benefits Levels v" ) 319 Social Security and Economic Security in Retirement How Much Income Do Retirees Need to Live with Dignity? 321 Social Security, Pensions, and Savings as >' - Shares of Retirees'Income» 324 The Importance of Social Security in a Diverse Society* < ' 327 The Outlook for the Future '' ' > i : 328 The Impact of Social Security Benefit Cuts - - r c The Demographic Challenge, Retirement Benefits, and ') <v ' International Competitiveness 331 Social Security's Financial Outlook Options for Social Security Reform The Politics of Social Security Today 338 The "Leninist Strategy" 338 Five Persistent Myths About Social Security '* ' 339 Conclusion 340 Discussion Questions 341 Class Exercise. 342 Suggested Websites, y, 342 t ~ Suggestions for Further Reading, 342 References. j 343 Chapter 12. Poverty and Unemployment: Does a "Work First" Remedy Work? r 347 Roberta Rehner Iversen, PhD The Poverty Context: Definition and Measurement ' Poverty Measurement: History 348 Poverty Thresholds: Poverty Rates and the Poverty Line. 349 Poverty Guidelines: The Federal Poverty Level (FPL) 349 The Supplemental Poverty Measure:'New in The Employment Context: Definitions and Measurement-, 351 The Labor Market Context. 352 Workforce Development :,, Job Training Since the 1930s 354 Workforce Investment Act of 1998s Eligibility Program Services ^ 357 "Returns to Education" From Job Training: Lore and Reality :j 357

11 WIA Reauthorization 359 Income Supplements and Work Subsidy Programs* < 359 Unemployment Insurance Program 359 Tax Credit Policies. \ 361 Earned Income Tax Credit 362 Child Tax Credit. '.. : ' 363 : Work Opportunity Tax Credit. 364 Federal Subsidy Programs... j Housing Assistance ',. 365 Child Care Assistance Wage Legislation and Wage Movements -, Minimum Wage Laws. ^ i '. < 367 Living Wage Movement 367 Conclusion: Future Policy Possibilities. 369 Discussion Questions - : < ; 370 Suggestions for Further Reading Suggested Websites > References 371 Chapter 13. Welfare and Welfare Reform in the Age of Neoliberal Paternalism _, 377 Sanford F. Schram, PhD;Joe Soss, PhD; and Richard C. Fording, PhD U.S. Welfare Policy in Historical Perspective 379 The Evolution of Welfare Policy 380 The Campaign to Discipline the Poor The Rise of the New Right: Neo-Cons and Theo-Cons 1 ; 385 The Disciplinary Turn in Poverty Governance " J 387 Welfare Reform and the New. Disciplinary Regime Conclusion 396 Discussion Questions 397 Suggested Websites 398 Suggestions for Further Reading 398 References 398 Chapter 14. Health and Mental Health Policy ' 405 Stephen Gorin, PhD, and Cynthia Moniz, PhD j, Background: The Progressive Era ' 405 The Roosevelt and Truman Eras 407 The "Great Society": Medicare and Medicaid 408 The Nixon Era ' ' 410 The Reagan Era " ' 411 Clinton and the Health Security Act 411 George W. Bush 413 Obama and the ACA ' 415

12 Impact of the ACA: Coverage, Cost, and Quality 416 Coverage 416 Costs and Financing Issues 417 Quality of Care 419 The Future of Medicare 420 Conclusion 423 Discussion Questions 424 Suggested Websites 424 Suggestions for Further Reading 424 References 425 Chapter 15. Human Services in the United States: A Focus on Safety Net Programs for Ethnic Minority Families and Children 431 Julian Chun-Chung Chow, PhD, and Catherine M.Vu, PhD In-Kind Supports for Racial and Ethnic Minorities 435 Child Care 436 Head Start 437 Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) 438 Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) 439 Barriers to Program and Service Participation 440 Administrative Barriers 441 Structural Barriers 442 Cultural and Language Barriers 442 Strategies to Increase Ethnic Minority Participation in Safety Net Programs 444 The Role of Cultural Competence 445 Client-Focused Strategies 446 Organization-Focused Strategies 447 Conclusion 448 Discussion Questions 449 Class Exercises -> 449 Suggested Websites 450 Suggestions for Further Reading 450 References 450 Glossary 457 Photo Credits 475 Index 477 About the Authors 513