Final Report. A Carbon Footprint for UK Clothing and Opportunities for Savings

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1 Final Report A Carbon Footprint for UK Clothing and Opportunities for Savings July

2 WRAP s vision is a world without waste, where resources are used sustainably. We work with businesses, individuals and communities to help them reap the benefits of reducing waste, developing sustainable products and using resources in an efficient way. Find out more at Written by: Bernie Thomas, Matt Fishwick, James Joyce and Anton van Santen Environmental Resources Management Limited (ERM) Front cover photography: [Add description or title of image.] While we have tried to make sure this report is accurate, we cannot accept responsibility or be held legally responsible for any loss or damage arising out of or in connection with this information being inaccurate, incomplete or misleading. This material is copyrighted. You can copy it free of charge as long as the material is accurate and not used in a misleading context. You must identify the source of the material and acknowledge our copyright. You must not use material to endorse or suggest we have endorsed a commercial product or service. For more details please see our terms and conditions on our website at 2

3 0.0 Executive summary Environmental Resources Management Limited (ERM) was commissioned by WRAP to conduct a life cycle carbon footprint study for UK clothing. The objective of the research was to provide WRAP with an overview of the carbon impacts of UK clothing through the clothing life cycle, identifying the most significant contributions to the carbon footprint (ie the hotspots ), and quantifying opportunities for carbon footprint reduction. Estimated Current Carbon Footprint for UK Clothing A strategic-level carbon footprint study was undertaken based on published data and information about UK clothing. UK Clothing is defined as all clothing, both new and existing, in use in the UK over the period of one year. The analysis covers both clothing manufactured and used in the UK and clothing manufactured abroad and used in the UK. The datum is 2009, as the year for which the most recent data are available. The study s results present the annual climate change impact associated with UK clothing, in terms of its carbon footprint. This includes the impacts associated with the quantity of clothes that are produced for the UK and consumed and disposed of each year, as well as the impacts associated with clothing that is actively worn and cleaned each year (approximately 1.1 million tonnes of new clothing is consumed in the UK each year, ~2.5 million tonnes is in active use. Note that this is greater than the annual consumption of clothing, because clothes last for more than one year). Figure 1 presents the baseline (current) carbon footprint estimate for all clothing in use in the UK in The results are broken down by both life cycle stage and fibre type to show their relative contributions to the total footprint. The following conclusions can be drawn from the results. The total annual carbon footprint of all garments, both new and existing, in use in the UK in 2009 (i.e. the volume consumed, and the actively worn quantity) is approximately 38 million tonnes of CO 2 e (~0.6 tonnes per person per year). Because the majority of clothing is manufactured outside the UK, it is estimated that ~32% occurs within the UK (contributing to the UK s direct carbon footprint) and 68% occurs abroad. Based on this estimate, the direct impact of clothing in the UK can be estimated to be ~12 million tonnes of CO 2 e. Note that this baseline analysis does not examine the effect of uncertainties, which are considered further in the sensitivity analysis section of the report (Section 4.6). To put this carbon footprint of UK clothing into context, the total direct GHG emissions in the UK in 2009 were reported as 566 million tonnes of CO 2 e (DECC, 2011). It should be noted that this total for the UK does not include GHG emissions associated with imported goods or services or international travel. Therefore, the direct carbon footprint of clothing contributes approximately 2% to the UK s total direct carbon footprint. The carbon footprint of new garments ONLY, in use in the UK in 2009, can also be calculated by dividing the carbon footprint of both new and existing clothing by its anticipated lifetime. This figure is approximately 17 million tonnes of CO 2 e. The most dominant life cycle stage is fabric production (comprising weaving/knitting etc. and treatment of fabric), representing 33% of total life cycle GHG impacts. The carbon footprint of a tonne of garments, both new and existing, in use in the UK in 2009 ranges from around 15 to 46 tonnes CO 2 e, depending on the fibre type of the garment. The carbon footprint of each garment, both new and existing, in use in the UK in 2009 ranges from around 1 to 17 kg CO 2 e. The per person carbon footprint of all garments, both new and existing, in use in the UK in 2009 is around 0.6 tonnes of CO 2 e. 3

4 Figure 1: Carbon footprint all clothing in use in the UK in 2009, whether manufactured in or imported to the UK, represented as a total for the UK, broken down by life cycle stage and fibre type 4

5 Savings Achieved in the Central scenario The study also quantifies the potential effect of a number of example impact reduction measures relative to the estimated baseline footprint. Reduction measures are presented for a realistic Central future reduction scenario, and also an aspirational What If? reduction scenario. Options for reduction are considered across the life cycle (eg eco-efficiency in the manufacture, retail and distribution of clothing, washing at lower temperatures, increasing load size, more reuse etc.). Table 1 and Figure 2 below present the estimated carbon saving from the baseline footprint for Reduction measure Eco-efficiency across supply chain (production, distribution and retail) - Baseline (t CO 2e) Reduction (t CO 2e) Reduction % Central scenario - 5% reduction for all fibres across supply chain 38,175,293 1,563, % Design for Durability (and product lifetime optimisation) - Central scenario - 10% longer lifetime of clothing 38,175,293 2,941, % Shift in market to higher proportion of synthetic fibres - Central scenario - replace 10% of cotton with 50:50 polycotton. [Data exclude in-use savings] 38,175, , % Clean clothing less - Central scenario - washes per year reduced by 10% 38,175, , % Wash at lower temperature - Central scenario - weighted average wash temperature of 39.3C 38,175, , % Increase size of washing and drying loads - Central scenario - load increases to 3.7kg 38,175, , % Use the tumble dryer less - Central scenario - 30% reduction in tumble dryer use in summer 38,175, , % Dispose less - reuse more - Central scenario 15.4% of clothing ultimately reused in UK 38,175, , % Start closed loop recycling of synthetic fibres - Central scenario - 5% of all clothing is recycled (closed loop) 38,175, , % Dispose less - recycle more (open loop) - Central scenario - 38% of all clothing is recycled open loop 38,175, , % Cumulative reduction 7,989, % Table 1: Savings achieved by each reduction measure of the Central scenario 5

6 Figure 2: Savings achieved by each reduction measure of the Central scenario From the estimates presented in Table 1 and Figure 2, the following points are evident. A potential 21% reduction in the carbon footprint of UK clothing would occur if all reduction measures considered for the Central scenario were achieved. The largest carbon footprint reductions are achieved by extending product lifetime (8%), ecoefficiency across the supply chain (4% reduction) and washing clothing less (3% reduction). As calculated, reduction measures resulting in minimal reductions in carbon footprint include increasing open loop recycling, increasing reuse and a shift in the market to a larger proportion of synthetic fibres. [Note: the term synthetics is used here to include man-made fibres such as viscose.] Table 2 presents all the reduction measures considered in order of effectiveness for the Central scenario. Rank Reduction Measure Stakeholder Design for Durability (and Product lifetime optimisation) - central scenario - 10% Manufacturer/ 1 longer lifetime of clothing consumer Eco efficiency across supply chain (production, distribution and retail) - central 2 scenario - 5% reduction for all fibres across supply chain Manufacturer 3 Clean clothing less - central scenario - Washes per year reduced by 10% Consumer Wash at lower temperature - central scenario - weighted average wash temperature 4 of 39.3C Consumer 5 Increase size of washing and drying loads - central scenario - load increases to 3.7kg Consumer 6 Use the tumble dryer less - central scenario - 30% reduction in tumble dryer use in summer Consumer 7 Start closed loop recycling of synthetic fibres - central scenario - 5% of all clothing is recycled (closed loop) Consumer 8 Dispose less - reuse more - central scenario % of clothing reused in the UK Consumer 9 Dispose less - recycle more (open loop) - central scenario % of all clothing is recycled open loop Consumer Shift in market to higher proportion of synthetic fibres - central scenario - Replace Manufacturer/ 10 10% of cotton with 50:50 poly-cotton consumer Table 2: Reduction measures of the Central scenario in order of effectiveness 6

7 Savings Achieved in the What If? Scenario Figure 3 presents the potential estimated carbon saving from the baseline generated by each reduction measure in a more ambitious What If? scenario. Figure 3: Savings achieved by each reduction measure of the What If? scenario The estimated reductions presented in Figure 3 indicate the following. A 71% reduction in the carbon footprint of UK clothing will occur if all reduction measures considered by the What If? scenario are achieved. The largest carbon footprint reductions are achieved by extending product lifetime (27% reduction), eco-efficiencies across the supply chain (24% reduction) and washing less (4% reduction). Reduction measures resulting in the smallest reductions in carbon footprint include increasing closed loop recycling, increasing open loop recycling and a shift to a higher proportion of synthetics. In addition to the reduction measures presented in the above scenarios, a series of consumer interventions were analysed in the study to examine their influence on carbon footprint results. The impact of ten post-sale in-use interventions was examined through a change in the behaviour of 10% of the UK population under each measure). The purpose of this exercise was to compare the effectiveness of a variety of measures to change consumer behaviour during the use phase once the clothing has been purchased. Consistent with the findings of the main scenarios, the in-use interventions resulting in the greatest savings are a shift towards behaviours that lead to an increase in clothing lifetime by one year and cleaning clothing less, followed by less reliance on tumble drying. The report also presents a series of sensitivity analyses to investigate the study s key uncertainties. These examine the sensitivity of the results and conclusions to a change in a particular assumption or data point. The sensitivity analyses undertaken were: the influence of a future decarbonised electricity grid on the impact of the use phase; the influence of fibre type on washing and drying impacts; the influence of product lifetime on results; the influence of washing frequency on results; and the influence of UK fibre mix on results. The findings of these analyses indicate the following. Future decarbonisation of UK electricity will decrease the direct carbon footprint associated with the cleaning of clothing. The significance of the use phase (primarily washing and drying) 7

8 impacts, relative to upstream life cycle stages (raw materials, manufacture and distribution, retail) and end of life impacts will reduce. Where the energy use impacts of tumble drying are allocated to clothing based on the relative drying time of fibre types (rather than by its mass only as they are in the main analysis), the carbon footprint increases from the baseline for natural fibres (by ~2-5%) and decreases for synthetic fibres (by ~3-5%). The total remains the same. Where loads are mixed and drying energy is based on the slowest drying item of clothing (ie natural fibres), the carbon footprint for each fibre type increases from the baseline. This reflects an increase in the drying time of all fibre types caused by a natural fibre type being present in each load. This is in comparison to a baseline average energy usage where some loads are mixed and some are separated. When the difference in washing temperature is also considered, the reduction achieved from the shift towards synthetics in both the central and What If? scenarios is around a third larger. The longer the lifetime of clothing (eg from clothing simply being retained in use by the consumer for longer, design for durability, reuse, or from leasing or resale), the lower the carbon footprint (reduced supply chain impacts, primarily) and the shorter the lifetime of clothing that is used, the higher the carbon footprint. Where it is assumed in the analysis clothing is washed 5 times per kilogram per year, the total carbon footprint is 13% less than that of the main analysis (where it is assumed clothing is washed 9.9 times). The carbon reductions achieved through use phase improvement actions are less and those of non-use phase improvement action are greater. Where it is assumed clothing is washed 15 times per kilogram per year, the total carbon footprint is 13% greater than that of the main analysis carbon footprint. The carbon reductions achieved through use phase improvement actions are greater and those of non-use phase improvement action are less. The baseline carbon footprint total with an alternative Carbon Trust fibre mix data set for UK clothing consumption is 12% less than the baseline total where the Biointelligence fibre mix data is used. For the What if? scenario, the reduction achieved where Carbon Trust fibre mix data is used is 11% less than the reduction achieved where Biointelligence fibre mix data is used. Although absolute reduction values change, the order of improvement actions changes less with the new fibre mix, with the top three and bottom three improvement actions remaining the same with both fibre data. (The Metrics group of the Sustainable Clothing Action Plan is currently (July 2012) preparing to collate actual UK retailer data on fibre mix and sales volumes, which could allow the footprint analysis to be updated at a later date.) Conclusions Overall, the total carbon footprint associated with clothing produced for, and in use in, the UK in 2009 is estimated at approximately 38 million tonnes of CO 2 e (~0.6 tonnes per person per year). Because the majority of UK clothing is manufactured outside the UK, it must be noted that ~32% occurs within the UK and ~68% occurs overseas as a consequence of the garments manufactured for UK consumers. Per tonne of clothing, the footprint ranges from around 15 to 46 tonnes CO 2 e per year, depending on the fibre type of the garment. To put this carbon footprint of UK clothing into context, the total direct GHG emissions in the UK in 2009 were reported as 566 million tonnes of CO 2 e (DECC, 2011). It should be noted that this total for the UK does not include GHG emissions associated with imported goods or services or international travel. Therefore, the direct carbon footprint of clothing is approximately 2% of the UK s total direct carbon footprint. 8

9 Ten potential options for carbon footprint reduction are presented. According to the study, measures aimed at reducing the impacts associated with the production of clothing (in design and eco-efficiency measures in the supply chain and reuse), and also the use phase (less and better washing and drying by the consumer), show the greatest potential. This is not unexpected, since these life cycle phases currently contribute the greatest impacts. For the reduction measures examined in the Central scenario, the combined effect of the ten measures across the entire life cycle is estimated to be 21%. In the aspirational What If? Scenario, this is increased to an estimated carbon reduction of 71%. However, it should be noted that the study does not examine the practicability of implementing each option, or consider other non-carbon sustainability impacts for these options. It should also be noted that these reductions from the baseline do not include the potential decarbonisation of energy (electricity) production, which will also reduce the carbon footprint of clothing in future. The findings from the study sensitivity analysis indicate that, amongst other factors, the fibre mix of UK clothing affects the magnitude of the footprint and the overall savings achievable, but has less influence on the order of the reduction measures. Overall, the analysis confirms the rationale for encouraging reduction measures at each and every stage of the life cycle, including nudging consumer behaviour towards favourable outcomes. If UK electricity is decarbonised, the sensitivity analysis undertaken for the study indicates sustainable production and consumption measures aimed at reducing the production impacts of clothing will further increase in importance over time, relative to use phase interventions. The study provides an initial analysis into the potential indirect effects on the washing and drying footprint if the market is shifted towards one type of fibre over another. There are uncertainties associated with the findings of this analysis, but it indicates that fibre choice affects the magnitude of impact in the use phase. 9

10 Contents 0.0 Executive summary... 3 Estimated Current Carbon Footprint for UK Clothing... 3 Savings Achieved in the Central scenario... 5 Savings Achieved in the What If? Scenario... 7 Conclusions Introduction About this study Goal of this Study Project Approach Project Scope System Boundary Functional Unit Literature Search Carbon Footprint Calculation Reduction Measures Baseline and Future Scenarios Further In-use Interventions Sensitivity Analyses Excel Model Life Cycle Inventory Life cycle Description Production of Fibre Production of Yarn Production of Fabric Treatment of Fabric Production of Garments Distribution and Retail Use End of Life Key Data Sources Key Data All Life cycle Stages Key Data - Production of Fibre, Yarn, Fabric and Garments Key Data - Distribution and Retail Key Data Use Washing Drying Ironing Key Data - End of Life Reduction Measures Baseline and Future Scenarios Data Quality Impact Assessment Baseline Scenario Carbon Footprint of all Clothing in Use in the UK in 2009, whether manufactured in or imported to the UK UK Total Carbon Footprint of all Clothing in Use in the UK in 2009, whether manufactured in or Imported to the UK per person Carbon Footprint of all Clothing in Use in the UK in 2009, whether manufactured in or Imported to the UK per tonne Carbon Footprint of all Clothing in Use in the UK in 2009, whether manufactured in or Imported to the UK per garment Savings Achieved in the Central Scenario Savings Achieved in the What If? Scenario Benchmarking Against Other Studies Further Analysis

11 4.5.1 Further In-use Interventions Sensitivity Analyses Decarbonisation of Grid Electricity (Sensitivity 1) Influence of Fibre Type on Drying (Sensitivity 2a and 2b) Influence of Fibre Type on Washing (Sensitivity 3) Longer Product Lifetimes (Sensitivity 4a and 4b) Washing Frequency (Sensitivity 5) UK Fibre Mix (Sensitivity 6) Conclusions of Sensitivity Analyses Decarbonisation of Grid Electricity (Sensitivity 1) Influence of Fibre Type on Drying (Sensitivity 2a and 2b) Influence of Fibre Type on Washing (Sensitivity 3) Longer Product Lifetimes (Sensitivity 4a and 4b) Washing Frequency (Sensitivity 5) UK Fibre Mix (Sensitivity 6) Conclusions Summary of this Study Summary of Baseline Results Summary of Reduction Scenarios Further Analysis Findings Findings from Sensitivity Analyses Concluding Remarks Suggested Next Steps References

12 1.0 Introduction 1.1 About this study WRAP (Waste & Resources Action Programme) works in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland to help businesses and individuals reap the benefits of reducing waste, develop sustainable products and use resources in an efficient way. Environmental Resources Management Limited (ERM) was commissioned by WRAP to conduct a life cycle carbon footprint study for UK clothing and indicate the scope for footprint reduction. Many previous studies have assessed the carbon impacts of various clothing types and modelled reduction initiatives. However, none has focused on measuring the carbon footprint of UK clothing as a whole and modelled the total potential for reduction. To this end, WRAP commissioned ERM to undertake research on the life cycle carbon impact of clothing in the UK. This study required a strategiclevel carbon footprint for UK clothing, based on published data and information. The footprint was expressed in a number of ways to show the contribution and scope for reduction. Furthermore, a scenario assessment was made for a number of different options for footprint reduction. 1.2 Goal of this Study The stated objective of this research was to provide WRAP with an overview of the impacts of UK clothing on carbon emissions through the clothing life cycle, identifying the most significant contributions to the carbon footprint (ie the hotspots), and quantifying opportunities for savings. The study follows on from a study undertaken for WRAP by URS on the water footprint of UK clothing entitled Review of Data on Embodied Water in Clothing and Opportunities for Savings (URS, 2011). 2.0 Project Approach This section describes the scope considered in the project and summarises the approach used. 2.1 Project Scope The scope of the project was to undertake a strategic-level carbon footprint of UK clothing over the entire life cycle using secondary data available in the literature. UK clothing has been defined in this study as all clothing, both new and existing, in use in the UK over the period of one year. The analysis covers both clothing manufactured and used in the UK and clothing manufactured abroad and used in the UK. The comparatively small amount of clothing manufactured in the UK and exported abroad was not considered in the analysis. The datum for this analysis is 2009, as the year for which the most recent data are available. The project assesses total quantities of all major fibre types purchased (and in use) within the UK during The fibre types assessed comprise: acrylic; cotton; flax / linen; polyamide (nylon); polyester; polypropylene; silk; viscose; and wool. 1

13 These are the fibres selected by the Metrics group of the Sustainable Clothing Action Plan as the most important fibres within their sales mix. There are other fibres in use, but rather less significant in terms of quantity sold. The scope of the project also includes consideration of a number of example reduction measures (eg washing at lower temperatures, increasing load size etc.), whereby potential savings in relation to the 2009 baseline are quantified for a Central reduction scenario and a What If? reduction scenario. In addition to carbon footprint results for each of these three defined scenarios, the scope includes the provision of an Excel model for use in this project that allows the modeller to examine new scenarios, where values for each reduction measure can be changed. The study provides a carbon footprint assessment. Therefore, it does not consider other potential social, economic and environmental impacts such as toxicity or labour standards. 2.2 System Boundary The entire life cycle of UK clothing is considered. Therefore, this study can be considered a full cradle-tograve or business-to-consumer carbon footprint. Exclusions to the assessment have been made following the general specifications given in PAS 2050 (1). In addition, other exclusions have been made based on their materiality, ie any process anticipated to contribute <1% of total life cycle GHG emissions has been excluded. The following life cycle stages have been included in the carbon footprint assessment: extraction of raw materials required for the production of fibres; processing of materials (e.g. production of synthetic polymer resin); production of fibres (either at farm or factory); production of yarn; production of fabric; treatment of fabric (eg bleaching, dyeing etc.); production of garments; packaging of garments; transportation of materials and goods to and from production locations; waste at all stages of production; transportation of garments to the UK; storage at regional distribution centre (RDC) in the UK; transportation from RDC to retail outlets; storage at retail outlets in the UK; use of clothing (eg washing (energy, water and detergent use), tumble drying, ironing); and end of life of clothing (eg reuse, recycling, landfill and incineration) The following life cycle stages/burdens have been excluded from the carbon footprint assessment: transportation of consumers to and from the point of retail purchase; packaging of packaging used at all life cycle stages; fabric softeners, colour catches etc. or other material inputs used during washing; water use for ironing; preparation for reuse burdens (2) ; and stain removers used during the use phase. In addition, the following aspects have been excluded, which cover more than one life cycle stage: capital goods (eg the manufacture of weaving looms, washing machines, irons etc.); (1) PAS 2050: Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services (2) Preparation for Reuse burdens results from the checking, cleaning or repairing recovery operations, by which products or components of products that have become waste are prepared so that they can be re-used without any other pre-processing. The impacts associated with them are typically trivial relative to those at other end of life impacts. 2

14 2.3 Functional Unit human energy inputs to processing; and animals providing transport services. In Life Cycle Assessment and carbon footprinting methods, environmental impacts are represented in terms of a metric known as the functional unit. The functional unit allows a quantified environmental impact to be expressed as a function of the desired purpose of the product or service and ideally allows for a straightforward comparison between similar products or services. The carbon footprint results of this assessment are represented in terms of the following functional unit: The entire life cycle of all garments, both new and existing, in use in the UK in The results provided in the study relate to the annual impacts associated with UK clothing. They include the impacts associated with the quantity of clothes that are produced for the UK and consumed and disposed of each year, but they also include the impacts associated with clothing that is actively worn and cleaned each year (approximately 1.1 million tonnes of new clothing is consumed in the UK each year, ~2.5 million tonnes is in active use - note that this is greater than the annual consumed clothing because clothes last for more than one year). The chosen functional unit is the total carbon footprint of clothing (both new and old) in a given year (ie in 2009). As such, it uses the anticipated lifetime of each garment type to consider the proportion of clothing manufactured and disposed of in Use phase impacts are for one year for all clothing in active use (both new and old) in The rationale behind including both new and existing clothing within the functional unit is that it follows an inclusive approach where the annual impact of all clothing is considered. An alternative approach, that would yield identical results (assuming sales are static), is to look at new clothing only throughout its life cycle, whereby life cycle impacts are considered throughout all years of use (ie 2009, 2010 and a portion of 2011). This is the approach used in a water footprinting study recently carried out by URS for WRAP. It was decided not to use this approach as, with the ultimate aim of the SCAP in mind, measuring total impacts of all clothing on an annual basis shows in full the opportunities for reduction and any progress towards targets that can be fully measured year on year. The method that was used to calculate the quantity of clothing in use in a given year (both new and old, by using the annual quantity of clothing purchased and the anticipated lifetime of that clothing) has three main assumptions. Firstly, it is assumed that purchasing behaviour has remained static insofar as the quantity of clothing purchased in 2009 was the same in previous years and will be the same in future years 1. In other words, new clothing will eventually replace existing clothing on a one for one basis. Secondly, as the quantity of clothing purchased was used to calculate the quantity of clothing in use, there is an assumption that all clothing purchased is used, rather than being purchased and never used. Thirdly, the wardrobe stockpile is treated separately and is not considered within the functional unit of this study. The wardrobe stockpile includes clothing that is retained within the home but not in active use (eg stored away in wardrobes, boxes, the loft, garage etc.) and therefore was thought not to constitute clothing in use. The rationale for including both clothing manufactured and used in the UK and clothing manufactured abroad and used in the UK is that it places the emphasis of burden ownership on the user; the ultimate reason for the product. In this approach, the GHG emissions associated with clothing manufactured in China and exported to the UK for use, for example, are covered under the UK s clothing carbon footprint. However, those GHG emissions associated with the comparatively small amount of clothing manufactured in the UK and exported to Italy for use in Italy, for example, are not considered under the UK s clothing carbon footprint (i.e. they belong to Italy). The chosen functional unit reflects a consumption-based approach to GHG reporting. 1 This assumption is noted as a simplification and a limitation. It is likely that consumption has grown and may continue to grow in line with gross domestic product (GDP) or retail price index (RPI). However, it was thought that accounting for economic growth adds further complexity and is unnecessary for the purposes of this study. 3

15 4

16 As alternative expressions of this functional unit, carbon footprint results are also presented in this study in terms of: one tonne of garments in use in the UK in 2009; garments used by one UK resident in 2009; and one garment used in the UK in Carbon footprint results are broken down per life cycle stage and per fabric or garment type, and are presented in terms of the impact of those garments manufactured in the UK, those garments imported to the UK and a sum of the two. 2.4 Literature Search Numerous studies have been published that examine life cycle impacts of clothing. These studies vary widely in scope. For example, some focus on particular garment or fibre types, some are qualitative or semi-quantitative, they may consider different impact categories, and some focus on individual life cycle stages (e.g. the use phase, in particular) rather than the entire life cycle. Alongside the information on the environmental impacts of clothing, much of the available research also lists potential opportunities for reduction. Therefore, at the start of the project, it was felt that the available literature would provide data and information sufficient for a strategic-level carbon footprint of UK clothing. The literature search initially focused on assessing previous ERM clothing studies, publications recommended by WRAP, studies undertaken as part of the Sustainable Clothing Roadmap programme and references cited by each of these publications and a general literature search of government, industry and academic publications. References are provided in Section 6 of the report. Relevant data were extracted from the literature sources, collated and reviewed for quality. Relevant data included: life cycle inventory (LCI) data of input and outputs to a particular process; individual data points, such as energy used for a particular process; GHG emissions factors for a particular process (eg for GHG emissions associated with 1 kwh of electricity or 1 litre of tap water); production information, such as location of raw material and finished garments by fibre type; consumption information, such as total quantity of each fibre and garment used in UK; information on production processes of fibre, yarn, fabric, textiles and clothing; consumer behaviour information, such as ironing times, washing temperatures etc.; information on clothing attributes, such as typical mass, lifetimes etc.; and suggested carbon footprint reduction measures for estimating potential savings in the future. A brief search of the academic literature concerning the different physical properties of clothing fibre was undertaken for the study. No robust data were identified from this search to establish a relative index of water retention or other properties for fibres which might affect the size of use phase burdens. The uncertainty associated with the relative cleaning and drying impacts of different fibre types was subsequently examined in further analysis (Section 4.6). 2.5 Carbon Footprint Calculation Product carbon footprinting is a technique used to assess the global warming potential of a product or service. Carbon footprinting usually takes a systematic view of the supply chain from raw material extraction through to the final disposal (ie cradle to grave). As with any carbon footprint assessment, this study therefore began by defining the scope of assessment, i.e. the system boundary. The inputs and outputs of each process within the system boundary were quantified in a process of inventory analysis. The life cycle inventory (LCI) was built entirely from relevant data collected from the literature. An impact assessment followed, which first assessed the inventory for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and quantified these over the entire life cycle. GHGs considered include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride. The most significant of these in terms of global contribution to global warming are carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O). 5

17 The total emissions of individual greenhouse gases were subsequently normalised to CO 2 using global warming potentials which consider the ability of each gas to absorb infra-red radiation and its lifetime in the atmosphere over a certain period of time (usually 100 years). The resulting metric is a quantity of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO 2 e). The impact method applied in this study uses the 100 year global warming potentials from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in BSI (2008). This study follows the attributional Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach, whereby environmental burdens are attributable to a life cycle as described, as opposed to the consequential approach, where possible consequences (indirect effects) of a life cycle on the wider world are considered. One advantage of the attributional approach is that it allows the relative contribution of each process of the life cycle to be assessed and hotspots to be identified. However, as with many attributional carbon footprints, it was necessary in this study to use consequential thinking for certain aspects of the life cycle (eg using a system expansion approach to consider avoided products as a result of reuse and recycling). The study did not consider the indirect consequential effects of the reduction options on consumption patterns, for example of clothing in countries to which UK second hand clothing is sent. Another consequential effect not considered was that, for reduced clothing consumption scenarios, the effect of purchasing less clothing may indirectly reduce the demand for land to produce natural fibre clothing, hence reducing land use change and the implications to the carbon cycle of land use change. Wearing more layers or different types of clothing might result in less household heating required during the winter. Neither did the study consider potential rebound effects. These are changes in consumption patterns as a consequence of an action or behaviour. For example, the outcome of an initiative to reduce clothing consumption might be a reduction in consumer spending on clothing. In theory, this could lead to an outcome where households spend more of their disposable income on environmentally damaging activities. 2.6 Reduction Measures Many options for environmental impact reduction of clothing have been suggested in previous research literature, some more effective and practicable than others. The approach taken in this study was to use the initial results of the carbon footprint assessment to identify hotspots in the life cycle, where carbon impacts are largest. This hotspot analysis helped to focus attention on those areas of the life cycle where the greatest savings could be achieved, which in turn dictated which reduction measures should be considered. The number of identified reduction measures was narrowed down by ERM to 17. For each of these, the potential stakeholders involved in each reduction measure were identified and a simple communication message underpinning each option formed. WRAP and selected stakeholders of the Sustainable Clothing Action Plan (SCAP) were consulted and the number of reduction options considered for analysis was subsequently reduced to 10. Hence, the final options examined are based on expert understanding of the sector and measures currently being/likely to be considered, rather than quantitative cost benefit analysis. Three scenarios (or three versions of the carbon footprint model) were developed for each reduction measure, which are listed below and discussed in the next section: A baseline scenario: the current (2009) situation in the UK; A Central scenario: a realistic future situation in the UK where modest reductions have occurred for each measure; and A What If? scenario; an optimistic future situation in the UK where significant reductions have occurred for each measure. 6

18 2.7 Baseline and Future Scenarios To consider the effectiveness of a reduction measure, a baseline needs to be established against which potential savings can be reported. The baseline scenario for this assessment is the current situation in the UK (based on 2009 data), which assumes that none of the reduction scenarios considered is in place. This was created through the collation and review of data, and used to build up a carbon footprint model of the entire life cycle of UK clothing (described in Section 2.4 and Section 2.5). Two different future scenarios were created in order to assess the mid-range (Central scenario) and upper aspirational ( What If? scenario) potentials for reduction. Each reduction measure considered can be selected individually or in combination to assess the potential savings in carbon footprint that can be made. When a reduction measure is selected, only data associated with that measure are changed in the model; all other data will remain fixed, as per the baseline. The Central scenario can be considered a credible future situation in the UK where modest reductions occur for each measure. A review of data in the literature and other sources provided insight into likely values for reduction for each measure (eg based on commitments by manufacturers or retailers). Where possible, the values for potential reductions were aligned to the URS water footprint report for consistency (see Section 3.8). The What If? scenario can be considered to be an optimistic future situation in the UK, where significant reductions have occurred for each measure. In the same approach as above, sources were used to create values for an optimistic reduction for each measure. Again, the values were aligned with the URS water footprint report where possible. WRAP and selected industry stakeholders were consulted with regard to the magnitude of each reduction to be represented in the modelling. 2.8 Further In-use Interventions The SCAP In-use group identified the use phase as an area warranting further analysis. Therefore, in addition to the reduction measures presented in the future scenarios, a series of consumer interventions were tested for their influence on carbon footprint results. In a similar approach taken to identifying the overall reduction measures, ERM presented a number of in-use interventions to WRAP and selected stakeholders from the SCAP group, who agreed on which interventions should be modelled. 2.9 Sensitivity Analyses In product carbon footprinting, it is inevitable that surrogate data and assumptions will be required for certain aspects of the life cycle, which will lead to uncertainty in the results. For key uncertainties, sensitivity analyses can be performed to examine the sensitivity of results and conclusions to a change in a particular assumption or data point. By performing sensitivity analyses, the significance of a particular assumption or use of a particular data point can be tested. A number of sensitivity analyses were performed in this study Excel Model Figure 1 provides a summary of the main information flows in the project. The modelling began with the development of carbon footprint models in the LCA software tool SimaPro for fibre production, manufacturing, distribution and retail by fibre type. Results for each fibre type, by life cycle stage, were transferred to an ERM-developed Excel model. This model enables results for each of the three defined scenarios (ie baseline, central and What If? ) to be calculated and broken down by fabric type and life cycle stage. A set of results is presented for garments manufactured in the UK, garments manufactured outside of the UK and a sum of the two. Each of these results can be represented in terms of each of the functional unit and the three alternative expressions of the functional unit. These results can be considered fixed, or static, as they reflect the three scenarios that ERM has defined. 7

19 Figure 4 below summarises the stages involved in this project. Figure 4: Summary of project As well as the fixed outputs generated by the model, its dynamic aspect allows the modeller to develop additional reduction scenarios (see Figures 5 and 6). For each reduction measure, the modeller is able to change parameters to observe the effect on the carbon footprint. For example, the modeller can investigate the impact on carbon footprint of increasing the average size of washing loads by 20%, and/or if more of the population washed at 15 o C. The results of this exercise are presented in terms of the carbon footprint of the scenario created versus the baseline, where savings are given for each reduction measure and cumulatively for all reduction measures selected (see Section 4.2). Figure 5 and Figure 6 below show some screen shots of the Excel model for illustrative purposes. 8

20 Figure 5: Screen shot of the use phase and end of life calculator of the Excel model Figure 6: Screen shot of the transformation section of the Excel model 9

21 3.0 Life Cycle Inventory This section provides a description of the life cycle under investigation and the key data used in the study to build up the life cycle inventory of clothing in use in the UK. 3.1 Life cycle Description Figure 7 shows a generic process map of the life cycle of clothing both manufactured in and imported to the UK. The process map represents all fibres of this study (ie acrylic, cotton, linen, polyamide, polyester, polypropylene, silk, viscose and wool). Inputs and outputs are displayed for each process relevant to this carbon footprint assessment. For each input of materials and energy to a process, there are associated GHG emissions occurring upstream from this process. Similarly, for each waste output from a process, there are associated GHG emissions occurring downstream from this process. Where more than one product arises from a process (i.e. co-products such as wool and meat from livestock rearing), GHG emissions of that process are allocated on an economic or mass basis Production of Fibre The production of natural fibre involves various farming activities; broadly, either the cultivation of crops; or the rearing of livestock. Cotton and linen fibre is produced through the cultivation of crops, where fertilisers, seeds, water, pesticides (crop protection) and fuel are among the many inputs required. Outputs include the fibre, coproducts (eg seed, oils, and straw), waste and direct GHG emissions, which are released through the breakdown of nitrate fertilisers, combustion of fuels and breakdown of crop residues. Some further processing is required to produce fibres from crops. For example, cotton needs to be ginned, which is a process of separating fibre from seeds. Wool and silk are produced from livestock, where inputs include feed and water. Outputs include the fibre, co-products (eg meat, bone and skin), waste and direct GHG emissions from enteric fermentation, the breakdown of manure and combustion of fuels. The production of synthetic fibre usually involves the production of a base material, in the form of a resin or granulates, then conversion of this base into a fibre. Polyamide, polyester, polypropylene, acrylic and viscose are all made by a process of polymerisation, which involves inputs of chemicals, energy and water. The resulting polymer output is processed further to produce a synthetic fibre, which in turn requires more inputs of materials and energy and produces more waste Production of Yarn Spinning is the approach that is generally used to manufacture yarn from both natural and synthetic fibres. This method involves twisting fibres to create a continuous length of yarn. Before spinning can take place, other processes are sometimes required to prepare the fibre (eg roving). Inputs to this process comprise fibre either virgin, waste fibre from industry or from post-consumer waste and energy. Outputs comprise yarn, direct GHG emissions from combustion and waste fibre/yarn Production of Fabric Yarn is then used to produce fabric using a variety of methods, including weaving, knitting, crocheting, braiding, lacing and felting. Again, virgin material, industrial waste or post-consumer waste can be used as the yarn feedstock and, of course energy is required. Outputs comprise the fabric itself, direct GHG emissions from combustion and waste fabric/yarn. 10

22 3.1.4 Treatment of Fabric Fabric then undergoes various treatment processes to enhance its properties, depending on its application. These processes may include dyeing, bleaching, printing and adding substances to preventing creasing, to reduce water retention etc. Inputs of fabric (virgin or recycled), chemicals, water, energy and fuels are required and outputs comprise the finished fabric and waste fabric Production of Garments Finished fabric is then used to produce garments through a process of measuring, cutting, gluing, sewing and packaging. Other input material in the form of fibre is required for the sewing process in addition to energy. Outputs comprise the finished and packaged garments, direct GHG emissions from combustion and waste fabric/garments Distribution and Retail This stage involves transportation of finished garments by road, air and sea from the manufacturer to RDC in the UK and transportation by road from RDCs to retail outlets. Inputs of fuel and outputs of GHG emissions from combustion are associated with the process of transportation. This stage also involves the storage of garments in RDC and retail outlets, with associated inputs of energy required to heat, cool and light buildings and outputs of GHG emissions from combustion Use Activities of the use phase comprise washing, drying and ironing. Washing requires material inputs of water, detergent and potentially fabric conditioner. Drying generally requires no inputs of materials. Water use in ironing was not included, but is likely to be insignificant All activities of the use phase require inputs of energy. Each of these activities is assumed to use electricity as an energy source and therefore no direct GHG emissions are released (ie emissions from combustion occur upstream at power stations). Although clothes are normally washed and dried as mixed loads, each garment is actually likely to require a different quantity of electricity to be washed or dried, depending on its weight and the composition of fibres and the physical properties of these fibres (e.g. drying kinetics). However, there is considerable uncertainty in quantifying these differences. Therefore, in common with previous studies, such as Biointelligence (2009), electricity used for washing, drying and ironing was allocated to clothing on a mass basis, rather than differentiated by fibre type. Subsequently, a sensitivity analysis was performed to consider the impact of fibre type on drying (Section 4.6.2). In terms of materials outputs in the use phase, only wastewater from washing processes is considered End of Life Five potential routes are modelled for clothing considered by consumers to be at the end of its useful life, as follows. 1. Reuse The garment is directly reused in the UK or outside of the UK. The clothing may be reused in the UK through family/friendship networks; internet-based exchanges; car boot sales/jumble sales; charity shops etc, or collected through charities; bring banks; or kerbside collection and prepared for reuse, including the segregation of clothing unfit for reuse. Where the garment is reused, there is said to be an output of an avoided product. In other words, by reusing the garment, the need to manufacture a new garment is displaced. 11

23 2. Closed loop recycling The garment is collected from the consumer for recycling and, being of good enough quality, fibres can be reprocessed and reused by the clothing industry to make another garment. 3. Open loop recycling The garment is collected from the consumer for recycling but, being of low quality (torn, worn or stained) it is converted into wiping cloths or processed back into fibres to be used in equally low grade products. Uses for reclaimed fibres include filling materials for mattresses, car insulation, roofing felts or furniture padding. 4. Disposal The garment is disposed of by the consumer as domestic black bin waste and either sent to landfill or incineration. Both processes can recover energy, so there is an avoided product of grid electricity (and possibly heat) through the combustion of clothing or landfill gas. 5. Storage The garment is no longer used by the consumer and stored (eg in the loft or wardrobe). 12

24 Figure 7: Generic process map for clothing (both synthetic and natural) in the UK 3.2 Key Data Sources Key sources of data used in this project are provided in Table 3 and Table 4 below. Table 3 provides the ultimate data source per fibre type for each production stage and Table 4 provides the data sources for the remaining life cycle stages (which are the same regardless of fibre type). A full list of references used in this study is provided at the end of this report. 13

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