electronics fundamentals
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1 electronics fundamentals circuits, devices, and applications THOMAS L. FLOYD DAVID M. BUCHLA Lesson 1: Diodes and Applications
2 Clamper Circuits (Diode Clampers) A clamper adds a dc level to an ac voltage. Clampers are sometimes known as dc restorers. Figure 2-45 shows a diode clamper that inserts a positive dc level in the output waveform. The operation of the circuit can be seen by considering the first negative half-cycle of the input voltage. When the input voltage initially goes negative, the diode is forward-biased, allowing the capacitor to charge near the peak of the input (V p(in) ) 0.7V), as shown in Figure 2-45(a) Figure 2-45 Positive clamper operation.
3 Clamper Circuits (Diode Clampers) Just after the negative peak, the diode is reversebiased. The net effect of the clamping action is that the capacitor retains a charge approximately equal to the peak value of the input less the diode drop. The capacitor voltage acts essentially as a battery in series to the input voltage. The dc voltage of the capacitor adds to the input voltage to produce the output voltage as shown in Figure 2-46(b) Figure 2-45 Positive clamper operation.
4 Clamper Circuits (Diode Clampers) If the diode is turned around, a negative dc voltage is added to the input voltage to produce the output voltage as shown in Figure Figure 2-45 Positive clamper operation.
5 Special-purpose diodes Special purpose diodes include Zener diodes used for establishing a reference voltage Varactor diodes used as variable capacitors Light-emitting diodes used in displays Photodiodes used as light sensors
6 Special-purpose diodes Zener Diodes The zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that differs from the rectifier diode in that it is designed for operation in the reverse breakdown region. FIGURE Diode V-I characteristic illustrating the operation of a zener diode compared to a rectified diode. The slope of the reverse-breakdown region is exaggerated to show detail.
7 Special-purpose diodes Zener Diodes FIGURE Zener equivalent circuits. The slope is exaggerated to clarify the definition of Z Z.
8 Special-purpose diodes Varactor Diodes Varactor diodes are also known as variable-capacitance diodes because the junction capacitance varies with the amount of reverse bias-voltage. A varactor is basically a reverse-biased pn junction diode that utilizes the inherent capacitance of the depletion region. FIGURE The reverse-biased varactor diode acts as a variable capacitor.
9 Special-purpose diodes Varactor Diodes Applications A major application of varactors is as a part of a tuned circuit in communications device. Example is the FM modulator. FIGURE Varactor diode capacitance varies with reverse voltage.
10 Special-purpose diodes Light-Emitting Diodes The basic operation of an LED (light-emitting diode) is as follows: When the device is forward biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the n-type material and recombine with holes in the p-type material. When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the form of heat and light. FIGURE Light energy Electroluminescence in a forward-biased LED.
11 Special-purpose diodes Light-Emitting Diodes FIGURE Light-emitting diodes (LEDs). FIGURE Symbol for an LED.
12 Special-purpose diodes Photo Diodes The photo diode is a pn junction device that operates in reverse bias. The photo diode has a small transparent window that allows light to strike the pn junction. FIGURE Photodiode.
13 Special-purpose diodes Photo Diodes FIGURE A photodiode circuit used in a system that counts objects as they pass on a conveyor belt.
14 Troubleshooting power supplies Begin troubleshooting by analyzing the symptoms and how it failed. Try to focus on the most likely causes of failure. A power supply has no output, but was working until a newly manufactured PC board was connected to it. (a) Analyze possible failures. (b) Form a plan for troubleshooting. F IC regulator D 3 D D 2 D 4 C 1 C mf 1 mf
15 Troubleshooting power supplies The supply had been working, so the problem is not likely to be an incorrect part or wiring problem. The failure was linked to the fact that a new PC board was connected to it, which points to a possible overloading problem. If the load was too much for the supply, it is likely a fuse would have blown, or a part would likely have overheated, accounting for the lack of output. F D 3 D 1 IC regulator 7805 D 2 D 4 C 1 C mf 1 mf
16 Troubleshooting power supplies Based on the analysis, a sample plan is as follows. (It can be modified as circumstances warrant.) 1. Disconnect power and check the fuse. If it is bad, replace it. Before reapplying power, remove the load, open the power supply case, and look for evidence of overheating (such as discolored parts or boards). If no evidence of overheating proceed. 2. Check the new pc board (the load) for a short or overloading of the power supply that would cause the fuse to blow. Look for evidence of overheating. 3. Verify operation of the supply with measurements (see next slide).
17 Troubleshooting power supplies The analysis showed that a likely cause of failure was due to an overload. For the measurement step, it may be as simple as replacing the fuse and confirming that the supply works. After replacing the fuse: Reapply power to the supply but with no load. If the output is okay, put a resistive test load on the power supply and measure the output to verify it is operational. If the output is correct, the problem is probably with the new pc board. If not, you will need to further refine the analysis and plan, looking for an internal problem.
18 Selected Key Terms Majority carrier The most numerous charge carrier in a doped semiconductor material (either free electrons or holes. Minority carrier PN junction The least numerous charge carrier in a doped semiconductor material (either free electrons or holes. Diode The boundary between n-type and p-type semiconductive materials. An electronic device that permits current in only one direction.
19 Selected Key Terms Barrier potential Forward bias Reverse bias The inherent voltage across the depletion region of a pn junction diode. The condition in which a diode conducts current. Full-wave rectifier The condition in which a diode prevents current. A circuit that converts an alternating sine-wave into a pulsating dc consisting of both halves of a sine wave for each input cycle.
20 Selected Key Terms Bridge rectifier Zener diode A type of full-wave rectifier consisting of diodes arranged in a four corner configuration. A type of diode that operates in reverse breakdown (called zener breakdown) to provide a voltage reference. Varactor Photodiode A diode used as a voltage-variable capacitor. A diode whose reverse resistance changes with incident light.
21 Quiz 1. An energy level in a semiconductor crystal in which electrons are mobile is called the a. barrier potential. b. energy band. c. conduction band. d. valence band.
22 Quiz 2. A intrinsic silicon crystal is a. a poor conductor of electricity. b. an n-type of material. c. a p-type of material. d. an excellent conductor of electricity.
23 Quiz 3. A small portion of the Periodic Table is shown. The elements highlighted in yellow are a. majority carriers. b. minority carriers. III IV V c. trivalent elements. d. pentavalent elements. Al Si B Ga In C Ge Sn N P As Sb
24 Quiz 4. At room temperature, free electrons in a p-material a. are the majority carrier. b. are the minority carrier. c. are in the valence band. d. do not exist.
25 Quiz 5. The breakdown voltage for a silicon diode is reached when a. the forward bias is 0.7 V. b. the forward current is greater than 1 A. c. the reverse bias is 0.7 V. d. none of the above.
26 Quiz 6. The circuit shown is a a. half-wave rectifier. b. full-wave rectifier. c. bridge rectifier. d. zener regulator.
27 Quiz 7. PIV stands for a. Positive Ion Value. b. Programmable Input Varactor. c. Peak Inverse Voltage. d. Primary Input Voltage.
28 Quiz 8. A type of diode used a a voltage-variable capacitor is a a. varactor. b. zener. c. rectifier. d. LED.
29 Quiz 9. If one of the four diodes in a bridge rectifier is open, the output will a. be zero. b. have ½ as many pulses as normal. c. have ¼ as many pulses as normal. d. be unaffected.
30 Quiz 10. When troubleshooting a power supply that has a bridge rectifier, begin by a. replacing the bridge rectifier. b. replacing the transformer. c. making measurements. d. analyzing the symptoms and how it failed.
31 Quiz Answers: 1. c 2. a 3. c 4. b 5. d 6. b 7. c 8. a 9. b 10. d
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