A Review of Forensic Science Higher Education Programs in the United States: Bachelor s and Master s Degrees*

Transcription

1 PAPER GENERAL J Forensic Sci, November, Vol., No. doi:./j.-9...x Available online at: onlinelibrary.wiley.com Kristen L. Tregar,, M.S. and Gloria Proni, Ph.D. A Review of Forensic Science Higher Education Programs in the United States: Bachelor s and Master s Degrees* ABSTRACT: As the number of forensic science programs offered at higher education institutions rises, and more students express an interest in them, it is important to gain information regarding the offerings in terms of courses, equipment available to students, degree requirements, and other important aspects of the programs. A survey was conducted examining the existing bachelor s andmaster s forensic science programs in the U.S. Of the responding institutions, relatively few were, at the time of the survey, accredited by the forensic science Education Programs Accreditation Commission (FEPAC). In general, the standards of the responding programs vary considerably primarily in terms of their size and subjects coverage. While it is clear that the standards for the forensic science programs investigated are not homogeneous, the majority of the programs provide a strong science curriculum, faculties with advanced degrees, and interesting forensic-oriented courses. KEYWORDS: forensic science, education, survey, bachelor s program, master s program The number of higher education forensic science degree and certificate programs is rapidly expanding. As recently as 97, there were only colleges or universities offering degrees in forensic science (). These programs were limited to bachelor s degrees, master s degrees, and several different doctoral degrees. However, as of 7, there were colleges or universities offering a wide variety of programs, including undergraduate and graduate certificates, associate degrees, bachelor s degrees, master s degrees, and doctoral degrees. There has been speculation that popular television shows, such as CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, are partly responsible for the increase in student interest (). It was reported in USA Today that in, forensic science was the most popular undergraduate major for the second year in a row at West Virginia University (). A Technical Working Group for Education and Training in Forensic Sciences (), promoted by the National Institute of Justice, proposed guidelines for educational forensic science programs that served as a foundation for the Forensic Science Education Programs Accreditation Commission (FEPAC) that accredits colleges and universities, which have forensic science programs available to their students. FEPAC was initially developed as an ad hoc committee of the American Academy of forensic sciences, which then evolved into a standing committee, and, finally, into a commission, composed of five forensic science educators. At the time of our research, institutions of the offering forensic science programs had received FEPAC accreditation for John Jay College of Criminal Justice, Science Department, West 9th Street, New York, NY 7. Masters School, Science Department, 9 Clinton Avenue, Dobbs Ferry, New York, NY. *Presented at the st Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, February, 9, in Denver, CO. Received April 9; and in revised form Aug. 9; accepted Aug. 9. their programs, although this number has since increased ( in May 9). Although FEPAC accreditation is a major step toward creating national standards for forensic science programs, the availability of such accreditation is relatively new. Although the goal of this study is to provide a snapshot of the current data regarding the programs that were surveyed as they stand now, it is noteworthy to mention that the recent report by the National Association of Sciences (), finding the forensic science system fragmented, calls for major reforms in the field in general and with forensic science education and training in particular. Clearly, the call is to provide personnel with improved educational and training backgrounds. The report also calls for mandatory certification and accreditation, which it states should be the responsibility of a National Institute of forensic science. In 977, Peterson and De Forest () surveyed forensic science criminalistics degrees in the U.S. and provided a snapshot of the condition and needs of forensic science education. At that time, also the quality and standards of the programs were not uniform, and the authors wished for accreditation and improvements in many programs aspects. A 9 study () indicated that the preferred educational background for an entry-level forensic scientist was a bachelor s degree with a strong chemistry component followed by a master s degree in forensic science. Siegel also found that bachelor s degrees in forensic science were not preferred because the general feeling was that these degree programs did not provide sufficient hard science courses. Also in 9, a study (7) was published that attempted to assess whether or not the graduate forensic science programs available at that time were meeting the needs of the community. Again, it was found that a strong chemistry background was preferred so much, so that approximately half of the managers who responded to the survey preferred to hire individuals with a B.S. in chemistry than Ó American Academy of Forensic Sciences

2 TREGAR AND PRONI FORENSIC SCIENCE B.S. AND M.S. PROGRAMS: A REVIEW 9 individuals with an M.S. in forensic science. Additionally, graduate internships were found to be of significant importance to most laboratory supervisors. These findings were reiterated by Furton et al. (), who surveyed laboratory directors. In this study, the authors found that % of their respondents required B.S. degrees. Once again, a strong preference was observed for hard science courses and a B.S. in chemistry, with bachelor s degrees in forensic science not preferred by laboratory directors. In 9, Quarino and Brettell (9) provided an assessment of forensic science education, its historical prospective, and the needs for forensic science graduates. Moreover, the manuscript discusses the future of forensic science education stating that the overall quality of the programs has dramatically improved in the last decade or so. This study was designed primarily to acquire and catalog data regarding the higher education facilities that offer programs in forensic science. These programs range from undergraduate certificates to doctoral degrees but in this manuscript, only data relative to bachelor s and master s programs are presented. The survey sections requested data on curriculum, number of laboratory hours, prerequisites, and FEPAC accreditation status. Questions regarding postgraduate employment tracking were also included in each program section. The study sought to obtain information that could subsequently be used by institutions to maintain and improve the quality of their programs and by students to have a unified idea about the course offerings available in forensic science education. Methods The research was performed as an electronic survey designed using a website called SurveyMonkey Ò (). To facilitate completion of data analysis, the amount of time for which the survey was open to participants was limited. The survey was first made available to participants in early October 7 and was subsequently closed to participants in March. The survey questions and format were designed using methods suggested by Posavac and Carey (). Contact information of the institutions offering forensic science programs was obtained using the American Academy of Forensic Scientists website and Internet searches, such as Google. This contact information was entered into a spreadsheet to facilitate usage for mailings and participation tracking. To gain as much information as possible on the programs offered, the scope of the survey was relatively wide. The electronic version of the survey allowed the participant to skip questions, which were not applicable to their program. To encourage electronic participation, solicitations to participate were sent via . However, if a participant requested a paper copy of the survey, one was mailed to them with a return envelope. Results Over the course of months of data collection, responses (%) to the survey were obtained. Because of the manner in which the survey was designed, it was possible for participants to omit questions that did not apply to their program or to which they did not have a response. As a result, the number of respondents for each section of the survey varies. Faculty and Facility Information Of the institutions surveyed, 7 completed the Faculty and Facility Information section (%). It was observed that the number of faculty in any given forensic science department varied widely, from as few as one faculty member to as many as. The majority of departments were comprised of more than faculty members, although departments of or members were represented by only slightly fewer departments. The responding departments varied in the number of tenured faculty they employed, from zero tenured faculty to as many as tenured faculty members. Additionally, the number of adjunct faculty members varied widely, ranging from to. In the majority of cases, tenured faculty members outnumbered adjunct faculty members, although in cases (%), the number of adjuncts was higher when compared to the number of tenured faculty. The number of tenured versus adjunct faculty was the same in only one case. The vast majority of institutions reported having only one to two faculty members, if any, with a bachelor s degree as their highest obtained degree. Similarly, most institutions replied that one to two faculty members had master s degrees as their highest obtained degree. Ten institutions (7%) reported having one to two faculty members holding doctoral degrees, while an additional institutions (7%) reported three to five faculty members with doctoral degrees. Nine institutions (%) reported faculty members with doctoral degrees, and five institutions (%) replied they had more than faculty members with doctoral degrees. In cases (%), the doctoral faculty outnumbered the faculty members with master s degrees, while in four cases (%), the number of faculty with master s degrees outnumbered those with doctoral degrees. In three cases (%), the number of faculty with doctoral degrees was equal to those with master s degrees. Eighteen of 7 respondents (9%) noted that 7 % of their faculty had attended industry conferences in the last years, with the American Academy of forensic sciences Annual Meeting being the most commonly attended by all respondents. Six of 7 respondents (%) replied that none of their faculty had attended an industry conference in the last years. Additionally, of 7 respondents (%) noted that 7 % of their faculty had published in a peer-reviewed journal within the last years. The Journal of Forensic Sciences was the most common journal noted. Twelve of 7 respondents (%) noted that none of their faculty had published in a peer-reviewed journal in the last years. Twelve institutions (%) replied that 7 % of their faculty worked currently, or had previously worked, in a public or private sector laboratory that specialized in the analysis of forensic materials, while six institutions (%) noted that none of their faculty had this experience. One respondent (%) replied that it didn t matter whether or not faculty members had worked in this type of environment. In contrast, only four institutions (%) noted that 7 % of their faculty had worked as independent consultants in the field of forensic science, while institutions (%) replied that none of their faculty had this experience. The remaining questions in this section of the survey asked about the facilities available to students. Twelve of the 7 responding institutions (%) replied that they had no laboratory space dedicated for use by their forensic science students. Sixteen responding institutions (%) had one to two dedicated laboratories, while four (%) noted between and dedicated laboratories, as presented in Fig.. The colleges and universities that do not have dedicated facilities may or may not share laboratories with other majors. Almost all responding institutions ( of 7 %) have gas chromatography equipment available for use by their students, while 9 (7%) offer mass spectroscopy, (7%) have highperformance liquid chromatography, (%) offer ultraviolet spectroscopy, (%) offer infrared spectroscopy, (%) have

3 9 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES f Institutions Number of - - More than Number of Laboratories FIG. Number of laboratories dedicated to forensic science courses. polarized light microscopes, and 9 (%) have nuclear magnetic resonance equipment available. Only institutions (%) noted that their students had access to a scanning electron microscope (Fig. ). Bachelor s Degrees Twenty-two institutions (%) replied in the affirmative that they offer bachelor s degrees. Four (%) of the responding institutions have programs that have been accredited by FEPAC, while the remaining are not accredited. Of those which are not accredited (%), (7%, or % of total sample in this section) stated they were either currently in the process of being accredited, or intended to initiate the process. The remaining six institutions (%, or 7% of the total sample in this section) do not intend to pursue FEPAC accreditation. Over the last years, there has been a slight increase in the number of applicants to the responding institutions programs, although a slight majority of institutions noted a consistent level of more than applicants per year over the last years. Two institutions (9%) noted more than applicants were accepted in each of the last years, while the remaining responding institutions primarily noted levels on the order of students per year. Additionally, it was noted by the respondents that over the last years, the slight majority of the students have been female, with only one institution (%) noting 7% male enrollment in 7. All other respondents noted less than % male enrollment for each year over the last years, with at least two institutions (9%) noting 9 % female enrollment over the last years. Despite relatively high enrollment numbers, most responding institutions noted zero to five graduates for each of the last years, with no more than six institutions (7%) noting graduates in any given year this occurred once in. No institution noted more than graduates in any of the last years. Of the institutions surveyed, only seven (%) responded that they track postgraduate employment. Of those seven, most noted zero to five graduates had gone on to work in the forensic science field. Only one institution (%) noted that of its graduates had gone on to work in the field in and 7. No institution noted more than graduates finding employment in the forensic science field. Ten of responding institutions (%) noted their program was comprised of courses, with the range from as few as six courses to as many as. Ten institutions (%) also noted that of the courses they offered were laboratory courses. One institution (%) did not offer laboratory courses as part of their bachelor s degree. The maximum number of laboratory courses listed was. Twelve of respondents (%) noted their average laboratory class length was h. The majority of institutions (%) require general biology and general chemistry as part of their standard curriculum. Most schools (%) also require general physics and organic chemistry. Statistics is required by % of responding institutions, while calculus and biochemistry are required by %. Physical chemistry is required by % of responding institutions. Only one respondent (%) noted that none of these courses was required by their institution (Fig. ). One institution (%) requires bachelor s degree students to write a thesis. Forensic-oriented subjects available to students in the responding bachelor s degree programs varied widely and are grouped in Fig.. Eighty to 9% of responding institutions require courses in Num mber of Institutions Infrared Spectroscopy Ultraviolet Spectroscopy 9 Nuclear Magne c Resonance 9 Electron Microscopy Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Types of Instrumentation Polarized Light Microscopy FIG. Instrumentation available. nstitutions Number of I General Biology General Chemistry General Physics Organic Chemistry Biochemistry Type of Course Physical Chemistry Calculus Sta s cs None of these courses are part of the curriculum FIG. Science course required in the forensic science majors investigated.

4 TREGAR AND PRONI FORENSIC SCIENCE B.S. AND M.S. PROGRAMS: A REVIEW 9 Not Available Elec ve Required umber of Institutions N Criminal Just tice Microsco opy tion Instrumentat tics General Criminalist ogy Toxicolo 9 ogy Molecular Biolo arks 9 Firearms and Toolma Analysis ogy Physical Anthropolo sing n Crime Scene Process and Reconstruc o 7 ints Fingerpri ysis Blood Spa er Analy hics Eth stry Biochemis 7 Pharmacolo ogy Fire Debris Analy ysis 7 Drug Analy ysis Hairs and Fib bers Paints and Polym mers Accident Reconstruct tion 9 Ques oned Docume ents Subject Types FIG. Forensic-oriented subjects offered in the forensic science majors investigated. FIG. Internship requirements. criminal justice, instrumentation, and general criminalistics. Seventy to % of respondents require microscopy, crime scene processing, ethics, and biochemistry. Only two subjects were available at all the responding institutions: general criminalistics and biochemistry. All other subjects had at least one institution at which they were not available. Toxicology and physical anthropology are offered primarily as elective courses. Pharmacology, accident reconstruction, and questioned documents were among the least available. All responding institutions give credit for internships, with of (%) requiring internships for completion of the bachelor s degree (Fig. ). The required internships varied widely in length from as few as contact hours up to h. Eighteen of responding institutions (%) noted their programs were designed for individuals seeking entry into the field, while institutions (%) responded that their program was appropriate for individuals interested in seeking a higher degree. Fifteen of institutions (%) responded that their bachelor s degree program prepared students for work as a technician, while of (%) responded that their programs prepared students for low-level analyst positions. Five institutions (%) felt their program prepared students for mid-level analyst positions, and one respondent (%) felt their bachelor s degree program prepared their students for supervisory positions. Master s Degrees Of anticipated respondents, institutions (%) replied in the affirmative that their institutions offer master s degrees. Only one responding institution (%) had acquired FEPAC accreditation, while the remaining (9%) had not. All had either started the application process, or intended to apply for accreditation. Yes No- Internships are op onal No- No credit is available for internships Most institutions noted more than applicants in each of the last years. Of those applicants, fewer than were accepted in any given year, with 7 9 of institutions accepting or fewer applicants per year. Over the last years, the number of institutions reporting 9 % of their students were female has increased from one to four. In fact, only one institution (%) reported a majority of male students at any time over the last years. The remaining institutions all reported at least a % distribution of male-to-female students. Beginning in, five institutions (%) reported zero to five graduates. This trend continued through, with the number of graduates increasing in to graduates. This figure was reported by four institutions (%) in and 7. One institution (%) reported more than graduates in a given year,. Additionally, in, one institution (%) noted graduates. Of the responding institutions, six (%) tracked their graduates. Of these, one institution (7%) consistently reported of their graduates working in the field each year from to 7. The remaining institutions who responded (%) noted between to ortograduatesgoingontoworkinthefieldineachofthe last years. Six responding institutions (%) have a thesis option available to their students but do not require one. Four (%) require a thesis to complete the master s degree. One respondent (%) has no thesis option. A significant majority of responding institutions (7%) responded that their master s degree program is comprised of courses. Two responding institutions (7%) require only courses, and one (%) requires courses to complete the master s degree. Three institutions (%) noted that zero to five of the courses included in the master s degree were laboratory courses, while seven (%) noted their program included laboratory courses. No institutions offered more than laboratory courses as part of the master s degree. The lowest number of laboratory courses offered was two, reported by one institution (%). Laboratory class periods varied in length from to h to more than h, with h being the most common. An even distribution was observed across several of the other laboratory lengths. However, two respondents (7%) noted h, h, and more than h. The institutions were asked to note which courses were prerequisites for their master s degree program. Only institutions (%) responded to this question. Of those, % require general biology, general chemistry, and organic chemistry. Eighty percent require biochemistry and calculus, while 7% require general physics and statistics. Only % require physical chemistry, and only

5 9 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES Numbe er of Institutions Not Available Elec ve Required 7 7 Criminal Jus ce Microscopy Instrumenta on General Criminalis cs Toxicology Molecular Biology Firearms and Toolmarks Analysis Physical Anthropology Crime Scene Processing and Reconstruc on Fingerprints Blood Spa er Analysis Ethics Biochemistry Pharmacology Fire Debris Analysis Drug Analysis Hairs and Fibers Paints and Polymers Accident Reconstruc on Ques oned Documents Types of Subjects FIG. Courses offered in the master s programs investigated. % require English. Only one institution (%) required all courses listed as prerequisites. Subjects included as part of the master s degree varied, although all questioned subjects were required by at least one institution. Again, only respondents completed this question. Instrumentation, general criminalistics, and toxicology were required by % of responding institutions. Microscopy was required by nine institutions (9%) and unavailable at the remaining institution. Ethics was also required by nine institutions (9%), but was offered as an elective by the remaining institution. Physical anthropology and accident reconstruction were the least available, being offered at only five (%) and three (%) institutions, respectively. The results aresummarizedinfig.. Only two of respondents (%) noted that their institution required an internship for completion of the master s degree. These internships varied in length from 9 h to weeks. One institution (%) noted that no credit was available for internships. The remaining seven institutions (7%) offer credit for internships but do not require them. Ten of responding institutions (%) noted that their program was intended for individuals seeking entry into the field. Fifty percent of institutions also noted their program was appropriate for individuals already working in the field, or individuals who intended to pursue a higher degree. No respondents believed that their degree was appropriate for an individual who intended to pursue teaching, and only one respondent (%) believed that their degree was appropriate for individuals interested in management. Seven of respondents (7%) noted they believed their program prepared its students for position as mid-level analysts. Six of (%) responded that their program prepared students for positions as low-level analysts, while four (%) stated their program prepared students for positions as technicians. Three of respondents (%) responded that they believed their program prepared students academic posts or positions as high-level analysts. Only one institution (%) responded that their program qualified students for supervisory positions. Discussion and Conclusion This study received a favorable response rate of %, which is considered high for this type of survey analysis. Higgins and Selavka (7) noted a % return rate from the surveys used in their study of graduate programs, and Furton et al. () noted a similar response rate for their survey of crime laboratory directors. The higher response rate could potentially be attributed to the use of electronic media for the survey as Furton et al. () noted that their response rate of % was less than hoped for, but was in keeping with % return rate typical for mailed surveys. It is evident from the obtained results that a large variance in non-fepac-accredited forensic science higher education programs exists. In the bachelor s degree section of the survey, there was a substantial degree of variation. A majority of % were observed only in response to three questions: whether or not the program was accredited (primarily not), what courses were required for this program (general biology and general chemistry), and who the program was intended for (individuals seeking entry into the field). Despite the fact that the only two subjects which all of the programs have in common are biology and chemistry, the programs, requiring several hard science courses, provide rigorous scientific coursework to the participants. It was observed that subjects included in the bachelor s and master s degrees varied considerably in terms of availability and whether or not the subject was required. For the bachelor s degrees, all subjects included in the survey (criminal justice, microscopy, instrumentation, toxicology, molecular biology, crime scene processing, ethics, drug analysis) were required by at least one institution, and yet, almost all the included subjects were listed as unavailable at a minimum of one institution (with the exception of general criminalistics and biochemistry). In the master s degree programs, the same subjects were all again required by at least one institution (instrumentation, criminalistic, toxicology, molecular biology, ethics, fire debris analysis, drug analysis, hairs and fibers, microscopy and crime scene processing, fingerprints, blood spatter analysis, biochemistry) and were more widely available than in the bachelor s degree programs. However, once again, more than half the subjects were unavailable at one institution or more. The size and scope of the various programs also seemed to vary greatly. The number of accepted students varied considerably, with as few as to more than in any given year. The majority of the faculty members at the surveyed institutions hold a doctoral degree and are in tenured or tenure-track positions. The level of

6 TREGAR AND PRONI FORENSIC SCIENCE B.S. AND M.S. PROGRAMS: A REVIEW 9 participation to conferences and publication of the faculties at these institutions is quite high. In addition, the majority of the forensic programs have dedicated facilities and instrumentation available. Internships are generally required by the majority of the bachelor s programs in order to graduate. The most continuity observed between programs was in their student demographics. It was also noticed that over the last years, the majority of students entering forensic science programs were female. The data collected and examined regarding B.S. and M.S. programs in forensic science tend to show a great variance in programs in all areas from laboratory facilities, number of faculty, educational level of faculty members, and instrumentation available. The mandatory accreditation recommended by the National Association of Scientists necessarily would have the effect of creating more standardized program offerings and would help to ensure the success of the academic mission of producing more well-trained practitioners. However, despite the common perception that forensic science students are not, at the present time, well prepared to serve the needs of that community because of the uneven standards, such perception misses the mark. It is noteworthy to mention that despite the overall variations between the programs, the majority of the institutions investigated provide the scientific coursework deemed necessary by laboratory directors (), faculties with advanced degrees, and large portions of laboratory hands-on experiences to the participants. Certainly, mandatory accreditation would assist laboratory directors and other forensic personnel in their confidence that graduates of forensic higher education programs have the skills necessary to contribute to the field at large. Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to Dr. E. Champeil and S. Sherbell for helpful discussion. References. Kobilinsky L, Sheehan FX. The desirability of a Ph.D. program in forensic science. J Forensic Sci 9;9():7.. Willing R. CSI effect has juries wanting more evidence. USA Today ; Sect. A.. Technical Working Group for Education, Training in forensic sciences. Education and Training in forensic science: A Guide for forensic science Laboratories, Educational Institutions, and Students. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, US Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs DC,.. Committee on Identifying the Needs of the Forensic Science Community, Community on Science, Technology, and Law Policy and Global Affairs, Committee on Applied and Theoretical Statistics Division and Engineering and Physical Sciences. Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward. Washington, DC: National Research Council of the National Academies, National Academies Press, 9.. Peterson JL, De Forest PR. The status of forensic science degree programs in the United States. J Forensic Sci 977;():.. Siegel JA. The appropriate educational background for entry level forensic scientists: a survey of practitioners. J Forensic Sci 9;():. 7. Higgins KM, Selavka CM. Do forensic science graduate programs fulfill the needs of the forensic science community? J Forensic Sci 9;():.. Furton KG, Hsu YL, Cole MD. What educational background do crime laboratory directors require from applicants? J Forensic Sci 999;():. 9. Quarino L, Brettell TA. Current issues in forensic science higher education. Anal Bioanal Chem 9;9(): SurveyMonkey.com LLC, Palo Alto, CA.. Posavac EJ, Carey R. Program Evaluations: Methods and case studies. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall,. Additional information and reprints requests: Gloria Proni, Ph.D. Associate Professor John Jay College of Criminal Justice Science Department West 9 th Street # New York, NY 9 gproni@jjay.cuny.edu