Primary Teacher Training Improving Confidence in Scaffolding Tricky Science Concepts A Practical Learning Journey Model

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1 Primary Teacher Training Improving Confidence in Scaffolding Tricky Science Concepts A Practical Learning Journey Model Karen H. Blackmore University of Worcester (United Kingdom) k.blackmore@worc.ac.uk Abstract At present the educational landscape in the United Kingdom is undergoing extensive change with a proposed new National Curriculum and remodeling of the public examination system for year olds [1].Changes inevitably raise challenges for pupils, teachers and trainers alike, in all areas, including science teaching and learning. More complex scientific concepts are being introduced to pupils at an earlier age [2]. It is clear that the likelihood of successful teaching and learning is dependent upon both the teacher s science specific subject knowledge and their confidence to deliver engaging and stimulating lessons [3]. One aspect of trainee teacher confidence is their belief of their own efficacy [4, 5]. Perception of self-efficacy is a measure of the trainee teacher s attitude towards their ability to impact positively on the children s understanding of key scientific concepts. From a training perspective, it is highly advantageous to build trainee teacher s resilience by encouraging them to have an appropriate positive sense of their own efficacy. This study focuses on a sample of forty five postgraduate students on a full-time P.G.C.E teacher training course. It sets out to determine what teaching, assessment and monitoring procedures are useful indicators of trainee teacher readiness to teach primary science. A raft of student derived measures was employed to monitor trainee teacher subject knowledge acquisition and attitudes towards science teaching. They consisted of: an initial questionnaire to determine attitudes and beliefs towards teaching primary science, followed by a questionnaire to measure perceived trainee teacher self-efficacy a science subject audit, containing a series of self administered questions, to identify subject knowledge development targets written reflective responses to taught sessions and an over-arching review of progress in science teaching. In contrast to other studies [6], our results showed that initially confidence was at quite a low level and that the students perceived some topics difficult to understand and hence to teach, e.g. chemical change and forces. Analysis of the science specific development targets at the start of the training year showed a range in terms of number and focus. The number of targets identified in the N.C. PoS - Sc4 (physical processes) was particularly over represented. In response to these findings it was decided to run a 12 week multisensory teaching intervention to address the issue of perceived lack of self-efficacy in teaching tricky science concepts. It consisted of four, two hour teaching sessions designed to challenge the student s pre-existing ideas with respect to science subject knowledge and pedagogy. After the sessions the students were encouraged to use their enhanced subject knowledge and refined pedagogical perspective to teach lessons involving a range of tricky topics. The student s beliefs in their own self-efficacy were monitored at the end of the course and followed up in the trainee s NQT year to ascertain the profile of student subject knowledge acquisition and attitudes towards science teaching. Abbreviations: N.C. National Curriculum, N.Q.T. Newly Qualified Teacher, P.G.C.E Post Graduate Certificate in Education, P.o.S. Programme of Study, Sc4 Science area Introduction U.K. primary teachers undertake generalist teacher training, equipping them to teach all subjects to children aged five to eleven. Many undertake this training via a P.G.C.E, an intensive year of acquiring pedagogical and subject knowledge, for ten curriculum subjects. Science teaching at primary schools gives rise to many challenges, including making conceptually tricky ideas, accessible to children. For example, children age nine to eleven are required to understand the

2 relative motion of the planets and moons within the solar system and attain some appreciation of the organisation of the universe. Given the short amount of time for training and the breadth of knowledge and skills trainees need to acquire, design and delivery of science components of the course must be optimised. Discussions with trainees reveal they find teaching some science topics daunting. Trainees voiced the opinion that they felt under confident to deliver science, particularly in the area of Sc4 (physical processes). Results from surveys and audits of previous cohorts, confirmed that it was not a lack of scientific knowledge that was problematic, but trainees perceived confidence to deliver lessons containing these elements. These findings support data obtained in other Initial Teacher Training Institutions. Clearly student confidence was central to effective science teaching. Confidence is a complex psychological construct impacted upon by factors including self concept and self-efficacy. In the context of teaching, self-efficacy is a measure of individual perception of ability to impact positively on children s learning. Social cognitive theory advocates that teachers perception of efficacy and their belief in effecting successful professional practice is a conglomerate of self-efficacy and collective efficacy [5]. The ultimate goal of these trainee teachers is to successfully embed themselves into a school context. Therefore it is of upmost importance that trainee teachers are encouraged to examine their own efficacy and self regulate to maximise their potential. The more capable trainee teachers judge themselves to be, the more challenging goals they will set for themselves and their learners [7]. In a broader context, collective-teacher efficacy has been shown to be a determining factor in school achievement on an international scale. The findings of several large studies reveal collective-teacher efficacy, to be significantly related to children s achievement ([4],[8] and [9]). In order to enable students to optimise performance in terms of delivering engaging and effective science lessons, a novel intervention strategy was designed and implemented. To test this approach, student perceived sense of self- efficacy was measured before and after intervention. 2. Methodology the Learning Journey model On entry to the course, trainees undertake a science test and skills audit. Trainees are encouraged to break down knowledge components into small focused targets. Throughout the year students reflect upon progress in acquiring subject knowledge and the associated pedagogy. They visualize themselves upon a journey towards a pedagogical destination with staging posts (targets) along the way Intervention Topics that trainees had identified as tricky were evident from an analysis of subject audits and targets. They were forces, energy change and earth and beyond. Sessions were designed to promote engagement through multi-sensory input in a hands-on student centered approach. Stimuli included video, concept cartoons [9], problem-solving tasks and discussion of articles written by expert pedagogs. Trainees were encouraged to discuss key scientific concepts and the associated pedagogy during and after the sessions, in keeping with a social constructivist approach. Active experimentation using commonly available primary science resources was undertaken. Before, during and after the sessions, trainees were asked to think about their prior knowledge and any misconceptions they had had. In the case of the forces topic, group drawing and annotation were used as means of determining understanding of directionality, magnitude and balance Instruments To measure success of the intervention, a raft of student derived measures was constructed (see abstract). In addition to reflective responses and audits, an adaptation of a measure developed in the USA using the general structure of the teacher sense of efficacy scale [11] was used. This scale measures an individual s belief about their ability to influence children s achievement. The scale is broken down into three components: sense of engagement efficacy, sense of instructional efficacy and sense of management efficacy Data collection and ethical considerations The purpose was explained, anonymity guaranteed and the importance of candid responses stressed. Students were told that participation in the study was optional and they were given the opportunity to

3 withdraw from the study at any time. They were assured that non- participation would have no effect upon their academic attainment. Students were encouraged not to share responses within the group to minimise bias. After the sessions, students were encouraged to use their enhanced subject knowledge and refined pedagogical perspective to teach school lessons, involving the physical processes material. After eight weeks, students were asked to review their self-efficacy scoring. 3. Results Analysis of students perception of self-efficacy pre and post intervention shows interesting trends. There are small but discernible differences between the scores, pre and post intervention. The overall trend is positive i.e. the students perceived they could teach Sc4 topics more effectively post intervention. Table 1 shows the statistical analysis which verifies these trends. It was reassuring to note that scores students ascribe to themselves, are close to those reported from another population of teachers in the Tschannen-Moran, [11] study. This suggests a reasonable level of validity. It was interesting to note that the largest positive change was for instructional efficacy. Increases in perceived self-efficacy for instruction were statistically significant at p=0.001and at p=0.002 for engagement for paired t-tests. The question that prompted the highest average increase in selfefficacy was How well can you respond to difficult questions from your pupils?. Discussions revealed that students were as not surprised by these findings. The results from the sense of efficacy scale were supported by trainees reflective responses. Several described the intervention as a milestone in their pedagogical journey. They felt empowered to try and teach these tricky concepts because they had talked through their misconceptions and uncertainties beforehand, with peers. They greatly valued the co-identification of suitable practical activities within their small discussion groups. The efficacy of this approach was further improved, as many students sought advice, compared and contrasted their teaching approaches with their peers, after their teaching. Trainees described the intervention as giving them the confidence to speak to children and colleagues alike, about complex concepts involved in physical science. All trainees reflected that they had undertaken a significant journey with respect to their pedagogical skills acquisition and scientific knowledge. They expressed firm belief that they now felt more in control of managing science resources. They also voiced that before intervention they were worried about being caught out by difficult questions. Some trainees said that instructing the children on how to best carry out the experiments had been their single biggest fear before the sessions. One student describes how he felt comfortable after intervention to teach in a safe and controllable way. The questions which showed the least positive change overall, concerned classroom management, for example How well can you establish a classroom management system with each group of pupils? which showed no change across the sample of trainees. Reasons were not clear and this aspect warrants further study.

4 Figure 1 A graph showing "sense of engagement efficacy" of trainees, pre and post interevention Engagement efficacy s 9,0 4, A graph showing "sense of instructional efficacy", pre and post intervention Instructional efficacy 9,0 4, A graph showing "sense of management efficacy", pre and post intervention Management efficacy 9,0 4, Figure 1 illustrates differences between trainees (the horizontal access) self-efficacy pre (blue line) and post (red line) intervention. There is a small increase in self-efficacy for the majority of trainees. With output broken down into component parts, instructional efficacy shows the greatest change. Sense of class management efficacy is least changed.

5 Table 1: showing differences in self-efficacy scores pre and post intervention. Table 1 shows that analysis confirmed a statistically significant difference between student perception of selfefficacy 4. Discussion post intervention. The overall trend is positive and most marked with respect to instructional efficacy. T-testing, reveals that t=4.340 which is greater than p=0.001(3.373) for instructional perceived self-efficacy and Outcomes t=3.346 generally which is support greater the than intervention p=0.002(3.160) efficacy. for engagement Students felt perceived that efficacy self-efficacy. of engagement The difference was for class-management an important factor perceived for achieving self-efficacy success. was Analysis insignificant. of written reflective responses, revealed that several students affirmed the sessions had given them many ideas on how to design engaging multisensory activities, especially for topics that many learners had found too difficult to understand. Many students stated that they thought the activities modeled would provide children with opportunities to apply and reflect upon their own learning. This outcome resonates with findings several researchers [12] and [13], who found that as trainee teachers progress and developed positive attitudes towards their own effectiveness, they became less concerned with self and more focused upon children s needs. However, there were a small proportion of students, when asked after intervention to review their responses to the efficacy questionnaire, expressed they felt their effectiveness had decreased (echoing the findings of a similar study [6]). One stated that she felt she had only been looking at surface learning when she rating her initial efficacy and that the more she learnt about science pedagogy, the more she questioned the efficacy of the approaches. This observation agrees with some outcomes of Housego [14], who showed that, through teachers reflecting on experience, a belief in one s personal power can increase, while a belief in the power of teaching may decrease. This probably suggests a healthy degree of criticality. 5. Next steps Pre-intervention Engagement Instructional Management Overall Post-intervention Difference t =3.346* t =4.340^ t =2.818 t =1.189 The data obtained by this study warrants the design and implementation of a larger study, to see if the outcomes can be reproduced across topic areas, such as heredity. We are following ten trainee teachers through their N.Q.T. year, to see how perceptions of self-efficacy and their collective efficacy within the school context change. It has been postulated that teachers approach peak performance over a period of several years. If true, then it may be possible to detect shifts in perceptions of selfefficacy, and when such changes take place. References [1] GCSE reform and the new English Baccalaureate certificates [2]Draft N.C documents for science [3] Ofsted (2008) Success in Science [4] Bandura, A. (1993), Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning, Educational Psychologist, Vol. 28 No. 2, pp [5] Bandura, A. (1997), Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, W.H. Freeman, NY. pp 487. [6] Martin, S.W. (1989), Contextual effects on the self-perceived efficacy of final year pre-service teachers. Sociology of Education Vol. 63: pp

6 [7] Zimmerman et. al. (1992), Self-motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29(3), pp [8] Goddard, R.D. and Goddard, Y.L. (2001), A multilevel analysis of the relationship between teacher and collective efficacy in urban schools, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 17, pp [9] Tschannen-Moran, M. and Barr, M. (2004), Fostering student achievement: the relationship between collective teacher efficacy and student achievement, Leadership and Policy in Schools, Vol. 3, pp [10] Keogh, B. (1999): Concept cartoons, teaching and learning in science: an evaluation, International Journal of Science Education, Vol. 21:4, pp [11] Tschannen-Moran, M. and Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001), Teacher efficacy: capturing an elusive construct, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 17, pp [12] Adams, R.D. (1982). Teacher development: A look at changes in teacher perceptions and behavior across time. Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 33 (4), pp [13] Pigge, F. L. & Marso, R. N. (1990). The influence of personality type, locus of control, and personal attribute of prospective teachers during training. [14] Housego, B.E.J. (1991). Monitoring student teachers feelings of preparedness to teach, personal teaching efficacy and teaching efficacy in a new secondary teacher education program. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 38 (1),