Telephone and Mail Surveys: Advantages and Disadvantages of Each
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1 Telephone and Mail Surveys: Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Dan Zahs and Reg Baker Market Strategies, Inc. May 29, 2007 Selecting the mode of administration for a survey requires that one evaluate a number of factors and understand clearly the tradeoffs involved in choosing one mode over another. While telephone and mail research share some similar qualities, there are major differences. We group these differences into four main categories: (1) sample frame; (2) non-response bias; (3) measurement error; and (4) time and money. The Sample Frame A sample frame is essentially a list used to select the sample of persons to be interviewed. A high quality frame is one that contains a complete or nearly complete list of the target population. If the frame is sufficiently complete and accurate, a random sample selected from this frame will be non-biased and representative of the target population. One major reason for the adoption of telephone as the gold standard for much of commercial research over the last 25 years has been the quality of the sample frame. The standard frame for RDD telephone surveys uses information from the telephone companies about the assignment status of groups of telephone numbers (known as groups and blocks). Until recently, this frame was considered largely complete and accurate, with a relatively small number of missing non-telephone households. More recently, the widespread adoption of cell phones has threatened the integrity of the RDD frame. For various reasons, cell phones are not part of this standard frame. Until recently, most people with a cell phone also had a traditional telephone or landline. However, the proportion households having a cell phone but no landline has been growing rapidly and is now around 13 percent (Blumberg and Luke (2007)). Using the standard RDD frame, these cell-only households have no chance of being selected into any sample. When cases are excluded from the possibility of being selected, bias might be introduced into the results. This is known as coverage error. It is possible to include the cell-only population into the sample selection process through the use of a dual frame approach, but this can add significant cost and poses some difficult weighting challenges. Fortunately, recent research suggests that at this point the exclusion of cell-only households does not lead to substantial levels of bias, that is, there are few significant differences in overall estimates produced from samples with and without cell-only households (See, for example, Keeter (2006) and Brick et al. (2006)). That said, cell-only households are disproportionately comprised of year olds and so there is some demographic bias in samples that exclude those households. Research has found that persons in cell-only households differ from landline households on some important health measures such as smoking and binge drinking (Blumberg and Luke 1
2 (2007)). Studies with a special focus on that age group can have substantial bias if cellonly households are not included. Thus far, this group is not so large as to significantly affect estimates for the overall population. The availability of sample frames for mail studies is also an unfolding story. Historically, mail studies of the general population have tended to use a so-called listed frame compiled from various sources including the directories of people listed in the white pages of telephone books. These listed frames are generally incomplete and have high levels of coverage error. For example, a match of an RDD sample to a list of people in a telephone book typically yields about a 50 percent match rate. More recently, a new frame option has emerged and is still being evaluated by survey methodologists. This frame is maintained by the U.S. Postal Service and is called the Delivery Sequence File (DSF). As the name suggests, this is the database the USPS uses for their deliveries. This frame appears to be much more comprehensive and complete than previous mail frames, although early studies suggest that there still may be significant coverage error, specifically of non-urban and lower income areas (Link and Mokdad (2005)). Non-Response Bias The potential for bias in a survey results is not just a function of coverage (i.e. the quality of the frame). Non-response also is a major factor. One hundred percent response may be an admirable goal, but it is almost never achieved. Large proportions of any selected sample, regardless of mode, typically do not respond. This non-response tends to be systematic rather than random, and therefore bias is introduced. Put in simple terms, the non-response bias question is: Would the estimates from my survey be different if everyone had responded? Put another way: Are those who did not respond different from those who did in some systematic way that biases my results? Historically, telephone surveys have yielded significantly higher response rates (and therefore lower non-response) than mail, although the achieved response rate in any mode is a function of the implementation techniques used (e.g., advance letters, incentives, refusal conversion, etc.) Telephone surveys typically under represent people who are difficult to catch at home (e.g., younger, single, or non-family households) while mail surveys have tended to under represent lower SES households. In both instances, post stratification weights are used to bring the achieved sample back in line with population demographics. Over about the last decade we have seen significant declines in response rates to all modes. The impact on the validity of telephone research has been particularly studied because of its widespread use. Recent studies have demonstrated that response rate is not as important a measure of survey data quality as was once thought (See, for example, Holbrook et al. (in press) and Keeter et al. (2006)). Surveys with low response rates (as low as four percent in one comparison) can yield results that are statistically equivalent to those from surveys with much higher response rates, although a high response rate is usually better than a low one. This is interpreted as a validation of the power or probability sampling from good quality sample frames. 2
3 Measurement Error Measurement error can have any number of sources including the interviewer, the questionnaire, the mode of administration, and the respondent. Interviewers may be poorly trained and administer the questionnaire incorrectly. The questionnaire may be flawed in some important way that leads to comprehension problems or misunderstanding. The presence or absence of an interviewer may influence how a respondent answers. The respondent may lack the cognitive ability to comprehend and answer the questions or simply lack the motivation to answer carefully. Generally speaking, the advantage of well-trained interviewers has led researchers to prefer telephone over mail. Interviewers ensure that the correct target respondent within a household completes the survey; administer the survey so all questions are asked; help respondents understand questions or concepts that might be ambiguous or difficult; and keep the respondent engaged over the duration of the survey. They also can probe respondents to get fuller and more accurate answers in open ended questions. One classic statistic here is item non-response, that is, the proportion of missing data in individual questions (skipped questions, don t know or refusal to answer). Telephone studies typically have significantly lower item non-response than self-administered modes such as mail and Web. The combination of well-trained interviewers and computer-assisted interviewing technologies (such as CATI) have made it possible to design and administer very complex questionnaires that tailor the interview to each respondent, prevent routing errors, reduce data recording errors, maintain consistency in respondent answers, and use design techniques such as randomization and rotation to reduce order and context effects. Telephone surveys also lend themselves to interviewing in multiple languages. Mail surveys by virtue of their self-administered, paper-and-pencil format are much more limited. Questionnaires are generally shorter, simpler, have few skips, and must be crafted to be as clear and unambiguous as possible. The researcher has less control over who completes a mail survey and the order in which questions are answered. Recording errors are much more common than with interviewer administration. Commonly used techniques such as randomization, rotation, and multiple language interviewing are extremely difficult to implement. Despite their many benefits, interviewers can also be a source of error if they are not well-trained and monitored. Further, the presence of the interviewer can sometimes lead to under reporting of socially sensitive behaviors (e.g., drug use or binge drinking), a phenomenon know as social desirability bias. The principal advantage of mail surveys in terms of measurement error is the potential reduction in social desirability bias. Time and Money Arguably the simplest comparison of the two modes focuses on cost and length of field period. Mail surveys are almost always less expensive than telephone because the cost of 3
4 mailing and data conversion (keying or scanning) are significantly less than the cost of interviewer labor. Mail surveys typically require an incentive to achieve any sort of reasonable response rate, and depending on the magnitude of that incentive mail surveys can sometimes approach the cost of telephone surveys where incentives are often not offered except where very high response rates are necessary. On the other hand, mail surveys generally require much longer field periods, and the researcher s ability to either predict or control this key condition is very limited when compared to telephone. Summary As we hope the foregoing makes clear, telephone surveys have a broad set of advantages over mail. Further, these advantages are generally recognized by researchers and comprise the main reason why RDD telephone surveys have been consistently viewed as the methodology of choice for high quality, general population surveys. Generally speaking, mail surveys have tended to be viewed as a compromise that sacrifices data quality in return for lower costs. At present, however, there are dynamics at work relative to sample frames that could undermine the dominant role that telephone surveys have traditionally enjoyed. The rapid rise of cell-only households has begun to introduce coverage problems into the traditional RDD sample frame. The most likely remedies will increase the cost of telephone research significantly. At the same time, the emergence of a new and possibly more complete mail sample frame in the form of the DFS may create a significant coverage advantage for mail surveys. Issues of coverage area and cost aside, the combination of interviewer administration and modern CATI technology continue to present and extremely powerful data quality argument for telephone research. References Blumberg, S.J., and Luke, J.V Wireless Substitution: Early Release Estiamtes Based on Data from the National Health Interview Survey, July December 2006, National Center for Health Statistics. Brick, M. J., Dipko, S., Presser, S., Tucker, C., andyuan, Y Nonresponse Bias in a Dual Frame Sample of Cell and Landline Numbers, Public Opinion Quarterly, 70: Holbrook, A. L., Krosnick, J.A., and Pfent, A.M. In Press. Response Rates in Surveys by the News Media and Government Contractor Survey Research Firms, in J. 4
5 Lepkowski, B. Harris-Kojetin, P.J. Lavrakas, C. Tucker, E. de Leeuw, M. Link, M. Brick, L. Japec, and R. Sangster (eds.), Telephone Survey Methodology. New York: Wiley. Keeter, S The Impact of Cell Phone Noncoverage Bias on Polling in the 2004 Presidential Election, Public Opinion Quarterly, 70: Keeter, S., Kennedy, C., Dimock, M., Best, J., and Craighill, P Gauging the Impact of Growing Nonresponse on Estimates from a National RDD Telephone Survey, Public Opinion Quarterly, 70: Link, M.W., Mokdad, A.H Use of Alternative Modes for Health Surveillance surveys: Results from a Web/Mail/Telephone Experiment, Epidemiology, 16:
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