Use of computer at secondary school in Mexico and college in France. A comparative and binary study. Miriam Herrera Aguilar

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1 Use of computer at secondary school in Mexico and college in France A comparative and binary study Miriam Herrera Aguilar Introduction The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of a comparative and binary study about the use of microcomputers in education. Following the line of the Participatory Communication Research Section, we will present two points of our research in direct relation with this topic. First, we talk about the subject matter. The performance of communication s machines at school is often shown like the education problem s cure-all, even if its long background have shown that it is not like that. In the theoretical perspective of research, we will present students and teachers like key participants in the uses of computer within teaching context. Second, we will provide an overview of research method. A comparative and binary study where the researcher looks for a participative observation in the field of interactions. The objective of this research is to know the use of computer by students and teachers at the school, their real practices with these machines. For this purpose, we design a methodology according to anthropology of communication. I. The problem Computer development has facilitated the boom of the new Information and communication techniques. Today, computers are present in all domains of work, at home and also in education. In the field of public education, institutions for educational policies in the main part of industrialized countries have not ignored the opportunity to install the new Information and communication techniques at school. In order to assist the learning process. In Mexico, the Secretary of Public Education has furnished the schools of basic education with computers for educational purposes. Therefore, each establishment has been furnished with a media classroom. In France, the exponential increasing use of Internet has created a movement to educational technologies. The Ministère de l Education Nationale presented at the end of 1997 a national program for the computer and internet equipment of all public schools until end As a consequence the Documentation and Information Center (CDI) evolved to médiatheques. Therefore, schools in Mexico and in France have computers for educational use. But, as a general question, what kind of use do pupils and teachers with computers? This study is based on the phenomena of virage technologique that testify the industrialized society displacement to information society, 1 including the massif and almost spontaneous appropriation of computers at work, at home and at school. In this research we are interested in the presence of computers in an educational context and particularly its different types of uses. But, how to define use? 1 Alain LARRAMÉE et Bernard Vallée, La recherche en communication, éléments de méthodologie, Téléuniversité, Presses de l Université du Québec, 1991, p. 110.

2 The concept of use It is not easy to define the concept of use. In the point of view of Jacques Perriault, this term is insaississable. He worked with children on the use of computers and he verified multiple detoured practices that were not the errors but the intentions, the premeditations. 2 Therefore, we propose to accept the definition of Jacques Perriault that define uses like the concrete and effective practices of the users. Theoretical Perspective In defining our theoretical perspective, we may use a no technocrat criterion. This work tends to develop a humanistic viewpoint, which places the individual and the communities in the center of the studied process. And because there is not any communication without society, this study is based on the conception of men, his relationship to others, to institutions and to ideology. On the side of relation men-technique, we accept the paradigm that the outcome of innovation does not depend on the inventor s initial intention. The user can redefine the functions of the invention by his own perception. Plus, the concrete utilization of a new technique depends on its socio-economic context and might be affected from it. The individual has an active role for the social integration of any innovation and the power to redefine and to appropriate new techniques. 3 In talking about children users of computer, their observation has shown a great diversity of attitudes and behaviors in using machines. 4 That is why we propose to expand the field of observation, in order to gain information on the actual practice of technologies in school. The research question In fact, the introduction of Information and Communication Technologies in apprenticeship in the public school system provoked several questions. In this study we address the question of actual use of computers in the public school system. What kind of use (effective practices) is actually done by pupils and teachers in school? To respond to this question it is necessary to observe the interaction between students and teachers and the interaction between both groups and the computers. This enables us to address the following questions: What are actual practices of computer use in-group dynamics? What are actual practices of individual use by students? What are actual practices of individual use of teachers? 2 Jacques PERRIAULT, La logique de l usage, essai sur les machines à communiquer, Flammarion, France P FLICHY, Patrice, Une histoire de la communication moderne : espace public et vie privée. Paris : La découverte Jacques PERRIAULT, La logique de l usage, essai sur les machines à communiquer, Flammarion, France 1989, p.139

3 II. The research method In social sciences, communication is considered as a multidisciplinary science, composed from mathematical sciences, psychology, logic, sociology, linguistics, anthropology, semiology and others. Its originality is to be trans-, multi- and interdisciplinary. According to this account, it is legitimate to call them Communication Sciences. Their analytical methods are diversified in a similar manner and inspired from economical sciences, sociology, anthropology or historical sciences. 5 In this sense, our research and its underlying methods are based on this influence. Comparative study and anthropological approach stimulate an interdisciplinary research. A comparative and binary study The works from Marcel Detienne, Pierre Doray, Claude Dubar, Mattei Dogan and others, give us the possibility to do a comparative binary study between Mexico and France, mainly following the methodological guidelines from Mattei Dogan 6. In this type of comparison two distinct countries presenting fundamental analogies are studied in order to analyze the difference in a specific domain. In our study the presented analogy is the computer use for educational purposes in secondary school because, we have already said, schools in Mexico and in France have computers for educational use. By the way of difference, their socio-economic contexts and cultural differences can justify this comparison. Therefore, living in Mexico and France, give us the tools for a participatory observation in both countries. We intend to be uprooted 7 for experiment the astonishment incited by the remote cultures whose encounter is going to involve a change of our attention. Comparison lines We are comparing Mexico (America) and France (Europe), for each country, we will first study several establishments in an urban and in a rural context in order to know if there exist significant differences between these situations. Second, we will compare the overall situation between these countries. Type of establishments: Mexican establishments in urban context Mexican establishments in rural context French establishments in urban context French establishments in rural context 5 Alain LARRAMÉE et Bernard Vallée, La recherche en communication, éléments de méthodologie, Téléuniversité, Presses de l Université du Québec, 1991, p.78 6 Mattei DOGAN, stratégies dans la comp araison internationale en Comparaisons Internationales, No. 6 Nouvelle Série, 1 er semestre La recherche comparative internationale, colloque de L Iresco-CNRS. 7 François LAPLANTINE, La description ethographique, Editions Nathan, Paris 1996, p. 13

4 Participative observation In social sciences it is generally admitted that research in communication sciences can not be successfully done by external approaches. Concerning our research topic, Jacques Perriault has said that it is difficult to observe the use. The users do not make a uninterrupted use of machines, then, the observer understand his field by adapting his rhythm and his time to those of individuals if he wants to respect their practices. Besides, the interview it is not sufficient, because it is often impossible to describe the practices by the users, sometimes they have only a partial conscience of they do. Then, researcher must watch people, and for understand the observed usages, he must learn to master these skills. 8 For this reason we consider that the study of the actual use of computers has to be addressed by a fieldwork and that a participative observation would be the most appropriate method of data collection. First, a participative observation will be done to identify the current practices of students and teachers in CDI in French colleges and media classrooms in secondary schools in Mexico. Second this direct observation will be completed by interviews in order to identify the students and teachers point of view. For the participative observation, anthropology of communication can help us in our research. Anthropological approach Yves Winkin 9 defines the anthropology of communication as a method of research in social sciences. The researcher collects ethnographical data of a specific system and is part of it, whether he works within his own culture system or not. This kind of research consists in the apprenticeship of new system such as a new language, by identifying the contrasts in the perceptions of natural users. Then, we would like to introduce ethnography as a methodological approach and explain to you how we use it within our research methodology. Ethnographic approach Researchers in fieldwork often think that they just don t have enough eyes to observe and ears to listen to complex situations, fortunately we have the established models for our data collection. The ethnographical method is a systematic observation in natural conditions. Yves Winkin 10 proposes a three-step-model what we have adopted to our research. a) Getting into place It is important to choose a field in natural situation, which is easily accessible for the researcher. For these criteria, the media classrooms in Mexico and the CDI in France are accessible sites. The ethnographic researcher then needs to define where and at what time he will proceed to his data collection. He goes to the field with an informal concept, he 8 Jacques PERRIAULT, La logique de l usage, essai sur les machines à communiquer, Flammarion, France p.16 9 Yves WINKIN, Anthropologie de la communication. De la théorie au Terrain. De Boeck université, Paris, Bruxelles 1996, P Yves WINKIN, Anthropologie de la communication. De la théorie au Terrain. De Boeck université. Paris, Bruxelles 1996, P.107

5 does an unsystematic observation for feels one s way, he comes to the theory, he chooses to focus on certain aspects of practices and he comes back to the field with the solid questions for doing a systematic observation. In this way, these acute observations about his subject, goes towards more general formulation about the subject matter. 11 For our study we followed the advice of Yves Winkin who suggests that The observation have to pass by naturalistic observation, in collecting data from different situations in field. 12 and went armed with pencil and notebook to evaluate the feasibility of our research project. This year, we visited the CDI and a technology class of the college Edouard Vaillant at Gennevilliers. Our first visits helped us to find a specific emplacement enabling us to observe directly the students and the teacher and their interactions: computer manipulations, questions from students, indications by teachers and documentalists, responses given, and any discussions between students. One just needs to be present, acting. At this stage of study the work is to find the mobility within the studied group. In this way, the natural users of computer classrooms might address the legitimate question about the identity and purposes of the researcher within the public school system. The researcher needs to justify his presence, to be accepted within this specific context, to comfort the users in order to follow his study under natural conditions. In our case, it was possible to negotiate our status quo with the teachers or documentalists. In CDI, we could introduce our self as users without alter the usual situation. A participative observation is in the center of any ethnographic methodology. Following Winkin the researcher has to learn to see, to learn to be with others, to learn to be with himself in front of others and to learn to write. For an external observer specific actions within a defined lapse of time might be significant, although without any importance for its concrete actor. b) Systematic observation The methodological difficulties of observation work arise when nothing or too much is happening. In this situation Yves Winkin recommends to follow the questions and hypotheses from anthropologic and sociologic readings, to establish a diary in order to write down the observed elements and the establishment of spatial s to write position and movements of users, and temporary s to write weekly evolution Ibíd, P Ibíd, p Ibíd, p. 120

6 The researcher has to build his hypotheses in the field. For example, in our study the principal question to address would be what are the uses of computers? How the class is functioning day by day by using the computer? By this proceeding we can go over to the second step: systematic observation. The observation must be systematic by organizing a research scheme. The repeated presence at specific daytimes, daily or weekly is necessary. At this point it is sufficient to note the similarities and differences. The interpretation might be done afterwards. More the observation progress and more the researcher will realize that there are no invariable relations but that exist complex relationships. The researcher has to analyze and organize these facts. Instruments of data collection Therefore, the first fieldwork proofs that we have done and based on Winkin s proposition about silhouettage, we have build a first topographical scheme of the place (which probably needs a second designing during definitive observations). The silhouette helps us to identify the overall structure of CDI and mainly, the disposition of the pedagogic instruments such as computers. It helps to follow their use at specific time spots. In our spatial, the squares indicate computers and the points the different users changing places on an hourly or daily basis or in function of work dynamics. A number identifies each computer and individual s describe work practice for each observed unit. Students Desk PC 1 PC 2 User / Researcher PC 3 PC 4 Desk Teacher PC 5

7 c) The return to theory Once engaged in fieldwork and participative observation the researcher needs to come back to its literature in order to initiate some kind of cross fertilization of theory and practice. But, how to manage simultaneously observation, lectures, deliberations and frustration? The journal Winkin recommends a private journal from the beginning of the fieldwork with two kind of information. One part is reserved for the observations and the other for comments linked to repeated lectures. This journal has to be actualized on a daily basis and must have a cathartic function. The researcher writes down any event he observes within his research. At the beginning he will take a lot of notes but his writing will become more and more analytical and efficient. The observer must regularly re-read these notes, think over and analyze them to identify some rules. Per consequent, ethnography is some kind of education of the view and of the writing too. The writing of field notes, of the journal, of results, of research report. The interview Second, as a complement to fieldwork, it might be necessary to proceed some direct interviews in order to restitute the user perception of computers: students, teachers and documentalists. Data collection The use of these research instruments of data collection seems appropriate for the study of computer use by students and teachers in school. We will adopt and adapt these instruments for the two countries France and Mexico in order to minimize any variation in methodology. Nevertheless we know that methodological divergences will result in two parallel studies. We have planned the observation phase for the school year From September to December 2002 we will study computer use in public schools in France. From January to March 2003 we will do a fieldwork in Mexico. The studies will comprise weekly changing studies in town and in a rural context. Also, we have agreed to adopt a transversal or transactional perspective 14 : we analyze data at a specific time spot without any prediction about their further evolution. 14 Carlos FERNANDEZ COLLADO et al. Metodologîa de la investigacion. McGrawHills, Mêxico, 1993.

8 Conclusion In the present conclusion, we would like to think over the use of computers at school and, within comparative study of uses, the timeliness of participative observation. First, according to Jacques Perriault, the use of machines is personalized and negotiated through interactions between the actors within a context. Following this theoretical posture and our little experience in this topic, in place of definitive results we descry an hypothesis: the actors in the teaching context participate to decide the real practices of computers in accord with their needs or caprices. Therefore, we need to know what the children learn day by day by using the computers, because we have installed them without think over detoured practices. Do the children use the computer like an evasion instrument or do the children control the machines for use them in personal or social projects? This is the question. Second, the multidisciplinary character of information and communication sciences enables us to combine distinct data collection systems in order to construct a coherent research method according to subject matter. The ethnographic approach allows us to get in direct contact to students and teachers, to observe their practices with computers, and to analyze the complex relationship between men and machine. With these data, we would like to give a detailed account of use of computers at observed schools for each country and then, to create a framework that will allow comparative research.