Long-Term Athlete Development R E S O U R C E P A P E R V 2. Canadian Sport. Published by the Canadian Sport Centres

Transcription

1 Long-Term Athlete Development R E S O U R C E P A P E R V 2 Canadian Sport forlife Published by the Canadian Sport Centres

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3 Long-Term Athlete Development Canadian Sport forlife Through Long-Term Athlete Development Planning for the sport excellence and well-being of Canadians 4 Glossary of Terms 7 Overview 8 An Outline of LTAD 13 Introduction 14 Sport System Alignment and Integration 17 Shortcomings and Consequences 19 The 10 Key Factors Influencing LTAD 19 The 10-Year Rule 20 The FUNdamentals 22 Specialization 23 Developmental Age 25 Trainability 28 Physical, Mental, Cognitive, and Emotional Development 28 Periodization 31 Calendar Planning for Competition 32 System Alignment and Integration 34 Continuous Improvement Table of Contents 36 Stages of LTAD 37 Active Start 38 FUNdamentals 40 Learning to Train 41 Training to Train 42 Training to Compete 43 Training to Win 44 Active for Life 46 Impact of LTAD 46 On Parents 46 On Coaching 46 On Clubs and Community Sport and Recreation 47 On the Sport System 47 On Sport Science 48 On the Education System 49 Implementation Canadian Sport Working Together 50 Summary 52 Selected Bibliography 54 Appendix 1 Physical, Mental, Cognitive, and Emotional Development 62 Appendix 2 Sport Specific Charts 65 Acknowledgements 3

4 Glossary of Terms Adaptation refers to a response to a stimulus or a series of stimuli that induces functional and/or morphological changes in the organism. Naturally, the level or degree of adaptation is dependent upon the genetical endowment of an individual. However, the general trends or patterns of adaptation are identified by physiological research, and guidelines are clearly delineated of the various adaptation processes, such as adaptation to muscular endurance or maximum strength. Adolescence is a difficult period to define in terms of the time of its onset and termination. During this period, most bodily systems become adult both structurally and functionally. Structurally, adolescence begins with an acceleration in the rate of growth in stature, which marks the onset of the adolescent growth spurt. The rate of statural growth reaches a peak, begins a slower or decelerative phase, and finally terminates with the attainment of adult stature. Functionally, adolescence is usually viewed in terms of sexual maturation, which begins with changes in the neuroendocrine system prior to overt physical changes and terminates with the attainment of mature reproductive function. Ancillary Capacities refer to the knowledge and experience base of an athlete and includes warm-up and cool-down procedures, stretching, nutrition, hydration, rest, recovery, restoration, regeneration, metal preparation, and taper and peak. The more knowledgeable athletes are about these training and performance factors, the more they can enhance their training and performance levels. When athletes reach their genetic potential and physiologically cannot improve anymore, performance can be improved by using the ancillary capacities to full advantage. Childhood ordinarily spans the end of infancy the first birthday to the start of adolescence and is characterized by relatively steady progress in growth and maturation and rapid progress in neuromuscular or motor development. It is often divided into early childhood, which includes preschool children aged 1 to 5 years, and late childhood, which includes elementary school-age children, aged 6 through to the onset of adolescence. Chronological age refers to the number of years and days elapsed since birth. Growth, development, and maturation operate in a time framework; that is, the child s chronological age. Children of the same chronological age can differ by several years in their level of biological maturation. The integrated nature of growth and maturation is achieved by the interaction of genes, hormones, nutrients, and the physical and psychosocial environments in which the individual lives. This complex interaction regulates the child s growth, neuromuscular maturation, sexual maturation, and general physical metamorphosis during the first 2 decades of life. Critical periods of development refers to a point in the development of a specific behaviour when experience or training has an optimal effect on development. The same experience, introduced at an earlier or later time, has no effect on or retards later skill acquisition. Development refers to the interrelationship between growth and maturation in relation to the passage of time. The concept of development also includes the social, emotional, intellectual, and motor realms of the child. 4

5 Long-Term Athlete Development The terms growth and maturation are often used together and sometimes synonymously. However, each refers to specific biological activities. Growth refers to observable, step-by-step, measurable changes in body size such as height, weight, and percentage of body fat. Maturation refers to qualitative system changes, both structural and functional in nature, in the organism s progress toward maturity; for example, the change of cartilage to bone in the skeleton. Peak height velocity (PHV) is the maximum rate of growth in stature during growth spurt. The age of maximum velocity of growth is called the age at PHV. Peak strength velocity (PSV) is the maximum rate of increase in strength during growth spurt. The age of maximum increase in strength is called the age at PSV. Peak weight velocity (PWV) is the maximum rate of increase in weight during growth spurt. The age of maximum increase in weight is called the age at PWV. Physical literacy refers to the mastering of fundamental motor skills and fundamental sport skills. Post-natal growth is commonly, although sometimes arbitrarily, divided into 3 or 4 age periods, including infancy, childhood, adolescence, and puberty. Puberty refers to the point at which an individual is sexually mature and able to reproduce. Readiness refers to the child s level of growth, maturity, and development that enables him/her to perform tasks and meet demands through training and competition. Readiness and critical periods of trainability during growth and development of young athletes are also referred to as the correct time for the programming of certain stimuli to achieve optimum adaptation with regard to motor skills, muscular and/or aerobic power. Skeletal age refers to the maturity of the skeleton determined by the degree of ossification of the bone structure. It is a measure of age that takes into consideration how far given bones have progressed toward maturity, not in size, but with respect to shape and position to one another. Trainability refers to the genetic endowment of athletes as they respond individually to specific stimuli and adapt to it accordingly. Malina and Bouchard (1991) defined trainability as the responsiveness of developing individuals at different stages of growth and maturation to the training stimulus. 5

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7 Long-Term Athlete Development Overview This consultation paper describes a 7-stage Canadian model of Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD), a training, competition, and recovery program based on developmental age the maturation level of an individual rather than chronological age. It is athlete centred, coach driven, and administration, sport science, and sponsor supported. Athletes who progress through LTAD experience training and competition in programs that consider their biological and training ages in creating periodized plans specific to their development needs. Long-Term Athlete Development 1. is based on the physical, mental, emotional, and cognitive development of children and adolescents. Each stage reflects a different point in athlete development. 2. ensures physical literacy 1 upon which excellence can be built and builds physical literacy in all children, from early childhood to late adolescence by promoting quality daily physical activity in the schools and a common approach to developing physical abilities through community recreation and elite sport programs. recognizes the need to involve all Canadians in LTAD, including athletes with a disability. 3. ensures that optimal training, competition, and recovery programs are provided throughout an athlete s career. 4. provides an optimal competition structure for the various stages of an athlete s development. 5. has an impact on the entire sport continuum, including participants, parents, coaches, schools, clubs, community recreation programs, provincial sport organizations (PSOs), national sport organizations (NSOs), sport science specialists, municipalities, and several government ministries and departments (particularly but not exclusively in the portfolios of health and education) at the provincial/territorial and federal levels. 6. integrates elite sport, community sport and recreation, scholastic sport, and physical education in schools. 7. is Made in Canada, recognizing international best practices, research, and normative data. 8. supports the four goals of the Canadian Sport Policy Enhanced Participation, Enhanced Excellence, Enhanced Capacity, and Enhanced Interaction and reflects a commitment to contribute to the achievement of these goals. 9. promotes a healthy, physically literate nation whose citizens participate in lifelong physical activity. 1 Physical literacy refers to competency in fundamental motor skills and fundamental sport skills. 7

8 Active Start Males and Females 0-6 FUNdamentals Males 6-9 Females 6-8 Learning to Train Males 9-12 Females 8-11 Training to Train Males Females Training to Compete Males /- Females /- Training to Win Males 19 +/- Females 18 +/- Active for Life Enter At Any Age 8 An Outline of LTAD The first 4 stages, with their respective approximate age ranges, are generally appropriate for all late-specialization sports. In the Training to Compete and Training to Win stages, age ranges vary from sport to sport. The 10 key factors influencing LTAD 1. The 10-Year Rule 2. The FUNdamentals 3. Specialization 4. Developmental Age 5. Trainability 6. Physical, Mental, Cognitive, and Emotional Development 7. Periodization 8. Calendar Planning for Competition 9. System Alignment and Integration 10. Continuous Improvement Figure 1 illustrates the stages of LTAD.

9 Long-Term Athlete Development Active Start Stage Chronological Age Males and Females 0-6 FUN and part of daily life Fitness and movement skills development Focus on learning proper movement skills such as running, jumping, wheeling, twisting, kicking, throwing, and catching Not sedentary for more than 60 minutes except when sleeping FUNdamentals Stage Chronological Age Males 6-9 and Females 6-8 Overall movement skills FUN and participation General, overall development Integrated mental, cognitive, and emotional development ABC s of Athleticism: agility, balance, coordination, and speed ABC s of Athletics: running, jumping, wheeling, and throwing Medicine ball, Swiss ball, own body strength exercises Introduce simple rules of ethics of sport Screening for talent No periodization, but well-structured programs Daily physical activity Some organized physical activity Exploration of risk and limits in safe environments Active movement environment combined with well-structured gymnastics and swimming programs Daily physical activity Learning to Train Stage Chronological / Development Age Males 9-12 and Females 8-11 Overall sport skills development Major skill learning stage: all basic sport skills should be learned before entering Training to Train Integrated mental, cognitive, and emotional development Introduction to mental preparation Medicine ball, Swiss ball, own body strength exercise Introduce ancillary capacities Talent Identification Single or double periodization Sport specific training 3 times week; participation in other sports 3 times a week 9

10 Training to Train Stage Chronological / Developmental Age Males and Females Sport specific skill development Major fitness development stage: aerobic and strength. The onset of Peak Height Velocity (PHV) and PHV are the reference points Integrated mental, cognitive, and emotional development Develop mental preparation Introduce free weights Develop ancillary capacities Frequent musculoskeletal evaluations during PHV Selection Single or double periodization Sport specific training 6-9 times per week including complementary sports Training to Compete Stage Chronological / Developmental Age Males /- and Females /- Sport, event, position-specific physical conditioning Sport, event, position-specific technical tactical preparation Sport, event, position-specific technical and playing skills under competitive conditions Integrated mental, cognitive, and emotional development Advanced mental preparation Optimize ancillary capacities Specialization Single, double, or triple periodization Sport specific technical, tactical and fitness training 9-12 times per week 10

11 Long-Term Athlete Development Training to Win Stage Chronological Age Males 19 +/- and Females 18 +/- Active For Life Stage Enter At Any Age Ages are sport specific based on international normative data Maintenance or improvement of physical capacities Further development of technical, tactical, and playing skills Modelling all possible aspects of training and performance Frequent prophylactic breaks Maximize ancillary capacities High Performance Single, double, triple, or multiple periodization Minimum of 60 minutes moderate daily activity or 30 minutes of intense activity for adults Transfer from one sport to another Move from highly competitive sport to lifelong competitive sport through age group competition Move from competitive sport to recreational activities Move to sport careers or volunteering There is a better opportunity to be Active for Life if physical literacy is achieved before the Training to Train stage Sport specific technical, tactical, and fitness training 9-15 times per week 11

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13 Long-Term Athlete Development Introduction LTAD focuses on the general framework of athlete development with special reference to growth, maturation and development, trainability, and sport system alignment and integration. It incorporates information from a number of sources. It draws on the experiences of various athlete development projects that have been implemented by different sport organizations in British Columbia 2 since the mid-1990s. It also draws from LTAD work with NSOs including Basketball Canada, the Canadian Curling Association, Speed Skating Canada, the Canadian Alpine Ski Team 3, and the Report of the Minister of State s (Sport) Work Group on Sport for Persons with a Disability (2004). The approach was also influenced by an analysis of the empirically tested athlete development models from the former East Bloc countries, with all the positive and negative aspects of those models. In addition, sport science has provided insight and information regarding the role of growth, development, and maturation in athletic development. These sciences include pediatric exercise science, exercise physiology, sport psychology, psychomotor learning, sport sociology, and nutrition. An analysis of the literature on organizational development has also contributed significantly. This document is fully based on and supported by the coaching and exercise science literature, but it is written particularly for coaches and technical and administrative sport leaders. Although some of the generalizations may seem to be too vague from a scientific point of view, our extrapolations are drawn because decisions must be made, despite the paucity of scientific studies and data in the area. Thus, the art of coaching plays a significant role in our model. The health and well-being of the nation and the medals won at major Games are simple by-products of an effective sport system. We recognize that the cognitive, emotional, and psycho-social development of children is an important component of maturation, but because of space constraints, the significance of these components at various stages of maturation are summarized in tables in Appendix 1 on page 54. Additional technical information on LTAD for athletes with a disability is addressed in a separate booklet (to be available in the near future). 2 These BC sport organizations include tennis, water-ski, and curling. 3 Athlete development models were produced for sport organizations in Ireland and Britain, including British Swimming, English Rugby Football Union, England Cricket Board, England Netball, British Canoe Union, and British Judo, are directly quoted from and utilized in the text. 13

14 Sport System Alignment and Integration The need for LTAD arises in part from the declining international performances of Canadian athletes in some sports and the difficulty other sports are having in identifying and developing the next generation of internationally successful athletes. In addition, participation in recreational sport and physical activity has been declining and physical education programs in the schools are being marginalized. 14

15 Long-Term Athlete Development LTAD is a vehicle for change. It differs from other athlete development models because it acknowledges that physical education, school sports, competitive sports, and recreational activities are mutually interdependent. LTAD also positively affects the quality of training and competition by taking into consideration factors such as developmental age and critical periods of optimal trainability. It builds athletic ability beginning with a foundation of fundamental movement skills and introduces fitness and sport skills at the appropriate developmental age. Figure 2 illustrates the recommended support system interrelationship between physical education, recreation, and podium performance. LTAD stands in sharp contrast to the current Canadian sport system. Traditionally, physical education in the schools, recreational sports, and elite sport have been developed separately. This approach is ineffective and expensive. It fails to ensure that all children, including those who may choose to become elite athletes, are given a solid foundation and knowledge base physical, technical, tactical, and mental upon which to build their athletic abilities. LTAD is an inclusive model that encourages individuals to get involved in lifelong physical activity. It does this by connecting and integrating physical education programs in the school system with elite sport programs and with recreational sport programs in the community. LTAD ensures that all children correctly learn the fundamental movement skills since all children attend school and that these skills are introduced during the optimum point in their physical development, which is prior to age 11 for girls and age 12 for boys. Children who are physically educated in the LTAD way will feel confident and be encouraged to continue to build on these skills through competitive and recreational sport activity. enjoy overall health benefits by developing greater physical literacy, which encourages them to be more physically active throughout their lives. Increased activity reverses the current trends in childhood and adult obesity and cardiovascular disease. Figure 2 Circle of a Physically Active Life discover a pathway to competition and excellence at the international level. 15

16 There is another important reason why Canada needs LTAD. In past decades, we have at times attempted to patch the gaps in our sport system by borrowing concepts and systems from countries that have been achieving international athletic success. As an example, during the 1970 s and 1980 s, Canada tried to adapt elements from the Soviet Union and later from the German Democratic Republic. Prior to and immediately after the 2000 Olympic and Paralympic Games, many suggested that Canada should try to emulate the Australian sport model. However, for Canadian athletes to achieve international sporting success, Canada must develop a made-in-canada system that is based on our own culture, traditions, and geography and reflects our social, political, and economic realities. The Canadian LTAD approach attempts to do just that. LTAD consists of 7 stages. The first 3 encourage physical literacy and sport for all: 1. Active Start 2. FUNdamentals 3. Learning to Train The next 3 focus on excellence: 4. Training to Train 5. Training to Compete 6. Training to Win The final stage encourages life-long physical activity: 7. Active for Life Figure 3 illustrates an individual s participation in lifelong physical activity, emphasizing the transition from the first 3 LTAD stages to either excellence, life-long participation in the same sport, or remaining active for life in another activity. Figure 3 Participation In Lifelong Physical Activity (Way et al, 2005) 16

17 Long-Term Athlete Development Shortcomings and Consequences Before LTAD can be implemented successfully, the many shortcomings and resultant consequences that are impeding the Canadian sport system must be addressed. Shortcomings What are the shortcomings? developmental athletes over-compete and under-train. adult training and competition programs are imposed on developing athletes. training methods and competition programs designed for male athletes are imposed on female athletes. preparation is geared to the short-term outcome winning and not to the process. chronological rather than developmental age is used in training and competition planning. coaches largely neglect the critical periods of accelerated adaptation to training. fundamental movement skills and sport skills are not taught properly. the most knowledgeable coaches work at the elite level; volunteers coach at the developmental level where quality, trained coaches are essential. parents are not educated about LTAD. developmental training needs of athletes with a disability are not well understood. in most sports, the competition system inter feres with athlete development. there is no talent identification (TID) system. there is no integration between physical education programs in the schools, recreational community programs, and elite competitive programs. sports specialize too early in an attempt to attract and retain participants. Consequences What are the results of these shortcomings? failure to reach optimal performance levels in international competitions. poor movement abilities. lack of proper fitness. poor skill development. bad habits developed from over-competition focused on winning. undeveloped and unrefined skills due to under-training. female athlete potential not reached due to inappropriate programs. children not having fun as they play adult-based programs. no systematic development of the next generation of successful international athletes. athletes pulled in different directions by school, club, and provincial teams because of the structure of competition programs. remedial programs, implemented by provincial and national team coaches, to counteract the shortcomings of athlete preparation. fluctuating national performance due to lack of TID and a developmental pathway. athletes failing to reach their genetic potential and optimal performance level. To date, implementation of LTAD in Canada, Ireland, and the United Kingdom indicates that the framework provided by LTAD aids in addressing these shortcomings and enhancing sport system alignment and integration. 17

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19 10 Key Factors The 10 Key Factors Influencing LTAD The following factors are the research, principles, and tools upon which LTAD is built. 1 The 10-Year Rule Scientific research has concluded that it takes a minimum of 10 years and 10,000 hours of training for a talented athlete to reach elite levels. For athlete and coach, this translates into slightly more than 3 hours of training or competition daily for 10 years. This factor is supported by The Path to Excellence, which provides a comprehensive view of the development of U.S. Olympians who competed between 1984 and The results reveal that U.S. Olympians begin their sport participation at the average age of 12.0 for males and 11.5 for females. most Olympians reported a 12- to 13-year period of talent development from their sport introduction to making an Olympic team. olympic medallists were younger 1.3 to 3.6 years during the first 5 stages of development than non-medallists, suggesting that medallists were receiving motor skill development and training at an earlier age. However, caution must be taken not to fall into the trap of early specialization in late specialization sports. 19

20 10 Key Factors 2 The FUNdamentals FUNdamental movements and skills should be introduced through fun and games. FUNdamental sports skills should follow and include basic overall sports skills. FUNdamental movements skills and FUNdamental sports skills = physical literacy. Physical literacy refers to competency in movement and sports skills. Physical literacy should be developed before the onset of the adolescent growth spurt. Agility Balance Co-ordination Speed Jumping Climbing Walking Skating Hopping Swimming Skipping Balance Throwing Dribbling Kicking Throwing Hitting Catching 20

21 10 Key Factors Table 1 lists the wide variety of fundamental movements and skills that underpin physical literacy. They include 4 different environments: earth, water, air, and ice. Travelling Skills Boosting Climbing Eggbeater Galloping Gliding Hopping Ice Picking Jumping Leaping Poling Running Sculling Skating Skipping Sliding Swimming Swinging Wheeling Object Control Skills Sending: Kicking Punting Rolling (ball) Strike (ball, puck, ring) Throwing Receiving: Catching Stopping Trapping Travelling with: Dribbling (feet) Dribbling (hands) Dribbling (stick) Receiving and Sending: Striking (bat) Striking (stick) Volleying Balance Movements Balancing/Centering Body Rolling Dodging Eggbeater Floating Landing Ready position Sinking/Falling Spinning Stopping Stretching/Curling Swinging Twisting/Turning Jess 1999, adapted Balyi and Way 2004 The basic movement skills of 3 activities provide the base for all other sports Athletics: run, wheel, jump or throw. Gymnastics: ABC s of athleticism agility, balance, coordination, and speed. Swimming: for water safety reasons, for balance in a buoyant environment, and as the foundation for all water-based sports. Without the basic movement skills, a child will have difficulty participating in any sport. For example, to enjoy baseball, basketball, cricket, football, netball, handball, rugby, and softball, the simple skill of catching must be mastered. It is critically important that children with a disability have the opportunity to develop their fundamental movement and sport skills. Failure to do so severely limits their lifelong opportunities for recreational and athletic success. Despite this great need, children with a disability face difficulty gaining the fundamentals because overly protective parents, teachers, and coaches shield them from the bumps and bruises of childhood play. adapted physical education is not well developed in all school systems. some coaches do not welcome children with a disability to their activities because of a lack of knowledge about how to integrate them. it takes creativity to integrate a child with a disability into group activities where fundamental skills are practiced and physical literacy developed. 21

22 10 Key Factors 3 Specialization Sports can be classified as either early or late specialization. Early specialization sports include artistic and acrobatic sports such as gymnastics, diving, and figure skating. These differ from late specialization sports in that very complex skills are learned before maturation since they cannot be fully mastered if taught after maturation. Most other sports are late specialization sports. However, all sports should be individually analyzed using international and national normative data to decide whether they are early or late specialization. If physical literacy is acquired before maturation, athletes can select a late specialization sport when they are between the ages of 12 and 15 and have the potential to rise to international stardom in that sport. Specializing before the age of 10 in late specialization sports contributes to one-sided, sport-specific preparation. lack of ABC s, the basic movement and sports skills. overuse injuries. early burnout. early retirement from training and competition. Disability sports are late specialization and it is critically important that children with a congenital disability or early acquired disability be exposed to the full range of fundamentals before specializing in the sport of their choice. Early involvement in the FUNdamentals stage is essential in late specialization sports. Many sports resort to remedial programs to try to correct shortcomings. 22

23 10 Key Factors 4 Developmental Age The terms growth and maturation are often used together and sometimes synonymously. However, each refers to specific biological activities. Growth refers to observable step-by-step changes in quantity and measurable changes in body size such as height, weight, and fat percentage. Maturation refers to qualitative system changes, both structural and functional, in the body s progress toward maturity such as the change of cartilage to bone in the skeleton. Development refers to the interrelationship between growth and maturation in relation to the passage of time. The concept of development also includes the social, emotional, intellectual, and motor realms of the child. Chronological age refers to the number of years and days elapsed since birth. Children of the same chronological age can differ by several years in their level of biological maturation. Developmental age refers to the degree of physical, mental, cognitive, and emotional maturity. Physical developmental age can be determined by skeletal maturity or bone age after which mental, cognitive, and emotional maturity is incorporated. Figure 4 Maturation in Girls and Boys (Adapted from Growing Up by J.M. Tanner Scientific American 1973) LTAD requires the identification of early, average, and late maturers in order to help to design appropriate training and competition programs in relation to optimal trainability and readiness. The beginning of the growth spurt and the peak of the growth spurt are very significant in LTAD applications to training and competition design. Specific disabilities may dramatically change the timing and sequence of childhood and adolescent development. 23