r(x) = p(x) q(x), 4. r(x) = 2x2 1

Transcription

1 Chapter 4 Rational Functions 4. Introduction to Rational Functions If we add, subtract or multipl polnomial functions according to the function arithmetic rules defined in Section.5, we will produce another polnomial function. If, on the other hand, we divide two polnomial functions, the result ma not be a polnomial. In this chapter we stud rational functions - functions which are ratios of polnomials. Definition 4.. A rational function is a function which is the ratio of polnomial functions. Said differentl, r is a rational function if it is of the form where p and q are polnomial functions. a r() = p() q(), a According to this definition, all polnomial functions are also rational functions. (Take q() = ). As we recall from Section.4, we have domain issues antime the denominator of a fraction is zero. In the eample below, we review this concept as well as some of the arithmetic of rational epressions. Eample 4... Find the domain of the following rational functions. Write them in the form p() q() for polnomial functions p and q and simplif.. f() = +. h() = Solution.. g() = + 4. r() =. To find the domain of f, we proceed as we did in Section.4: we find the zeros of the denominator and eclude them from the domain. Setting + = 0 results in =. Hence,

2 0 Rational Functions our domain is (, ) (, ). The epression f() is alread in the form requested and when we check for common factors among the numerator and denominator we find none, so we are done.. Proceeding as before, we determine the domain of g b solving + = 0. As before, we find the domain of g is (, ) (, ). To write g() in the form requested, we need to get a common denominator g() = + ( + ) = + = + = + = ()( + ) ()( + ) + This formula is now completel simplified.. The denominators in the formula for h() are both whose zeros are = ±. As a result, the domain of h is (, ) (, ) (, ). We now proceed to simplif h(). Since we have the same denominator in both terms, we subtract the numerators. We then factor the resulting numerator and denominator, and cancel out the common factor. h() = = + ( )( ) = ( + )( ) = + = ( ) ( ) = + = ( ) ( ) ( + ) ( ) 4. To find the domain of r, it ma help to temporaril rewrite r() as r() = We need to set all of the denominators equal to zero which means we need to solve not onl = 0, but also = 0. We find = ± for the former and = for the latter. Our domain is (, ) (, ) (, ) (, ). We simplif r() b rewriting the division as multiplication b the reciprocal and then b canceling the common factor

3 4. Introduction to Rational Functions 0 r() = ( ) ( = ) ( ) ( ) = = = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) A few remarks about Eample 4.. are in order. Note that the epressions for f(), g() and h() work out to be the same. However, onl two of these functions are actuall equal. Recall that functions are ultimatel sets of ordered pairs, so for two functions to be equal, the need, among other things, to have the same domain. Since f() = g() and f and g have the same domain, the are equal functions. Even though the formula h() is the same as f(), the domain of h is different than the domain of f, and thus the are different functions. We now turn our attention to the graphs of rational functions. Consider the function f() = + from Eample 4... Using a graphing calculator, we obtain Two behaviors of the graph are worth of further discussion. First, note that the graph appears to break at =. We know from our last eample that = is not in the domain of f which means f( ) is undefined. When we make a table of values to stud the behavior of f near = we see that we can get near = from two directions. We can choose values a little less than, for eample =., =.0, =.00, and so on. These values are said to approach from the left. Similarl, the values = 0.9, = 0.99, = 0.999, etc., are said to approach from the right. If we make two tables, we find that the numerical results confirm what we see graphicall. f() (, f()). (., ).0 0 (.0, 0) (.00, 00) (.00, 000) f() (, f()) ( 0.9, 8) ( 0.99, 98) ( 0.999, 998) ( , 9998) As the values approach from the left, the function values become larger and larger positive numbers. We epress this smbolicall b stating as, f(). Similarl, using analogous notation, we conclude from the table that as +, f(). For this tpe of You should review Sections. and. if this statement caught ou off guard. We would need Calculus to confirm this analticall.

4 04 Rational Functions unbounded behavior, we sa the graph of = f() has a vertical asmptote of =. Roughl speaking, this means that near =, the graph looks ver much like the vertical line =. The other feature worth of note about the graph of = f() is that it seems to level off on the left and right hand sides of the screen. This is a statement about the end behavior of the function. As we discussed in Section., the end behavior of a function is its behavior as as attains larger and larger negative values without bound,, and as becomes large without bound,. Making tables of values, we find f() (, f()) 0. ( 0,.) ( 00,.00) ( 000,.000) ( 0000,.000) f() (, f()) 0.77 (0,.77) (00,.970) (000,.9970) (0000,.9997) From the tables, we see that as, f() + and as, f(). Here the + means from above and the means from below. In this case, we sa the graph of = f() has a horizontal asmptote of =. This means that the end behavior of f resembles the horizontal line =, which eplains the leveling off behavior we see in the calculator s graph. We formalize the concepts of vertical and horizontal asmptotes in the following definitions. Definition 4.. The line = c is called a vertical asmptote of the graph of a function = f() if as c or as c +, either f() or f(). Definition 4.. The line = c is called a horizontal asmptote of the graph of a function = f() if as or as, f() c. Note that in Definition 4., we write f() c (not f() c + or f() c ) because we are unconcerned from which direction the values f() approach the value c, just as long as the do so. 4 In our discussion following Eample 4.., we determined that, despite the fact that the formula for h() reduced to the same formula as f(), the functions f and h are different, since = is in the domain of f, but = is not in the domain of h. If we graph h() = using a graphing calculator, we are surprised to find that the graph looks identical to the graph of = f(). There is a vertical asmptote at =, but near =, everthing seem fine. Tables of values provide numerical evidence which supports the graphical observation. Here, the word larger means larger in absolute value. 4 As we shall see in the net section, the graphs of rational functions ma, in fact, cross their horizontal asmptotes. If this happens, however, it does so onl a finite number of times, and so for each choice of and, f() will approach c from either below (in the case f() c ) or above (in the case f() c +.) We leave f() c generic in our definition, however, to allow this concept to appl to less tame specimens in the Precalculus zoo, such as Eercise 50 in Section 0.5.

5 4. Introduction to Rational Functions 05 h() (, h()) (0.9, 0.40) (0.99, 0.495) (0.999, 0.499) (0.9999, ) h() (, h()) (., 0.574) (.0, ) (.00, ) (.000, 0.500) We see that as, h() 0.5 and as +, h() In other words, the points on the graph of = h() are approaching (, 0.5), but since = is not in the domain of h, it would be inaccurate to fill in a point at (, 0.5). As we ve done in past sections when something like this occurs, 5 we put an open circle (also called a hole in this case 6 ) at (, 0.5). Below is a detailed graph of = h(), with the vertical and horizontal asmptotes as dashed lines Neither = nor = are in the domain of h, et the behavior of the graph of = h() is drasticall different near these -values. The reason for this lies in the second to last step when we simplified the formula for h() in Eample 4.., where we had h() = ( )( ) (+)( ). The reason = is not in the domain of h is because the factor ( + ) appears in the denominator of h(); similarl, = is not in the domain of h because of the factor ( ) in the denominator of h(). The major difference between these two factors is that ( ) cancels with a factor in the numerator whereas ( + ) does not. Loosel speaking, the trouble caused b ( ) in the denominator is canceled awa while the factor ( + ) remains to cause mischief. This is wh the graph of = h() has a vertical asmptote at = but onl a hole at =. These observations are generalized and summarized in the theorem below, whose proof is found in Calculus. 5 For instance, graphing piecewise defined functions in Section.6. 6 In Calculus, we will see how these holes can be plugged when embarking on a more advanced stud of continuit.

6 06 Rational Functions Theorem 4.. Location of Vertical Asmptotes and Holes: a Suppose r is a rational function which can be written as r() = p() q() where p and q have no common zeros.b Let c be a real number which is not in the domain of r. ( ) If q(c) 0, then the graph of = r() has a hole at. c, p(c) q(c) If q(c) = 0, then the line = c is a vertical asmptote of the graph of = r(). a Or, How to tell our asmptote from a hole in the graph. b In other words, r() is in lowest terms. In English, Theorem 4. sas that if = c is not in the domain of r but, when we simplif r(), it no longer makes the denominator 0, then we have a hole at = c. Otherwise, the line = c is a vertical asmptote of the graph of = r(). Eample 4... Find the vertical asmptotes of, and/or holes in, the graphs of the following rational functions. Verif our answers using a graphing calculator, and describe the behavior of the graph near them using proper notation.. f() =. h() = g() = r() = Solution.. To use Theorem 4., we first find all of the real numbers which aren t in the domain of f. To do so, we solve = 0 and get = ±. Since the epression f() is in lowest terms, there is no cancellation possible, and we conclude that the lines = and = are vertical asmptotes to the graph of = f(). The calculator verifies this claim, and from the graph, we see that as, f(), as +, f(), as, f(), and finall as +, f().. Solving 9 = 0 gives = ±. In lowest terms g() = Since = continues to make trouble in the denominator, we know the line = is a vertical asmptote of the graph of = g(). Since = no longer produces a 0 in the denominator, = ( )(+) ( )(+) = + we have a hole at =. To find the -coordinate of the hole, we substitute = into + + and find the hole is at (, 6) 5. When we graph = g() using a calculator, we clearl see the vertical asmptote at =, but everthing seems calm near =. Hence, as, g(), as +, g(), as, g() 5 6, and as +, g()

7 4. Introduction to Rational Functions 07 The graph of = f() The graph of = g(). The domain of h is all real numbers, since + 9 = 0 has no real solutions. Accordingl, the graph of = h() is devoid of both vertical asmptotes and holes. 4. Setting = 0 gives us = as the onl real number of concern. Simplifing, we see r() = = ( )(+) = (+) +. Since = continues to produce a 0 in the denominator of the reduced function, we know = is a vertical asmptote to the graph. The calculator bears this out, and, moreover, we see that as, r() and as +, r(). The graph of = h() The graph of = r() Our net eample gives us a phsical interpretation of a vertical asmptote. This tpe of model arises from a famil of equations cheeril named doomsda equations. 7 Eample 4... A mathematical model for the population P, in thousands, of a certain species of bacteria, t das after it is introduced to an environment is given b P (t) = 00 (5 t), 0 t < 5.. Find and interpret P (0).. When will the population reach 00,000?. Determine the behavior of P as t 5. Interpret this result graphicall and within the contet of the problem. 7 These functions arise in Differential Equations. The unfortunate name will make sense shortl.

8 08 Rational Functions Solution.. Substituting t = 0 gives P (0) = 00 into the environment. (5 0) = 4, which means 4000 bacteria are initiall introduced. To find when the population reaches 00,000, we first need to remember that P (t) is measured in thousands. In other words, 00,000 bacteria corresponds to P (t) = 00. Substituting for P (t) gives the equation 00 (5 t) = 00. Clearing denominators and dividing b 00 gives (5 t) =, which, after etracting square roots, produces t = 4 or t = 6. Of these two solutions, onl t = 4 in in our domain, so this is the solution we keep. Hence, it takes 4 das for the population of bacteria to reach 00,000.. To determine the behavior of P as t 5, we can make a table t P (t) In other words, as t 5, P (t). Graphicall, the line t = 5 is a vertical asmptote of the graph of = P (t). Phsicall, this means that the population of bacteria is increasing without bound as we near 5 das, which cannot actuall happen. For this reason, t = 5 is called the doomsda for this population. There is no wa an environment can support infinitel man bacteria, so shortl before t = 5 the environment would collapse. Now that we have thoroughl investigated vertical asmptotes, we can turn our attention to horizontal asmptotes. The net theorem tells us when to epect horizontal asmptotes. Theorem 4.. Location of Horizontal Asmptotes: Suppose r is a rational function and r() = p() q(), where p and q are polnomial functions with leading coefficients a and b, respectivel. If the degree of p() is the same as the degree of q(), then = a b asmptote of the graph of = r(). is thea horizontal If the degree of p() is less than the degree of q(), then = 0 is the horizontal asmptote of the graph of = r(). If the degree of p() is greater than the degree of q(), then the graph of = r() has no horizontal asmptotes. a The use of the definite article will be justified momentaril. Like Theorem 4., Theorem 4. is proved using Calculus. Nevertheless, we can understand the idea behind it using our eample f() = +. If we interpret f() as a division problem, ( ) (+),

9 4. Introduction to Rational Functions 09 we find that the quotient is with a remainder of. Using what we know about polnomial division, specificall Theorem.4, we get = ( + ). Dividing both sides b ( + ) gives + = +. (You ma remember this as the formula for g() in Eample 4...) As becomes unbounded in either direction, the quantit + gets closer and closer to 0 so that the values of f() become closer and closer 8 to. In smbols, as ±, f(), and we have the result. 9 Notice that the graph gets close to the same value as or. This means that the graph can have onl one horizontal asmptote if it is going to have one at all. Thus we were justified in using the in the previous theorem. Alternativel, we can use what we know about end behavior of polnomials to help us understand this theorem. From Theorem., we know the end behavior of a polnomial is determined b its leading term. Appling this to the numerator and denominator of f(), we get that as ±, f() = + =. This last approach is useful in Calculus, and, indeed, is made rigorous there. (Keep this in mind for the remainder of this paragraph.) Appling this reasoning to the general case, suppose r() = p() q() where a is the leading coefficient of p() and b is the leading coefficient of q(). As ±, r() an b, where n and m are the degrees of p() and q(), respectivel. m If the degree of p() and the degree of q() are the same, then n = m so that r() a b, which means = a b is the horizontal asmptote in this case. If the degree of p() is less than the degree of q(), then n < m, so m n is a positive number, and hence, r() a 0 as ±. If b m n the degree of p() is greater than the degree of q(), then n > m, and hence n m is a positive number and r() an m b, which becomes unbounded as ±. As we said before, if a rational function has a horizontal asmptote, then it will have onl one. (This is not true for other tpes of functions we shall see in later chapters.) Eample List the horizontal asmptotes, if an, of the graphs of the following functions. Verif our answers using a graphing calculator, and describe the behavior of the graph near them using proper notation.. f() = 5 + Solution.. g() = 4 +. h() = The numerator of f() is 5, which has degree. The denominator of f() is +, which has degree. Appling Theorem 4., = 0 is the horizontal asmptote. Sure enough, we see from the graph that as, f() 0 and as, f() The numerator of g(), 4, has degree, but the degree of the denominator, +, has degree. B Theorem 4., there is no horizontal asmptote. From the graph, we see that the graph of = g() doesn t appear to level off to a constant value, so there is no horizontal asmptote. 0 8 As seen in the tables immediatel preceding Definition More specificall, as, f() +, and as, f(). 0 Sit tight! We ll revisit this function and its end behavior shortl.

10 0 Rational Functions. The degrees of the numerator and denominator of h() are both three, so Theorem 4. tells us = 6 = is the horizontal asmptote. We see from the calculator s graph that as, h() +, and as, h(). The graph of = f() The graph of = g() The graph of = h() Our net eample of the section gives us a real-world application of a horizontal asmptote. Eample The number of students N at local college who have had the flu t months after the semester begins can be modeled b the formula N(t) = t for t 0.. Find and interpret N(0).. How long will it take until 00 students will have had the flu?. Determine the behavior of N as t. Interpret this result graphicall and within the contet of the problem. Solution.. N(0) = have had the flu. +(0) = 50. This means that at the beginning of the semester, 50 students. We set N(t) = 00 to get t = 00 and solve. Isolating the fraction gives +t = 00. Clearing denominators gives 450 = 00( + t). Finall, we get t = 5. This means it will take 5 months, or about das, for 00 students to have had the flu.. To determine the behavior of N as t, we can use a table. t N(t) The table suggests that as t, N(t) 500. (More specificall, 500.) This means as time goes b, onl a total of 500 students will have ever had the flu. Though the population below is more accuratel modeled with the functions in Chapter 6, we approimate it (using Calculus, of course!) using a rational function.

11 4. Introduction to Rational Functions We close this section with a discussion of the third (and final!) kind of asmptote which can be associated with the graphs of rational functions. Let us return to the function g() = 4 + in Eample Performing long division, we get g() = 4 + = +. Since the term + 0 as ±, it stands to reason that as becomes unbounded, the function values g() = +. Geometricall, this means that the graph of = g() should resemble the line = as ±. We see this pla out both numericall and graphicall below. g() g() = g() and = = g() and = as as The wa we smbolize the relationship between the end behavior of = g() with that of the line = is to write as ±, g(). In this case, we sa the line = is a slant asmptote to the graph of = g(). Informall, the graph of a rational function has a slant asmptote if, as or as, the graph resembles a non-horizontal, or slanted line. Formall, we define a slant asmptote as follows. Definition 4.4. The line = m + b where m 0 is called a slant asmptote of the graph of a function = f() if as or as, f() m + b. A few remarks are in order. First, note that the stipulation m 0 in Definition 4.4 is what makes the slant asmptote slanted as opposed to the case when m = 0 in which case we d have a horizontal asmptote. Secondl, while we have motivated what me mean intuitivel b the notation f() m+b, like so man ideas in this section, the formal definition requires Calculus. Another wa to epress this sentiment, however, is to rephrase f() m + b as f() (m + b) 0. In other words, the graph of = f() has the slant asmptote = m + b if and onl if the graph of = f() (m + b) has a horizontal asmptote = 0. See the remarks following Theorem 4.. Also called an oblique asmptote in some, ostensibl higher class (and more epensive), tets.

12 Rational Functions Our net task is to determine the conditions under which the graph of a rational function has a slant asmptote, and if it does, how to find it. In the case of g() = 4 +, the degree of the numerator 4 is, which is eactl one more than the degree if its denominator + which is. This results in a linear quotient polnomial, and it is this quotient polnomial which is the slant asmptote. Generalizing this situation gives us the following theorem. 4 Theorem 4.. Determination of Slant Asmptotes: Suppose r is a rational function and r() = p() q(), where the degree of p is eactl one more than the degree of q. Then the graph of = r() has the slant asmptote = L() where L() is the quotient obtained b dividing p() b q(). In the same wa that Theorem 4. gives us an eas wa to see if the graph of a rational function r() = p() q() has a horizontal asmptote b comparing the degrees of the numerator and denominator, Theorem 4. gives us an eas wa to check for slant asmptotes. Unlike Theorem 4., which gives us a quick wa to find the horizontal asmptotes (if an eist), Theorem 4. gives us no such short-cut. If a slant asmptote eists, we have no recourse but to use long division to find it. 5 Eample Find the slant asmptotes of the graphs of the following functions if the eist. Verif our answers using a graphing calculator and describe the behavior of the graph near them using proper notation.. f() = 4 + Solution.. g() = 4. h() = + 4. The degree of the numerator is and the degree of the denominator is, so Theorem 4. guarantees us a slant asmptote. To find it, we divide = + into 4 + and get a quotient of +, so our slant asmptote is = +. We confirm this graphicall, and we see that as, the graph of = f() approaches the asmptote from below, and as, the graph of = f() approaches the asmptote from above. 6. As with the previous eample, the degree of the numerator g() = 4 of the denominator is, so Theorem 4. applies. In this case, is and the degree g() = 4 = ( + )( ) ( ) = ( + ) ( ) = +, ( ) 4 Once again, this theorem is brought to ou courtes of Theorem.4 and Calculus. 5 That s OK, though. In the net section, we ll use long division to analze end behavior and it s worth the effort! 6 Note that we are purposefull avoiding notation like as, f() ( + ) +. While it is possible to define these notions formall with Calculus, it is not standard to do so. Besides, with the introduction of the smbol in the net section, the authors feel we are in enough trouble alread.

13 4. Introduction to Rational Functions so we have that the slant asmptote = + is identical to the graph of = g() ecept at = (where the latter has a hole at (, 4).) The calculator supports this claim. 7. For h() = +, the degree of the numerator is and the degree of the denominator is so 4 again, we are guaranteed the eistence of a slant asmptote. The long division ( + ) ( 4 ) gives a quotient of just, so our slant asmptote is the line =. The calculator confirms this, and we find that as, the graph of = h() approaches the asmptote from below, and as, the graph of = h() approaches the asmptote from above. The graph of = f() The graph of = g() The graph of = h() The reader ma be a bit disappointed with the authors at this point owing to the fact that in Eamples 4.., 4..4, and 4..6, we used the calculator to determine function behavior near asmptotes. We rectif that in the net section where we, in ecruciating detail, demonstrate the usefulness of number sense to reveal this behavior analticall. 7 While the word asmptote has the connotation of approaching but not equaling, Definitions 4. and 4.4 invite the same kind of pathologies we saw with Definitions. in Section.6.

14 4 Rational Functions 4.. Eercises In Eercises - 8, for the given rational function f: Find the domain of f. Identif an vertical asmptotes of the graph of = f(). Identif an holes in the graph. Find the horizontal asmptote, if it eists. Find the slant asmptote, if it eists. Graph the function using a graphing utilit and describe the behavior near the asmptotes.. f() = 6 4. f() = + 7. f() = f() = 5 9. f() = f() =. f() = f() = + 5. f() = + 7 ( + ) 6. f() = + 8. f() = 4 4. f() = f() = f() = f() = + 6. f() = f() = f() = The cost C in dollars to remove p% of the invasive species of Ippizuti fish from Sasquatch Pond is given b C(p) = 770p 00 p, 0 p < 00 (a) Find and interpret C(5) and C(95). (b) What does the vertical asmptote at = 00 mean within the contet of the problem? (c) What percentage of the Ippizuti fish can ou remove for $40000? 0. In Eercise 7 in Section.4, the population of Sasquatch in Portage Count was modeled b the function P (t) = 50t t + 5, where t = 0 represents the ear 80. Find the horizontal asmptote of the graph of = P (t) and eplain what it means.

15 4. Introduction to Rational Functions 5. Recall from Eample.5. that the cost C (in dollars) to make dopi media plaers is C() = , 0. (a) Find a formula for the average cost C(). Recall: C() = C(). (b) Find and interpret C() and C(00). (c) How man dopis need to be produced so that the average cost per dopi is $00? (d) Interpret the behavior of C() as 0 +. (HINT: You ma want to find the fied cost C(0) to help in our interpretation.) (e) Interpret the behavior of C() as. (HINT: You ma want to find the variable cost (defined in Eample..5 in Section.) to help in our interpretation.). In Eercise 5 in Section., we fit a few polnomial models to the following electric circuit data. (The circuit was built with a variable resistor. For each of the following resistance values (measured in kilo-ohms, kω), the corresponding power to the load (measured in milliwatts, mw ) is given in the table below.) 8 Resistance: (kω) Power: (mw ) Using some fundamental laws of circuit analsis mied with a health dose of algebra, we can derive the actual formula relating power to resistance. For this circuit, it is P () = 5, (+.9) where is the resistance value, 0. (a) Graph the data along with the function = P () on our calculator. (b) Use our calculator to approimate the maimum power that can be delivered to the load. What is the corresponding resistance value? (c) Find and interpret the end behavior of P () as.. In his now famous 99 dissertation The Learning Curve Equation, Louis Leon Thurstone presents a rational function which models the number of words a person can tpe in four minutes as a function of the number of pages of practice one has completed. (This paper, which is now in the public domain and can be found here, is from a bgone era when students at business schools took tping classes on manual tpewriters.) Using his original notation and original language, we have Y = L(X+P ) where L is the predicted practice limit in terms (X+P )+R of speed units, X is pages written, Y is writing speed in terms of words in four minutes, P is equivalent previous practice in terms of pages and R is the rate of learning. In Figure 5 of the paper, he graphs a scatter plot and the curve Y = 6(X+9) X+48. Discuss this equation with our classmates. How would ou update the notation? Eplain what the horizontal asmptote of the graph means. You should take some time to look at the original paper. Skip over the computations ou don t understand et and tr to get a sense of the time and place in which the stud was conducted. 8 The authors wish to thank Don Anthan and Ken White of Lakeland Communit College for devising this problem and generating the accompaning data set.

16 6 Rational Functions 4.. Answers. f() = 6 Domain: (, ) (, ) Vertical asmptote: = As, f() As +, f() No holes in the graph Horizontal asmptote: = As, f() As, f() +. f() = Domain: (, 5 ) ( 5, ) Vertical asmptote: = 5 As 5, f() As 5 +, f() No holes in the graph Horizontal asmptote: = 7 As, f() 7 + As, f() 7. f() = + = ( + 4)( ) Domain: (, 4) ( 4, ) (, ) Vertical asmptotes: = 4, = As 4, f() As 4 +, f() As, f() As +, f() No holes in the graph Horizontal asmptote: = 0 As, f() 0 As, f() f() = + Domain: (, ) No vertical asmptotes No holes in the graph Horizontal asmptote: = 0 As, f() 0 As, f() f() = + 7 ( + ) Domain: (, ) (, ) Vertical asmptote: = As, f() As +, f() No holes in the graph Horizontal asmptote: = 0 9 As, f() 0 As, f() f() = + = + Domain: (, ) (, ) (, ) Vertical asmptote: = As, f() As +, f() Hole at (, ) Slant asmptote: = As, the graph is below = As, the graph is above = 9 This is hard to see on the calculator, but trust me, the graph is below the -ais to the left of = 7.

17 4. Introduction to Rational Functions 7 7. f() = Domain: (, ) No vertical asmptotes No holes in the graph Horizontal asmptote: = 0 As, f() 0 As, f() f() = 4 4 = 4 ( + )( ) Domain: (, ) (, ) (, ) Vertical asmptotes: =, = As, f() As +, f() As, f() As +, f() No holes in the graph Horizontal asmptote: = 0 As, f() 0 As, f() f() = + 6 = 4 Domain: (, ) (, ) (, ) Vertical asmptote: = As, f() As +, f() Hole at (, 7 ) 5 Horizontal asmptote: = As, f() + As, f() 0. f() = 5 ( + )( ) = 9 ( + )( ) Domain: (, ) (, ) (, ) Vertical asmptotes: =, = As, f() As +, f() As, f() As +, f() No holes in the graph Horizontal asmptote: = As, f() + As, f(). f() = + + ( + ) = Domain: (, ) (, ) (, ) Vertical asmptote: = As, f() As +, f() Hole at (, 0) Slant asmptote: = + As, the graph is below = + As, the graph is above = +. f() = + + Domain: (, ) No vertical asmptotes No holes in the graph Slant asmptote: = As, the graph is above = As, the graph is below =

18 8 Rational Functions. f() = Domain: (, ) (, ) Vertical asmptote: = As, f() As +, f() No holes in the graph Slant asmptote: = + 9 As, the graph is above = + 9 As, the graph is below = f() = + 4 = ( )( + ) Domain: (, ) (, ) (, ) Vertical asmptotes: =, = As, f() As +, f() As, f() As +, f() No holes in the graph Slant asmptote: = As, the graph is above = As, the graph is below = 5. f() = = ( ) Domain: (, ) (, ) Vertical asmptotes: = As, f() As +, f() No holes in the graph Slant asmptote: = 5 8 As, the graph is above = 5 8 As, the graph is below = f() = Domain: (, ) (, ) Vertical asmptote: = As, f() As +, f() No holes in the graph No horizontal or slant asmptote As, f() As, f() 8 7. f() = 9 = Domain: (, ) (, ) (, ) No vertical asmptotes Holes in the graph at (, ) and (, ) Horizontal asmptote = As ±, f() = 8. f() = = Domain: (, ) No vertical asmptotes No holes in the graph Slant asmptote: = 5 f() = 5 everwhere. 9. (a) C(5) = 590 means it costs $590 to remove 5% of the fish and and C(95) = 60 means it would cost $60 to remove 95% of the fish from the pond. (b) The vertical asmptote at = 00 means that as we tr to remove 00% of the fish from the pond, the cost increases without bound; i.e., it s impossible to remove all of the fish. (c) For $40000 ou could remove about 95.76% of the fish.

19 4. Introduction to Rational Functions 9 0. The horizontal asmptote of the graph of P (t) = 50t t+5 is = 50 and it means that the model predicts the population of Sasquatch in Portage Count will never eceed 50.. (a) C() = , > 0. (b) C() = 00 and C(00) = 0. When just dopi is produced, the cost per dopi is $00, but when 00 dopis are produced, the cost per dopi is $0.. (a) (c) C() = 00 when = 0. So to get the cost per dopi to $00, 0 dopis need to be produced. (d) As 0 +, C(). This means that as fewer and fewer dopis are produced, the cost per dopi becomes unbounded. In this situation, there is a fied cost of $000 (C(0) = 000), we are tring to spread that $000 over fewer and fewer dopis. (e) As, C() This means that as more and more dopis are produced, the cost per dopi approaches $00, but is alwas a little more than $00. Since $00 is the variable cost per dopi (C() = ), it means that no matter how man dopis are produced, the average cost per dopi will alwas be a bit higher than the variable cost to produce a dopi. As before, we can attribute this to the $000 fied cost, which factors into the average cost per dopi no matter how man dopis are produced. (b) The maimum power is approimatel.60 mw which corresponds to.9 kω. (c) As, P () 0 + which means as the resistance increases without bound, the power diminishes to zero.

20 0 Rational Functions 4. Graphs of Rational Functions In this section, we take a closer look at graphing rational functions. In Section 4., we learned that the graphs of rational functions ma have holes in them and could have vertical, horizontal and slant asmptotes. Theorems 4., 4. and 4. tell us eactl when and where these behaviors will occur, and if we combine these results with what we alread know about graphing functions, we will quickl be able to generate reasonable graphs of rational functions. One of the standard tools we will use is the sign diagram which was first introduced in Section.4, and then revisited in Section.. In those sections, we operated under the belief that a function couldn t change its sign without its graph crossing through the -ais. The major theorem we used to justif this belief was the Intermediate Value Theorem, Theorem.. It turns out the Intermediate Value Theorem applies to all continuous functions, not just polnomials. Although rational functions are continuous on their domains, Theorem 4. tells us that vertical asmptotes and holes occur at the values ecluded from their domains. In other words, rational functions aren t continuous at these ecluded values which leaves open the possibilit that the function could change sign without crossing through the -ais. Consider the graph of = h() from Eample 4.., recorded below for convenience. We have added its -intercept at (, 0) for the discussion that follows. Suppose we wish to construct a sign diagram for h(). Recall that the intervals where h() > 0, or (+), correspond to the -values where the graph of = h() is above the -ais; the intervals on which h() < 0, or ( ) correspond to where the graph is below the -ais (+) ( ) 0 (+) (+) As we eamine the graph of = h(), reading from left to right, we note that from (, ), the graph is above the -ais, so h() is (+) there. At =, we have a vertical asmptote, at which point the graph jumps across the -ais. On the interval (, ), the graph is below the Recall that, for our purposes, this means the graphs are devoid of an breaks, jumps or holes Another result from Calculus.

21 4. Graphs of Rational Functions -ais, so h() is ( ) there. The graph crosses through the -ais at (, 0) and remains above the -ais until =, where we have a hole in the graph. Since h() is undefined, there is no sign here. So we have h() as (+) on the interval (, ). Continuing, we see that on (, ), the graph of = h() is above the -ais, so we mark (+) there. To construct a sign diagram from this information, we not onl need to denote the zero of h, but also the places not in the domain of h. As is our custom, we write 0 above on the sign diagram to remind us that it is a zero of h. We need a different notation for and, and we have chosen to use - a nonstandard smbol called the interrobang. We use this smbol to conve a sense of surprise, caution and wonderment - an appropriate attitude to take when approaching these points. The moral of the stor is that when constructing sign diagrams for rational functions, we include the zeros as well as the values ecluded from the domain. Steps for Constructing a Sign Diagram for a Rational Function Suppose r is a rational function.. Place an values ecluded from the domain of r on the number line with an above them.. Find the zeros of r and place them on the number line with the number 0 above them.. Choose a test value in each of the intervals determined in steps and. 4. Determine the sign of r() for each test value in step, and write that sign above the corresponding interval. We now present our procedure for graphing rational functions and appl it to a few ehaustive eamples. Please note that we decrease the amount of detail given in the eplanations as we move through the eamples. The reader should be able to fill in an details in those steps which we have abbreviated. Suppose r is a rational function.. Find the domain of r. Steps for Graphing Rational Functions. Reduce r() to lowest terms, if applicable.. Find the - and -intercepts of the graph of = r(), if the eist. 4. Determine the location of an vertical asmptotes or holes in the graph, if the eist. Analze the behavior of r on either side of the vertical asmptotes, if applicable. 5. Analze the end behavior of r. Find the horizontal or slant asmptote, if one eists. 6. Use a sign diagram and plot additional points, as needed, to sketch the graph of = r().

22 Rational Functions Eample 4... Sketch a detailed graph of f() = 4. Solution. We follow the si step procedure outlined above.. As usual, we set the denominator equal to zero to get 4 = 0. We find = ±, so our domain is (, ) (, ) (, ).. To reduce f() to lowest terms, we factor the numerator and denominator which ields f() = ( )(+). There are no common factors which means f() is alread in lowest terms.. To find the -intercepts of the graph of = f(), we set = f() = 0. Solving ( )(+) = 0 results in = 0. Since = 0 is in our domain, (0, 0) is the -intercept. To find the -intercept, we set = 0 and find = f(0) = 0, so that (0, 0) is our -intercept as well. 4. The two numbers ecluded from the domain of f are = and =. Since f() didn t reduce at all, both of these values of still cause trouble in the denominator. Thus b Theorem 4., = and = are vertical asmptotes of the graph. We can actuall go a step further at this point and determine eactl how the graph approaches the asmptote near each of these values. Though not absolutel necessar, 4 it is good practice for those heading off to Calculus. For the discussion that follows, it is best to use the factored form of f() = ( )(+). The behavior of = f() as : Suppose. If we were to build a table of values, we d use -values a little less than, sa.,.0 and.00. While there is no harm in actuall building a table like we did in Section 4., we want to develop a number sense here. Let s think about each factor in the formula of f() as we imagine substituting a number like = into f(). The quantit would be ver close to 6, the quantit ( ) would be ver close to 4, and the factor ( + ) would be ver close to 0. More specificall, ( + ) would be a little less than 0, in this case, We will call such a number a ver small ( ), ver small meaning close to zero in absolute value. So, mentall, as, we estimate f() = ( )( + ) 6 ( 4) (ver small ( )) = (ver small ( )) Now, the closer gets to, the smaller ( + ) will become, so even though we are multipling our ver small ( ) b, the denominator will continue to get smaller and smaller, and remain negative. The result is a fraction whose numerator is positive, but whose denominator is ver small and negative. Mentall, f() (ver small ( )) ver big ( ) ver small ( ) As we mentioned at least once earlier, since functions can have at most one -intercept, once we find that (0, 0) is on the graph, we know it is the -intercept. 4 The sign diagram in step 6 will also determine the behavior near the vertical asmptotes.

23 4. Graphs of Rational Functions The term ver big ( ) means a number with a large absolute value which is negative. 5 What all of this means is that as, f(). Now suppose we wanted to determine the behavior of f() as +. If we imagine substituting something a little larger than in for, sa , we mentall estimate f() 6 ( 4) (ver small (+)) = (ver small (+)) ver big (+) ver small (+) We conclude that as +, f(). The behavior of = f() as : Consider. We imagine substituting = Approimating f() as we did above, we get f() 6 (ver small ( )) (4) = (ver small ( )) ver big ( ) ver small ( ) We conclude that as, f(). Similarl, as +, we imagine substituting = to get f() ver small (+) ver big (+). So as +, f(). Graphicall, we have that near = and = the graph of = f() looks like 6 5. Net, we determine the end behavior of the graph of = f(). Since the degree of the numerator is, and the degree of the denominator is, Theorem 4. tells us that = 0 is the horizontal asmptote. As with the vertical asmptotes, we can glean more detailed information using number sense. For the discussion below, we use the formula f() = 4. The behavior of = f() as : If we were to make a table of values to discuss the behavior of f as, we would substitute ver large negative numbers in for, sa for eample, = billion. The numerator would then be billion, whereas 5 The actual retail value of f(.00000) is approimatel,500, We have deliberatel left off the labels on the -ais because we know onl the behavior near = ±, not the actual function values.

24 4 Rational Functions the denominator 4 would be ( billion) 4, which is prett much the same as (billion). Hence, f ( billion) billion (billion) ver small ( ) billion Notice that if we substituted in = trillion, essentiall the same kind of cancellation would happen, and we would be left with an even smaller negative number. This not onl confirms the fact that as, f() 0, it tells us that f() 0. In other words, the graph of = f() is a little bit below the -ais as we move to the far left. The behavior of = f() as : On the flip side, we can imagine substituting ver large positive numbers in for and looking at the behavior of f(). For eample, let = billion. Proceeding as before, we get f ( billion) billion (billion) ver small (+) billion The larger the number we put in, the smaller the positive number we would get out. In other words, as, f() 0 +, so the graph of = f() is a little bit above the -ais as we look toward the far right. Graphicall, we have 7 6. Lastl, we construct a sign diagram for f(). The -values ecluded from the domain of f are = ±, and the onl zero of f is = 0. Displaing these appropriatel on the number line gives us four test intervals, and we choose the test values 8 =, =, = and =. We find f( ) is ( ), f( ) is (+), f() is ( ) and f() is (+). Combining this with our previous work, we get the graph of = f() below. 7 As with the vertical asmptotes in the previous step, we know onl the behavior of the graph as ±. For that reason, we provide no -ais labels. 8 In this particular case, we can eschew test values, since our analsis of the behavior of f near the vertical asmptotes and our end behavior analsis have given us the signs on each of the test intervals. In general, however, this won t alwas be the case, so for demonstration purposes, we continue with our usual construction.

25 4. Graphs of Rational Functions 5 ( ) (+) 0 ( ) (+) A couple of notes are in order. First, the graph of = f() certainl seems to possess smmetr with respect to the origin. In fact, we can check f( ) = f() to see that f is an odd function. In some tetbooks, checking for smmetr is part of the standard procedure for graphing rational functions; but since it happens comparativel rarel 9 we ll just point it out when we see it. Also note that while = 0 is the horizontal asmptote, the graph of f actuall crosses the -ais at (0, 0). The mth that graphs of rational functions can t cross their horizontal asmptotes is completel false, 0 as we shall see again in our net eample. Eample 4... Sketch a detailed graph of g() = 5 6. Solution.. Setting 6 = 0 gives = and =. Our domain is (, ) (, ) (, ).. Factoring g() gives g() = ( 5)(+) ( )(+). There is no cancellation, so g() is in lowest terms.. To find the -intercept we set = g() = 0. Using the factored form of g() above, we find the zeros to be the solutions of ( 5)( + ) = 0. We obtain = 5 and =. Since both of these numbers are in the domain of g, we have two -intercepts, ( 5, 0) and (, 0). To find the -intercept, we set = 0 and find = g(0) = 5 6, so our -intercept is ( 0, 5 6). 4. Since g() was given to us in lowest terms, we have, once again b Theorem 4. vertical asmptotes = and =. Keeping in mind g() = ( 5)(+) ( )(+), we proceed to our analsis near each of these values. The behavior of = g() as : As, we imagine substituting a number a little bit less than. We have g() 9 And Jeff doesn t think much of it to begin with... 0 That s wh we called it a MYTH! ( 9)( ) ( 5)(ver small ( )) 9 ver big (+) ver small (+)

26 6 Rational Functions so as, g(). On the flip side, as +, we get g() 9 ver big ( ) ver small ( ) so g(). The behavior of = g() as : As, we imagine plugging in a number just sh of. We have g() ()(4) ( ver small ( ))(5) 4 ver big ( ) ver small ( ) Hence, as, g(). As +, we get g() 4 ver big (+) ver small (+) so g(). Graphicall, we have (again, without labels on the -ais) 4 5. Since the degrees of the numerator and denominator of g() are the same, we know from Theorem 4. that we can find the horizontal asmptote of the graph of g b taking the ratio of the leading terms coefficients, = =. However, if we take the time to do a more detailed analsis, we will be able to reveal some hidden behavior which would be lost otherwise. ( As in the discussion following Theorem 4., we use the result of the long division 5 ) ( 6 ) to rewrite g() = 5 as g() = 7. We focus our 6 6 attention on the term 7 6. That is, if ou use a calculator to graph. Once again, Calculus is the ultimate graphing power tool.

27 4. Graphs of Rational Functions 7 The behavior of = g() as : If imagine substituting = billion into 7, we estimate ver small ( ). Hence, billion billion g() = 7 ver small ( ) = + ver small (+) 6 In other words, as, the graph of = g() is a little bit above the line =. 7 The behavior of = g() as. To consider as, we imagine 6 substituting = billion and, going through the usual mental routine, find 7 ver small (+) 6 Hence, g() ver small (+), in other words, the graph of = g() is just below the line = as. On = g(), we have (again, without labels on the -ais) 6. Finall we construct our sign diagram. We place an above = and =, and a 0 above = 5 and =. Choosing test values in the test intervals gives us f() is (+) on the intervals (, ), (, ) 5 ( and (, ), and ( ) on the intervals (, ) and 5, ). As we piece together all of the information, we note that the graph must cross the horizontal asmptote at some point after = in order for it to approach = from underneath. This is the subtlet that we would have missed had we skipped the long division and subsequent end behavior analsis. We can, in fact, find eactl when the graph crosses =. As a result of the long division, we have g() = 7 7. For g() =, we would need 6 6 = 0. This gives 7 = 0, or = 7. Note that 7 is the remainder when 5 is divided b 6, so it makes sense that for g() to equal the quotient, the remainder from the division must be 0. Sure enough, we find g(7) =. Moreover, it stands to reason that g must attain a relative minimum at some point past = 7. Calculus verifies that at =, we have such a minimum at eactl (,.96). The reader is challenged to find calculator windows which show the graph crossing its horizontal asmptote on one window, and the relative minimum in the other. In the denominator, we would have (billion) billion 6. It s eas to see wh the 6 is insignificant, but to ignore the billion seems criminal. However, compared to ( billion), it s on the insignificant side; it s 0 8 versus 0 9. We are once again using the fact that for polnomials, end behavior is determined b the leading term, so in the denominator, the term wins out over the term.

28 8 Rational Functions (+) ( ) 0 (+) 0 ( ) (+) Our net eample gives us an opportunit to more thoroughl analze a slant asmptote. Eample 4... Sketch a detailed graph of h() = Solution.. For domain, ou know the drill. Solving + + = 0 gives = and =. Our answer is (, ) (, ) (, ).. To reduce h(), we need to factor the numerator and denominator. To factor the numerator, we use the techniques set forth in Section. and we get h() = = ( + )( + ) ( + )( + ) = ( + )( + ) ( + ) ( + ) = ( + )( + ) + We will use this reduced formula for h() as long as we re not substituting =. To make this eclusion specific, we write h() = (+)(+) +,.. To find the -intercepts, as usual, we set h() = 0 and solve. Solving (+)(+) + = 0 ields = and =. The latter isn t in the domain of h, so we eclude it. Our onl - intercept is (, 0). To find the -intercept, we set = 0. Since 0, we can use the reduced formula for h() and we get h(0) = for a -intercept of ( 0, ). 4. From Theorem 4., we know that since = still poses a threat in the denominator of the reduced function, we have a vertical asmptote there. As for =, the factor ( + ) was canceled from the denominator when we reduced h(), so it no longer causes trouble there. This means that we get a hole when =. To find the -coordinate of the hole, we substitute = into (+)(+) +, per Theorem 4. and get 0. Hence, we have a hole on Bet ou never thought ou d never see that stuff again before the Final Eam!

29 4. Graphs of Rational Functions 9 the -ais at (, 0). It should make ou uncomfortable plugging = into the reduced formula for h(), especiall since we ve made such a big deal concerning the stipulation about not letting = for that formula. What we are reall doing is taking a Calculus short-cut to the more detailed kind of analsis near = which we will show below. Speaking of which, for the discussion that follows, we will use the formula h() = (+)(+) +,. The behavior of = h() as : As, we imagine substituting a number ( )( ) a little bit less than. We have h() (ver small ( )) (ver small ( )) ver big ( ) thus as, h(). On the other side of, as +, we find that h() ver small (+) ver big (+), so h(). The behavior of = h() as. As, we imagine plugging in a number ( )(ver small ( )) a bit less than =. We have h() = ver small (+) Hence, as, h() 0 +. This means that as, the graph is a bit above the point (, 0). As + ( )(ver small (+)), we get h() = ver small ( ). This gives us that as +, h() 0, so the graph is a little bit lower than (, 0) here. Graphicall, we have 5. For end behavior, we note that the degree of the numerator of h(), , is and the degree of the denominator, + +, is so b Theorem 4., the graph of = h() has a slant asmptote. For ±, we are far enough awa from = to use the reduced formula, h() = (+)(+) +,. To perform long division, we multipl out the numerator and get h() = ++ +,, and rewrite h() = + +,. B Theorem 4., the slant asmptote is = =, and to better see how the graph approaches the asmptote, we focus our attention on the term generated from the remainder, +. The behavior of = h() as : Substituting = billion into +, we get the estimate billion ver small ( ). Hence, h() = + + +ver small ( ). This means the graph of = h() is a little bit below the line = as.