Winston-Salem State University. Oral Communication Manual

Transcription

1 Winston-Salem State University Oral Communication Manual Context/ Audience/ Medium Organization Delivery Language Supporting Materials Central Message Written by Amanda Deal and Melissa Rareshide, Rareshide & Deal, LLC under contract April 2014

2 Introduction Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Introduction In this manual on the Oral Communication outcome, we honor faculty commitment to students by providing tools to continually improve the way classes, assignments, and assessments are created. In so doing, we support WSSU students in mastery of oral communication. Jamie B. Slater, Ed.D. Assistant Provost for Institutional Effectiveness, Assessment, and Sponsored Programs Winston Salem State University WSSU created its Oral Communication Manual to support faculty in developing courses with the oral communication outcome. Being a competent communicator is a cornerstone for a student s academic, social and professional success. WSSU s emphasis on oral communication is intended to teach students how to design and deliver clear communication. This manual is intended to support instructors in developing courses to support this outcome. SECTION 1: Oral Communication Overview - An overview of oral communication and why it is important for students to develop proficiency with this outcome. SECTION 2: Backward Design A starting point for using learning outcomes to plan and implement courses with the oral communication outcome. SECTION 3: Assessment The role of assessment in facilitating the development of oral communication proficiency. SECTION 4: The WSSU Oral Communication Rubric How to use the Oral Communication Rubric developed by WSSU. SECTION 5: Oral Communication Proficiency Discussion of the structures, skills, and practices that develop students oral communication proficiency. o Interpersonal Communication and Therapeutic Communication o Public Speaking o Oral Communication as a Second Language Learner SECTION 6: Oral Communication Learning Activities and Instructor Perspectives Learning activities designed to support students in developing oral communication proficiency and interviews with instructors teaching this outcome. 2

3 Introduction Winston Salem State University Oral Communication SECTION 7: References List of sources used to develop the manual. We hope you find this resource helpful as you support WSSU s General Education initiative. The WSSU Oral Communication Committee Robert Anderson [email protected] Associate Professor of Portuguese Department of World Languages and Cultures Shawn Arango Ricks, Ph.D., HS-BCP, LCAS-A [email protected] Assistant Professor Rehabilitation and Human Services Andre Minkins, MFA [email protected] Associate Professor Speech, Theatre, TV and Film Nancy Polk, Ed.D. [email protected] Faculty Development Specialist Center for Excellence in Teaching & Learning (CETL) Tamika Anderson, RN, DPN [email protected] Instructor Division of Nursing Tabatha Mauldin, RN, MSN, CPN, MT (ASCP) [email protected] Professor Department of Nursing Andrea Patterson-Masuka, Ph.D. [email protected] Assistant Professor of Speech Department of Mass Communications Chair Oral Communication Committee Jamie Slater, Ed.D. [email protected] Assistant Provost for Institutional Effectiveness, Assessment & Sponsored Programs Notes for Digital Navigation: This document has been created with bookmarks to easily navigate between sections. To use the bookmarks make sure you have selected the bookmark from the sidebar in Adobe. Bookmark 3

4 Section One Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Section 1: Oral Communication Overview Communication is a skill that you can learn. It s like riding a bicycle or typing. If you re willing to work at it, you can rapidly improve the quality of every part of your life. -Brian Tracy Motivational Speaker & Author Oral Communication Overview WSSU defines oral communication as using appropriate language, conventions, elocution, poise, organization, supporting evidence, and content to effectively communicate through the spoken word for the purpose and audience. It is interactive, it is real-time, and it involves both verbal and nonverbal delivery of messages. Effective oral communication skills can be developed through instruction and practice. Why is Oral Communication Important? We communicate to... Initiate or improve relationships Conduct business Disseminate information Meet people Function in teams (Young & Travis, 2012) 4

5 Section One Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Ways of Defining Communication View Definition Quantitative Differentiates among dyadic communication, communication in small groups, communication. Qualitative Difference between personal and impersonal communication. Content Statements about the subject being discussed. Relational Statements about how the parties feel toward each other and their relationship. Linear A sender encodes ideas and feelings into a message and sends it through a channel to a receiver, who decodes the message and gives the sender feedback by his or her reaction. Transactional We encode, send, receive, and decode messages simultaneously, not in a back-and-forth manner. A transactional view of communication recognizes that is difficult to isolate a single discrete act of communication from the events that precede and follow it. (Johnson, 2000) 5

6 Section Two Winston Salem State University Oral Communication SECTION 2: Backward Design Though considerations about what to teach and how to teach it may dominate our thinking as a matter of habit, the challenge is to focus first on the desired learnings from which appropriate teaching will logically follow. -Wiggins & McTighe Course Design Research suggests that to most effectively achieve our goals for student learning, we need to reconfigure course design and instruction with a focus on the learning outcomes we desire for students. Wiggins and McTighe (2005) have a Backward Design model that can help with this. Their model suggests a very different approach from traditional instructional design that is activity-focused and coverage-focused. In addition to making student learning the primary concern, this backward design model makes authentic assessment a prominent and necessary part of the learning process rather than just a tool to attach to the end of the course, or units of the course, for the purpose of grading. Identify Desired Results Determine Acceptable Evidence Plan Learning Experiences and Instruction 6

7 Section Two Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Backward Design This model has three stages for course development with key focus questions: Identify desired results. Instructor Reflections Stage One What should students know, understand, and be able to do? What big ideas are worthy of understanding and implied in the established goals (e.g., content standards, curriculum objectives)? What enduring understandings are desired? What provocative questions are worth pursuing to guide student inquiry into these big ideas? What specific knowledge and skills are targeted in the goals and needed for effective performance? Determine acceptable evidence. Stage Two Instructor Reflections The backward design orientation suggests that we think about our design in terms of the collected acceptable evidence needed to document and validate that the desired results of Stage One have been achieved. How will we know if students have achieved the desired outcomes? What will we accept as evidence of proficiency? Plan learning experiences and instruction. Stage Three Instructor Reflections With identified results and appropriate evidence of understanding in mind, it is now time to finalize a plan for the learning activities. What sequence of activity best suits the desired results? How will we make learning both engaging and effective, given the goals and needed evidence? (ASCD, 2004) 7

8 Section Two Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Backward Design Stage One Identify Desired Results: Using the principles of backward design, instructors focus first on learning goals, i.e., the knowledge, skills and understandings students should acquire upon completing the learning sequence. Stage One: Identify Desired Results Course Purpose / Goals: Skills (S): Students will be able to Knowledge (K): Students will know Understandings (U): Students will understand that Key Questions: Student Learning Outcomes: Students should be able to Adapted from UbD Template (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005) 8

9 Section Two Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Backward Design Stage Two Determine Acceptable Evidence: This stage of the process focuses on the collected assessment evidence needed to document and validate that the desired learning has been achieved. Both formative and summative assessment tools and processes are used to collect this evidence throughout the semester. Formative assessments will monitor student learning to provide ongoing feedback that can be used by instructors to improve their teaching and by students to improve their learning. Summative assessments will evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional unit. Tools for collecting evidence are fair, reliable, and valid when: Students are asked to exhibit understanding through authetic assessments. Rubrics are used to evaluate student work. A variety of appropriate assessment formats are used as evidence of learning. Assessments are used as feedback as well as for evaluation. Students are encouraged to selfassess. Stage Two: Determine Acceptable Evidence Authentic Assessments: Other Assessments: 9

10 Section Two Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Backward Design Stage Three Plan Learning Experiences and Instruction: Designing the sequence of instruction, classroom activities, assignments and related educational experiences, with effectiveness and engagement in mind, is the goal of stage three. Wiggins and McTighe (2005) look at this through the student lens and as a comprehensive learning plan. Student Lens: Do students Know where they are going (the learning goals), why the material is important (reason for learning the content), and what is required of them (unit goal, performance requirements, and evaluative criteria)? Exhibit motivation are they engaged in digging into the big ideas (e.g., through inquiry, research, problem solving, and experimentation)? Have adequate opportunities to explore and experience big ideas and receive instruction to equip them for the required performances? Have sufficient opportunities to rethink, rehearse, revise, and refine their work based upon timely feedback? Have an opportunity to evaluate their work, reflect on their learning, and set goals? Comprehensive Learning Plan: Is it Tailored and flexible to address the interests and learning styles of all students? Organized and sequenced to maximize engagement and effectiveness? Learning Experiences: Stage Three: Plan Learning Experiences and Instruction Learning Activities: 10

11 Section Three Winston Salem State University Oral Communication SECTION 3: Assessment Assessment empowers both teachers and students to improve the quality of learning in the classroom. Thomas A. Angelo and K. Patricia Cross Co-authors of Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers Assessment Effective communication is a learnable skill, so it is important for instructors to embrace the link between effective assessment and developing oral communication skills in students (Bean, 2011). How Assessment Improves Learning, Teaching, and High-Quality Learning Environments Students learn more rapidly and effectively when they receive feedback on their efforts. Instructors use assessment to evaluate teaching and make adjustments. The learning environment is effective when assessment is aligned with students' learning goals. Assessment 11 (University of Connecticut, 2013)

12 Section Three Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Assessment Assessment is integral to teaching and learning both as a tool for generating feedback and as a tool for evaluating student learning and assigning grades. Several assessment concepts are important to consider when developing courses: Types of Assessment Developing Formative Assessments Authentic Assessment When to Assess Characteristics of Effective Feedback Differences between Assessment and Grading Types of Assessment: Diagnostic, Formative and Summative Assessment There are three types of assessment: diagnostic, formative, and summative. Diagnostic assessment can help identify your students current knowledge of a subject; their skills and capabilities; and misconceptions, biases, assumptions, and attitudes before teaching takes place. Throughout this manual we refer to background knowledge probes for this type of assessment. Diagnostic assessment, like formative assessment, is primarily used to inform and improve teaching and learning. Formative assessment provides feedback and information during the instructional process while learning is occurring. Formative assessment measures student learning but it can also assess the effectiveness of your instructional strategies. These assessments typically are not graded (i.e., they are low stakes even though they may contribute points toward the final grade), primarily serving as feedback about areas that may need improvement. Summative assessment takes place at the end of an instructional unit and provides information and feedback about what has been learned and how well it was learned. Points and/or grades are often awarded based on summative performance. 12

13 Section Three Winston Salem State University Oral Communication The following chart further distinguishes formative and summative assessment. Formative vs. Summative Assessment Formative Assessment Goal Monitor student learning to provide feedback: assessment for learning. Formative assessments are low stakes; they usually have low or no point value for grading purposes. Advantages Helps students identify their strengths and weaknesses so they can focus efforts on areas that need work. Helps instructors identify areas of struggle so they can address them. Enhances learning in the process of giving feedback. Examples In-class activities (ungraded/low stakes) Homework (ungraded/low stakes) Quizzes (ungraded/low stakes) Drafts of term papers (ungraded/low stakes) Class discussion (ungraded/low stakes) Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs) (ungraded/low stakes) Clinic/Demonstrations (ungraded/low stakes) Case studies (ungraded/low stakes) Concept maps (ungraded/low stakes) Summative Assessment Goal Evaluate student learning; students work is compared to a standard or benchmark: assessment of learning. Summative assessments are often high stakes; they contribute a relatively high point value for grading purposes. Advantages Documents student achievement for grading and accountability. Informs planning and design of subsequent instruction. Examples Homework (graded) Examinations (graded/high stakes) Final examination (graded/high stakes) Term papers (graded/high stakes) Research papers (graded/high stakes) Final projects (graded/high stakes) Presentations (graded/high stakes) Quizzes (graded) Lab reports (graded, possibly high stakes) Clinic/Demonstrations (graded/high stakes) Case studies (graded/high stakes) Concept maps (graded/ high stakes) Note: Some of the same activities appear in both columns because they are activities that can serve both purposes: to facilitate and demonstrate learning (formative) and to demonstrate learning for evaluation (summative). The distinction between formative and summative assessment lies in the purpose of the assessment, not in the format of the assessment. (Polk, 2014) 13

14 Section Three Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Formative Assessment Because effective communication is a learnable skill to be developed in students, instructors need to create frequent opportunities to assess and provide feedback about student progress. Formative assessment provides instructors with a continuous flow of accurate information on student learning (Angelo & Cross, 1993, p.3). Thomas Angelo and Patricia Cross developed Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers to help instructors find what and how well students are learning. Formative Assessment Moving Students and Instructors Forward Student Centered Focuses on observing and improving learning. Helps develop students learning habits and metacognition. Supports adjustments/changes to improve learning. Instructor-Directed Instructors decide what and how to assess; how to respond to assessment results. Instructors use professional judgment to manage the assessment process in their courses. Mutually Beneficial Students and instructors are actively involved in the process. Student engagement and motivation increase. Instructor skill increases. Context-Specific Instructors consider what they know about course design and students needs to choose the most effective assessments. Ongoing Occurs frequently with feedback between students and instructors. Rooted in Good Teaching Practice Effective and frequent assessment allows instructors to meet students needs instructors know what students understand and when students need more support. (Angelo & Cross, 1993) 14

15 Section Three Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Angelo and Cross (1993) also outline several rationales related to formative assessment. The quality of student learning is related to the quality of teaching. Collaboration among instructors and students enhances learning. Instructors need to make goals and objectives explicit. Rationale for Formative Assessment Feedback motivates instructors to grow as instructors. Students need focused feedback often and early. Instructors can address problems in their own teaching. 15

16 Section Three Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Authentic Assessment Authentic assessment is the gold standard for supporting skill development. Authentic Assessments: Examine student performance on meaningful, significant, and often complex intellectual tasks; Enable students to demonstrate their competency in a more authentic setting while generating direct evidence of their achievement; Are often called performance assessments; Provide instructors with a more accurate and reliable picture of students learning. Authentic assessment tasks should be used to collect evidence of students skills, and the Oral Communication Rubric for General Education should be used to measure or evaluate that performance. Instructors may find that traditional assessment methods, in which students select and recall information, are preferred for collecting content knowledge. The chart that follows presents distinctions between these two types of assessment. TRADITIONAL Generally relies on forced-choice, written measures Contrived Encourages memorization of correct answers Goal is to measure acquisition of past knowledge Emphasis on developing a body of knowledge Promotes "what" knowledge, e.g., recall, recognition Targets simplistic skills or tasks in a concrete, singular fashion Generates indirect evidence of learning AUTHENTIC Promotes integration of various written and performance measures Real-life Encourages divergent thinking in generating possible answers Goal is to enhance development of meaningful skills Emphasis on ensuring proficiency at realworld tasks Promotes how knowledge, e.g., construction, application Prepares students for ambiguities and exceptions that are found in realistic problem settings Generates direct evidence of learning (Polk, 2013) 16

17 Section Three Winston Salem State University Oral Communication EXAMPLES OF TRADITIONAL ASSESSMENT EXAMPLES OF AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT Multiple-choice questions Short answer questions True-false questions Matching questions Fill-in-the-blank questions Label a diagram tasks Essay questions* Oral exams* *Essay and oral exam questions may exemplify an authentic as well as traditional type of assessment. If relatively simple questions are asked, and they are used in a controlled examination setting, simply to collect assessment information and provide no learning experience in the process, they are likely a traditional assessment. If the questions posed are relatively complex, and they are used to collect evidence of students critical thinking, they would be more typical of authentic assessment. Field/Internship experiences Laboratory, Studio, Clinic assignments Projects, including research projects Proposals Performances Speeches Interviews Case study analyses with bona fide data Primary source analyses Analysis of painting Diet/Nutritional analysis Evaluation of state learning standards Instructional lesson plans Strategic plans News reports Journal articles Reports Letters to editors, CEOs, representatives Problem solving Performance (musical, dramatic, dance) Literary analyses, Character analyses Film reviews/critiques Political analyses Advertisement designs Marketing campaigns Models, Blueprints (Polk, 2014) 17

18 Section Three Winston Salem State University Oral Communication The Assessment Learning Cycle Once instructors have developed formative and summative assessments that are aligned with their outcomes, the assessment learning cycle allows for continuous improvement in instruction and student learning. Define student learning outcomes Make instructional changes to improve student learning Design assessment aligned with student learning outcomes Compare student learning to intended / desired outcomes Instruction, activities, and assignments Measure student learning outcomes (University of Connecticut, 2013) 18

19 Section Three Winston Salem State University Oral Communication When Do I Assess? Formative assessment requires instructors to rethink the timing of assessments. The traditional approach of having midterm and final exams as the only means of measuring student learning does not apply here. The focus of formative assessment is developing students progress toward the learning outcomes. As a result, assessments must occur throughout the learning process frequently and with prompt, effective feedback. The timeframes for these frequent assessments are related to what the instructor hopes to learn from the assessment. The table below provides a few examples. Goal of Assessment When to Assess Collect information on students background knowledge to determine where to begin instruction. Conduct a brief assessment at the beginning of the course or when starting a new concept within the course. Determine how well students can summarize a reading assignment. Conduct an assessment at the start of class. You may wish to collect these (with or without students names attached) or use them to initiate discussion. Support students in moving through a large assignment successfully. Assess throughout the assignment. Break the assignment into smaller portions. Provide feedback throughout the process. 19

20 Section Three Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Characteristics of Effective Feedback Explicit and timely feedback improves student learning. While grades give students an idea of how well performances met an instructor s expectations, grades do not tell students how certain aspects of the work could be improved. Feedback is specific it provides actionable information students can use to make changes and improve learning. While grading can at times be too general to improve student learning, providing students with too much feedback is also ineffective. When there is too much feedback, students may become overwhelmed and ignore it or they might only change parts that are simplest to revise. (Ambrose, et al., 2010). Is well timed & specific Addresses performance Is personalized & allows student reflection Characteristics of Effective Feedback Use the examples below to help you craft feedback that will support students in moving forward as critical thinkers (Oakley & Reagan, 2013). Effective feedback describes the performance, not the student. o Effective: I notice you used annotations to record your thinking while reading this. That will help you understand and remember the reading for this course. o Ineffective: You didn t do a thorough job. 20

21 Section Three Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Effective feedback is well timed and specific. It occurs during the act of learning and tells students what effective students should do. It provides opportunities to apply the feedback to future tasks and is given often enough for students to see the progress in their work. o Effective: Feedback is given on multiple drafts of a paper instead of only providing feedback on the final product. o Ineffective: (Given at the end of the assignment.) You made a D on this paper. You didn t adequately support your thesis. o Effective: Saying to a student, Effective speakers support their arguments with evidence. Let me show you how this speaker gave 3 pieces of evidence what evidence can you provide that will support your argument? o Ineffective: You need to add to this paper. Effective feedback is differentiated and allows students to reflect on ways to improve. o Effective: Feedback varies by student based on what instructors observe and record while listening to or observing students and assessing their work. o Ineffective: All students receive the same feedback. o Effective: Instructor asks students to think about how their learning is developing. o Ineffective: Instructors fail to solicit input from students about how student learning is progressing or where students feel they need additional instruction. o Effective: Students reflect on how they used feedback to improve. Effective feedback incorporates modeling. o Effective: Let me show you an example of work that meets the criteria of this assignment. o Ineffective: Saying, Last semester s students did a good job (without showing an example). o Effective: Identifying common errors, mistakes, or misinterpretations and providing a model of how to improve them. 21

22 Section Three Winston Salem State University Oral Communication o Ineffective: Saying, There were a lot of mistakes in these papers. Rubrics provide a framework for effective feedback. o Students know the performance criteria, so they focus on practicing skills appropriately. o Students can monitor their own progress using the rubric. o Students have a clear description of characteristics associated with high, medium, and low quality work. Understanding Differences between Assessment and Grading Although grades are sometimes treated as a proxy for student learning, they are not always a direct and reliable measure of learning as they are often based on more than learning outcomes, e.g., attendance, participation, effort, and all the rest. A student who has not achieved major learning goals might still earn an acceptable grade by fulfilling other grading criteria. Conversely, a student who has achieved a course s major learning goals might nonetheless earn a poor grade by failing to do the other things expected of her. With regard to evaluating student performance over the course of the semester for grading purposes, instructors can assign weights and numeric values to the criteria and levels of performance in the rubric. Such weights and values enable instructors to factor performance into their grading formula (Polk, 2013). Assessment is about moving students and instructors forward evaluation is about judging. Summative assessment is evaluation. Grading is a product of evaluation. 22

23 Section Four Winston Salem State University Oral Communication SECTION 4: The Oral Communication Rubric "If there is any great secret of success in life, it lies in the ability to put yourself in the other person s place and see things from their point of view as well as your own. -Henry Ford American Industrialist What Is a Rubric? A rubric is a framework or tool for communicating and assessing standards of performance for different criteria for product, performance, or process tasks. Using a rubric allows instructors to communicate expectations of quality around a task and to apply consistent standards when grading work that can be complex and subjective. Sharing it with students when assigning a task can help them see what is important, where to focus their learning, and what evaluators will use to assess their work. Rubrics are criterion-referenced measures. That is, a student's aptitude on a task is determined by matching the student's performance against a set of criteria to determine the degree to which the student's performance meet s these expectations. Rubrics are typically comprised of three components: criteria, levels of performance, and descriptors. For each criterion, the rubric can be applied to determine to what degree the student has met the criterion, i.e., the level of performance. Each of these levels of performance has descriptors that spell out what is expected for each criterion. A descriptor tells students more precisely what performance looks like at each level and how their work may be distinguished from the work of others for each criterion. Similarly, the descriptors help the instructor more precisely and consistently distinguish between student work (Mueller, 2013). 23

24 Section Four Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Why are Rubrics Effective? Rubrics provide a richer and more multidimensional description of the reasons for assigning a numerical score to a piece of work. A student s performance is placed along a continuum from exceptional to not up to expectations. Rubrics help set anchor points along a quality continuum so that there are reasonable and appropriate expectations for students that can consistently judge how well the expectations are met. How do Instructors at WSSU use General Education Outcome rubrics? Instructors at WSSU use the General Education Outcome rubrics for multiple purposes (CARLA, 2013): Communicate the General Education Outcomes to students. Help students set goals and assume responsibility for their learning they know what comprises an optimal performance and can strive to achieve it. Help students develop their ability to judge the quality of their work and the work of peers. Provide students with specific feedback about strengths and weaknesses and how to improve their performance. Allow students to assess their own effort and performance and make adjustments to work before submitting it for a grade. Guide course, assignment, and assessment design. Evaluate student work by established criteria to reduce bias. Reduce time spent evaluating performance and providing feedback. Increase an assessment's validity by aligning evaluation criteria to standards, curriculum, instruction, and assessment tasks. Increase an assessment's reliability by setting criteria that instructors can apply consistently and objectively. 24

25 Section Four Winston Salem State University Oral Communication WSSU Oral Communication Rubric: The university has created a rubric to highlight what it means to be a competent oral communicator. Winston Salem State University defines Oral Communication as the ability to, use appropriate language, conventions, elocution, poise, organization, and content to effectively communicate through the spoken word for the purpose and the audience. The rubric has four levels of performance. The capstone or level 4 is the goal for students in each subskill. The other levels denote skills on the way to mastery: milestones for levels 2 and 3 and benchmark for level 1. These levels are consistent across the General Education rubrics. Context/Audience/Medium: The capstone for this subskill states that the speaker skillfully adapts style and message to the context (e.g. public speaking, interpersonal, small group and teams) and consistently demonstrates respect and sensitivity for diverse audiences. Instructor Actions to Support this Subskill Use several exemplars for students and analyze them together for context/audience/medium. Model ways to present to different listeners. Share instructor s decision processes in preparing for different listeners. Provide opportunities for students to do a short presentation, production, interview or conversation and adapt it for several listeners. Student Thinking Who are the listeners and what do they do? What is the benefit to the listener of this speech, presentation, report, consultation, conversation, or production? What does the listener already know about the subject? What is my relationship with the listener? What interests the listener? How will what I say affect the listener? 25

26 Section Four Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Organization: The capstone for this subskill states that the speaker s organizational pattern is clearly and consistently observable, well structured, and makes the content of the message cohesive. Instructor Actions to Support this Subskill Analyze exemplars (speeches, presentations, reports, patient notes, consultations, conversations, productions) for their organizational structure. Help clarify thinking. Model ways to organize oral presentations. Student Thinking What structure works best for this speech, presentation, report, consultation, conversation, production? Why? Is my speech, presentation, report, consultation, conversation, production well organized? If not, what needs to be changed? Provide students with outlines of organizational structures so they can practice with them. 26

27 Section Four Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Delivery: The capstone for this subskill states that the speaker consistently demonstrates mastery of delivery techniques and appears polished and confident. Instructor Actions to Support this Subskill Analyze exemplars (speeches, presentations, reports, patient notes, consultations, conversations, productions) for their delivery. Model effective and ineffective delivery techniques. Provide students opportunities to practice delivery in pairs and small groups with short practiced pieces. Student Thinking What are the expectations for delivery for this assignment? Do I understand those expectations? What do I need to know more about to deliver this speech, presentation, report, consultation, conversation, production effectively? How much and what kind of practice will I need to be polished and confident? 27

28 Section Four Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Language: The capstone for this subskill states that the speaker s, language choices are imaginative, memorable, compelling, and appropriate and enhance the effectiveness of the message. Instructor Actions to Support this Subskill Analyze exemplars (speeches, presentations, reports, patient notes, consultations, conversations, productions) for their language choices. Model effective and ineffective language use. Provide students opportunities to practice selecting and improving language choices. Student Thinking How effective are my language choices? Do the language choices I use reflect my central message? What do I need to improve or revise to make my language choices more memorable, compelling, or appropriate? 28

29 Section Four Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Supporting Materials: The capstone for this subskill states that the speaker provides a variety of supporting material and makes appropriate reference to information or analysis that significantly supports the message or establishes the speaker s credibility/authority on the topic. Instructor Actions to Support this Subskill Analyze exemplars (speeches, reports, patient notes, consultations, conversations, or productions) for their use and analysis of supporting materials. Model effective and ineffective supporting materials. Provide students opportunities to practice choosing supporting material from a group of materials you have provided. Then have students defend choices in pairs or small groups for the purpose of getting feedback. Provide appropriate instruction and examples of the required reference styles. Student Thinking What are important sources for me to include as supporting materials? How can I establish credibility or authority on this topic? Have I included or referenced enough sources in my presentation, speech, report, patient notes, consultation, conversation, production? Did I include a wide variety of sources? Have I cited my sources orally in my presentation? Have I cited my sources correctly in my written work? 29

30 Section Four Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Central Message: The capstone for this subskill states that the central message is compelling and strongly supported. Instructor Actions to Support this Subskill Analyze exemplars (speeches, presentations, reports, patient notes, consultations, conversations, productions) for their central message or thesis statement. Model compelling and strong central messages. Provide students opportunities to practice identifying central messages and creating a central message. Student Thinking What is my central message? Is it clear? Why is it compelling? How can I share that with my listeners? How can I support it? 30

31 31 Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Rubric for General Education Use appropriate language, conventions, elocution, poise, organization, supporting evidence, and content to effectively communicate through the spoken word for the purpose and audience. Context/ Audience/ Medium Organization Delivery Language Supporting Materials Central Message Capstone (4) Milestone (3) Milestone (2) Benchmark (1) Speaker skillfully adapts style and message to the context (e.g. public speaking, interpersonal, small group and teams) and consistently demonstrates respect and sensitivity for diverse audiences Organizational patterns is clearly and consistently observable, well structured, and makes the content of the message cohesive Speaker consistently demonstrates mastery of delivery techniques and appears polished and confident Language choices are imaginative, memorable, compelling, and appropriate and enhance the effectiveness of the message Provides a variety of supporting material and makes appropriate reference to information or analysis that significantly supports the message or establishes the speaker s credibility/authority on the topic Central message is compelling and strongly supported Speaker adapts to the context (e.g., public speaking, interpersonal, small group and teams) and demonstrates respect and sensitivity for diverse audiences Organizational pattern is observable within the message Speaker demonstrates master of delivery techniques and appears comfortable Language choices are thoughtful, appropriate, and generally support the effectiveness of the message Provides supporting material and makes appropriate reference to information or analysis hat generally supports the message or establishes the speaker s credibility/authority on the topic Central message is clear and consistent with the supporting materials Speaker attempts to adapt to the context (e.g. public speaking,, interpersonal,small group and teams) and inconsistently demonstrates respect and sensitivity for diverse audiences Organizational pattern is attempted within the message Speaker demonstrates some mastery of delivery techniques and appears hesitant Language choices are mundane and commonplace and partially support the effectiveness of the message Occasionally provides supporting materials and makes reference to information or analysis that supports the message or establishes the speaker s credibility/authority on the topic Central message is basically understandable but is not often repeated and is not memorable Speaker fails to adapt to the context (e.g. public speaking, interpersonal, small group and teams); and demonstrates some cultural bias and is insensitive to the needs of a diverse audience Organizational pattern is not observable within the message Speaker fails to demonstrate mastery of delivery techniques and appears uncomfortable Language choices are unclear, inappropriate to the audience and minimally support the effectiveness of the message Fails to provide supporting materials or make reference to information that supports the message or establishes the speaker s credibility/authority on the topic Central message is not explicitly stated or understandable Section Four Winston Salem State University Oral Communication

32 Section 5: Oral Communication Proficiency "Precision of communication is important, more important than ever, in our era of hair trigger balances, when a false or misunderstood word may create as much disaster as a sudden thoughtless act. -James Thurber Author Oral Communication Proficiency Effective oral communication skills can be developed through instruction and practice. This section presents a survey of the field of oral communication as it relates to the oral communication outcome at WSSU. Click here to visit Interpersonal Communication and Therapuetic Communication Click here to visit Public Speaking Click here to visit Oral Communication as a Second Language Learner 32

33 Section 5: Interpersonal Communication and Therapeutic Communication To effectively communicate, we must realize that we are all different in the way we perceive the world and use this understanding as a guide to our communication with others. -Anthony Robbins Life Coach Principles of Communication The chart below shares some of the principles of communication: Principle We communicate with (not to) others. Communication can be intentional or unintentional. Communication is irreversible. Communication is unrepeatable. Explanation Communication is not something we do to others, it is an activity we do with them. Sometimes you may carefully plan and practice an apology to a friend. Other times people overhear private conversations, see an expression that was meant to be hidden, or observe what a person does when he or she believes no one is watching. In such cases, messages are not encoded in a planned way. You cannot unring a bell. You cannot unreceive a message. Once a message is transmitted, it can never be taken back, erased, or changed. Words said and deeds done cannot be retrieved or undone. Communication is a continuous, ongoing process, and therefore it cannot be repeated exactly the same way or with exactly the same meaning. The same words and actions are different each time they are spoken or performed. (Johnson, 2000) 33

34 Interpersonal Communication Interpersonal communication encompasses a variety of skills. Working together these skills lead to effective communication: Self-Disclosure: Being aware of and accepting your own thoughts/feelings/needs/actions. Expressing your thoughts/feelings/needs/actions to other people as appropriate. Trust: Able to take risks in self-disclosure when appropriate and reciprocate other people s self-disclosure. Respond with acceptance and support to other s self-disclosure. Communication: Speak for yourself using personal pronouns to express thoughts/ideas/reactions/feelings. Describe other s actions without value judgments. Use relationship statements as appropriate. Account for receiver s perspective when sending messages. Ask for feedback from receiver to gauge if they understood the message. Paraphrase accurately and without making value judgments. Negotiate the meaning of sender s messages. Understand message from sender s perspective. Expressing Feelings Verbally: Describe feelings and understand the process of having feelings. Use perception checks and avoid indirect expression of feelings through commands/questions/accusations. Expressing Feelings Nonverbally: Awareness of your nonverbal communication. Use nonverbal messages to communicate clearly, making your nonverbal and verbal messages congruent. Listening and Responding: Express acceptance verbally. Match messages in depth, meaning and language. As appropriate use the following engagement techniques: evaluative response, interpretative response, supportive response, probing response, understanding response (Johnson, 2000, p. 412). The difficulties in establishing effective communication between individuals are very real. To improve understanding there are several key tools. One is creating an atmosphere of mutual confidence and trust through the use of personal and relationship statements. Second, the use of communication skills such as paraphrasing, negotiating meaning, and making your response relevant to the sender s message improves understanding. You may also facilitate the development of close, personal relationships by making your messages reflect personal and relationship statements and by making your responses reflect a recognition of the other person s strengths and capabilities. Through the use of such skills, you can consciously make the most of your chances to develop close, fulfilling relationships with other people (Johnson, 2000, p. 161 ). The next section will look at each of these aspects of effective communication more closely. 34

35 Self-Disclosure Interpersonal communication is a process in which individuals share something of themselves, whether it is feelings, thoughts, opinions, ideas, values, or goals (Van Servellen, 2009, p. 39). Open Relationship Continuum Closed On the relationship continuum, relationships are classified from open to closed. One characteristic of an open relationship is a willingness of participants to share their ideas, feelings and reactions to the current situations. The level of openness in a relationship correlates to how positive, constructive and effective it is (Johnson, 2000, p. 45). Effective self-disclosure focuses on the present, not the past. It reacts to people and events including feelings as well as facts. It has two subskills: breadth (you cover more topics the better you know someone) and depth (your explanations are more revealing). Trust One important aspect of group effectiveness is trust. The more group members trust each other the more effectively the group functions. The following set of questions can help individuals assess their level of trust in a group setting. Directions for Trust Actions Assessment: Answer each question as honestly as you can. There are no right or wrong answers. It is important for you to describe your behavior as accurately as possible. Answers should range between 1 (not true of me) and 7(very true of me). 1. I offer facts, give my opinions and ideas, and provide suggestions and relevant information to help the group discussion. Never Always 2. I express my willingness to cooperate with other group members and my expectations that they will also be cooperative. Never Always 3. I am open and candid with my feelings with the entire group. Never Always 4. I give support to group members who are on the spot and struggling to express themselves intellectually or emotionally. Never Always 35

36 5. I keep my thoughts, ideas, feelings, and reactions to myself during group discussions. Never Always 6. I evaluate the contributions of other group members in terms of whether their contributions are useful to me and whether they are right or wrong. Never Always 7. I take risks in expressing new ideas and current feelings during a group discussion. Never Always 8. I communicate to other group members that I am aware of, and appreciate, their abilities, talents, capabilities, skills and resources. Never Always 9. I offer help and assistance to anyone in the group in order to bring up the performance of everyone. Never Always 10. I accept and support the openness of other group members, supporting them for taking risks and encouraging individuality in group members. Never Always 11. I share any materials, books, sources of information, or other resources I have with the other group members in order to promote the success of individual members and the groups as a whole. Never Always 12. I often paraphrase or summarize what other members have said before I respond or comment. Never Always 13. I level with other group members. Never Always 14. I warmly encourage all members to participate, giving them recognition for their contributions, demonstrating acceptance and openness to their ideas, and generally being friendly and responsive to them. Never Always 36

37 Scoring: Write the number you circled for each question on the following table. Reverse your scores for the starred questions (If you circled 2, write 6; if you circled 1, write 7; 4 remains the same.) A score of 35 or over classifies you as trusting or trustworthy. A score below 35 classifies you as distrustful or untrustworthy. Trusting Openness and Sharing *5 * Total: Total: Trustworthy Acceptance and Support (Johnson, 2000, p. 108) Effective Communication Skills Clarifying Strengths Exercise: Divide into pairs. 1) A takes 3 minutes to share with B what A considers to be his or her personal strengths, talents, and abilities (things A does well, likes about himself or herself, and thinks others like about him or her.) 2) B bombards A with observations about A s strengths and personal assets. In each case, when A receives an item of feedback he or she responds by (a) paraphrasing the feedback and (b) negotiating its meaning. Do not take more than 5 minutes to do this. 3) Reverse roles and repeat the same process. (Johnson, 2000, p. 157) 37

38 Communication Communication is a complex process that depends on the sender and receiver collaborating with the goal of understanding each other. Communication Skills Sending Skills 1. Speak for yourself by using personal pronouns when expressing thoughts, ideas, reactions, and feelings. 2. Describe other people s actions without making value judgments. 3. Use relationship statements when they are appropriate. 4. Take the receiver s perspective into account when sending your messages. Receiving Skills 1. Paraphrase accurately without making value judgments about the sender s thoughts, reactions, perceptions, needs, and feelings. 2. Negotiate the meaning of the sender s message. 3. Describe what you think the other person is feeling and then ask if you are correct. 4. Understand what the message means from the sender s perspective. 5. Ask for feedback about the receiver s understanding of your message. 6. Describe your feelings. 7. Make your nonverbal messages communicate clearly what you are feeling. 8. Make your nonverbal messages congruent with your words. (Johnson, 2000, p. 132) 38

39 Verbal The language we choose influences the way we think about things (Johnson, 2000, p. 44). The words we use are symbols to communicate with each other. They are arbitrary representations that we choose to represent an object or concept and then send that word across a channel to someone else. Effective communication means mutual understanding of these symbols. We must be clear when we encode our ideas into words (Young & Travis, 2012, p. 36). In order to communicate as clearly as possible with the symbols chosen consider the following language factors: Denotative Meaning: The dictionary definition of a word Content Level: Factual interpretation of the words Polarized Language: Language reflecting two opposite views with little middle ground; either you are with me or you are not! Racist/Religious/Cultural Language: Language that denigrates someone s ethnic, religious or cultural group Connotative Meaning: The feelings and emotions people attach to a word Relationship Level: Includes the tone and inflection of the words Rhetorical Sensitivity: Reviewing all available symbols and choosing the one that is least likely be offensive to the listener Sexist/Heterosexist Language: Language that denigrates someone based on their sex or assumes that everyone is heterosexual. (Young & Travis, 2012, p. 50) 39

40 Nonverbal Nonverbals help us communicate in a variety of ways: -They can substitute for a verbal message. -They can emphasize a verbal message. -They can contradict a verbal message. -They can regulate conversation (Young & Travis, 2012, p. 58). Nonverbal Behavior Characteristics All nonverbal behavior communicates if it is observed, it communicates. Nonverbal communication is culturally bound. The same gesture will have different meanings in different cultures. Nonverbal communication is primarily about the relationship (affinity, control, respect). Nonverbal communications is inherently ambiguous (crying can mean several different things). Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Verbal Nonverbal (Van Servellen, 2009, p. 43) Types Body orientation: degree to which you face toward or away from someone with your body, feet, head. Posture: body positions as you sit, stand, walk. Gestures: movement of hands, arms, and head. Facial expressions and eye movements reflect surprise, fear, anger, disgust, happiness, sadness. Voice: tone, speed, pitch, volume, number, and length of pauses, and inflections make up a para-language. Touch: functional (haircut), social (handshake), friendship (clap on the back), aggression (shoves), sexual arousal (kisses). Clothing indicates economic level, education level, social position, trustworthiness, sophistication, level of success, moral character. Use of space and distance: How close or far away you stand, the boundaries you set around yourself. (Johnson, 2000, p. 197) 40

41 Listening & Responding Being an effective listener takes practice. Every interpersonal relationship is unique and therefore requires different listening requirements. It is important to learn multiple listening styles to be a strong communicator (Young & Travis, 2012, p. 97). Elements of Listening Element Hearing Attending Understanding Responding Remembering Explanation The physiological aspects of listening involve sound waves, striking the ear at a certain frequency and volume. Attention is focused on some messages and filters out others. The listener must interpret the messages similarly to the way the sender intended them. The listener gives observable feedback to the sender. The listener is able to recall the content and meaning of the messages at a future time. (Johnson, 2000, p. 214) Below you will find some way to listen and respond when people want to discuss a problem or concern: Advising & Evaluating Paraphrasing Ways to Listen and Respond Analyzing Questioning Reassuring (Johnson, 2000, p. 222) 41

42 Advising & Evaluating: Advice can be helpful when it is timely and relevant. Advice and evaluation should be used with caution because the can also threaten people and make them defensive. Phrases to avoid: If I were you, One good way is, Why don t you? You should, You ought to The thing to do is, and Don t you think? Analyzing: Through analysis the receiver attempts to provide the sender additional insight into their own behavior and feelings. This is often met with resistance. Analysis works best when the receiver prompts the sender to think about themselves and their feelings instead of providing the analysis. Reassuring: This response can often deny the sender s feelings. This occurs when the receiver wants to be sympathetic or reassure and rushes in. There are times when people need to be reassured and supported, but more often they benefit from careful listening and help to clarify causes and potential solutions. Questioning: Questions are an important tool especially when people are discussing problems and concerns. Open questions encourage people to answer in more detail and to greater length and therefore are usually more helpful. Questions play a key role in responding but they need to be used in tandem with reflective statements to summarize and keep the communication flowing. Paraphrasing: This response allows the receiver to clarify and summarize the sender s message to incuse the accuracy of understanding. It can give the sender a clearer understanding of their own message and confirm that the receiver is interested in trying to understand the sender. (Johnson, 2000, p. 227) Activity: Questionnaire on Accurate Understanding (Johnson, 2000, p. 237) Have students respond to the nine consecutive questions for this activity to have students gain a clearer picture of the understanding responses. I- Identical content P- Paraphrasing content S- Shallow or partial meaning A- Additional meaning 42

43 Therapeutic Communication The second half of this section addresses the field of therapeutic communication. The principles from interpersonal communication: self-disclosure, trust, communication, verbal communication, nonverbal communication, and listening and responding all play a role culminating in someone s being helped (Van Servellen, 2009, p. 49). Distinctions of Therapeutic Communication: Provider consciously intends to influence the patient in a therapeutic manner. With this intention, the provider usually has a professional aim in mind. Providers have the intention of helping the patient for the patient s sake. The patient s wellbeing is the driving force behind the words used and how they are expressed. The provider will perceive deficits in the patient s perception, processing, or expression of ideas and attempt to correct these deficits. Providers will focus on illexpressed thoughts and feeling, breakdowns in expression, and distortions in perception. (Van Servellen, 2009, p. 50) Aims of Therapeutic Interviewing: Elicit full descriptions from patients about their healthcare condition and concerns. Create an interpersonally safe place for patients to talk about themselves and be able to explore their problems in detail. Reduce any acute emotional distress associated with the patient s immediate condition. Offer support and reassurance. Establish an expanded list of patient s primary and secondary healthcare problems. Engage the patient in a problem-solving process that demonstrates the collaborative provider-patient relationship. Prepare the patient for self-management of his or her health and illness. (Van Servellen, 2009, p. 59) Therapeutic Response Modes: Using silence. Offering acceptance. Acknowledging and giving recognition (e.g., verbalizing the unspoken but implied message). Offering broad openings. Making and offering observations and summarizing. Reflecting one s own perception of the patient s thoughts, feelings, and reactions. Focusing on the patient, and at other times, prompting exploration. Translating thoughts into feelings and feelings into thoughts. Encouraging evaluation or appraisal. Validating the patient s perceptions and/or beliefs. (Van Servellen, 2009, p. 59) 43

44 Self-Disclosure in Therapeutic Communication Self-disclosure from patients is essential. Without these disclosures, providers cannot conduct valid assessments. Self-disclosure from the provider can be of benefit if it meets these criteria: 1) They must be true statements. 2) They are subjectively perceived statements about the self. 3) They are intentionally revealed to the patient with a therapeutic aim in mind. Provider self-disclosure may affect patients in four ways: sense of being understood, enhancement of trust, decreased loneliness, and decreased role distance (Van Servellen, 2009, p. 153). Questions for Providers to ask themselves about Self-Disclosure 1) Will the disclosure enhance the patient s cooperation, which is necessary to the therapeutic alliance? 2) Will the disclosure assist the patient in learning about him or herself, to set short or long-term goals or deal more effectively with his or her problems? 3) Will the disclosure assist the patient in expressing formerly withheld feelings and concerns that are important for emotional support? 4) Will the disclosures provide the patient with support or reinforcement for important changes or goals he/she must act upon? (Van Servellen, 2009, p. 157) 44

45 Trust in Therapeutic Communication Patients must believe that a provider has their best interests in mind. Providers can express this interest through a variety of behaviors to build trust with their patients. Global Behaviors Honesty Consistency Respect and caring, openness, and genuineness Reliable and adequate follow-up and follow-through Specific Communications Direct acknowledgement and appreciation of patient s uniqueness Informing about and clarifying expectations Continued supportive responsiveness Verbal expressions of positive regard including respect, warmth, and caring Active listening Nonverbal expressions of positive regard smiling, appropriate eye contact, warmth in tone of voice, and approachable body posture Communication (Van Servellen, 2009, p. 115) Sending: For the message to be clear Use terms the patient can understand. Know the developmental level of the patient you are caring for and use language appropriate to that level. Deliver the message in a clear and concise manner: A) Good grammar and correct pronunciation are essential. B) Avoid slang terms, words with double meanings, or meaningless phrases such as you know, or all that stuff. C) The tone and pitch of voice are important. D) Do not speak too quickly or too slowly. E) In written communication, the message should be spelled correctly, contain correct grammar, use proper punctuation, and be concise. 45

46 Receiving: For the communication to be effective the patient must be able to hear and receive the message. Factors to consider: The patient may be heavily medicated, have a hearing or vision loss, or speak a different language. Possible solutions: Use alternate ways to communicate such as writing the message out, using an interpreter, or repeating the message. Verbal and nonverbal communication need to be considered. For therapeutic communication consider each of the following: Verbal Terminology/Word Selection Voice Tone Nonverbal Dress and Appearance Body Movements and Posture Touch Eye Contact Listening & Responding Questioning: Asking an answerable question is one of the most important skills to be learned. Therapeutic questions generally fall into the following categories: Collecting information, clarifying and specifying, ruling out/ruling in (Van Servellen, 2009, p. 123). Silence and Pauses: Some of the purposes for using silence in a provider-patient relationship are to analyze the patient s condition and communicate empathy (Van Servellen, 2009, p. 140). Advisement: A provider may use suggestions, directives, instructions, or commands as advisement. The aim is to effect change in the patient s behavior, attitude, and/or emotional response (Van Servellen, 2009, p. 164). Reflection and Interpretation Reflecting is the process of paraphrasing and restating both the feelings and words of the patients. The purposes of reflecting are To allow the patient to 'hear' their own thoughts and to focus on what they say and feel, To show the patient that you are trying to perceive the world as they see it and that you are doing your best to understand their messages, and To encourage patients to continue talking. Interpretations go beyond what the patient has said by highlighting patterns, themes and connections. Guidelines for using both response modes include forming reflections and interpretations so that they can be understood, phrasing them accurately, using them 46

47 sparingly, and presenting them in ways that are least offensive to the patient (Van Servellen, 2009, p. 188). 47

48 Section 5: Public Speaking As long as there are human rights to be defended; as long as there are great interests to be guarded; as long as the welfare of nations is a matter for discussion, so long will public speaking have its place. -William Jennings Bryant Rhetorician Successful instructional methods include a variety of techniques including modeling outstanding oral communication in the classroom and providing opportunities for students to engage in and practice oral communication activities, exercises, and assignments. This section of the manual focuses on the public speaking and how the general education oral communication outcome relates to public speaking. General Education Outcome: Oral Communication Context/Audience/Medium Organization Delivery Language Supporting Materials Central Message 48

49 Context, Audience and Medium Explanation According to the WSSU Oral Communication Rubric, oral communicators need to focus on adapting their message to both the context and audience. The receiver can be a member of a public speaking audience, someone in an interpersonal interaction, or communication within small groups/teams. In addition, speakers must consistently demonstrate respect and sensitivity for diverse audiences. This requires an understanding that oral communication is a process. At its most basic structure, the communicator is the person who is encoding the message through a specific channel to other communicators that decode the message. (National Communication Association, 2014) The message is going to be the actual information delivered through verbal and nonverbal communication. When focusing on the message, it is important that your intended message is the message that is actually communicated (Lucas, 2005, p. 18). The channel can best be described as how the message is communicated. Oral communication happens in face-to-face interactions (i.e. classrooms, doctor s office, and businesses) and via telephone and radio (Lucas, 2005, p. 18). In other words, through what medium is the message being conveyed to the audience? Other channel examples include stages for plays and platforms for speeches. Lastly, the communicator that is decoding plays an important role in the speech process. They are the entire reason for the message. Audiences come in a variety of sizes, whether it is a small group, an interpersonal interaction, or an audience of 100. Speakers need to prepare for a diverse audience in order to effectively get their message across. 49

50 Proficient oral communicators tailor their meaning to the listener or audience. This can be an elderly patient, a student, a parent, a client, a co-worker, an audience, etc. In order to understand your general audience, completing an audience analysis is beneficial. An audience analysis is going to examine how to best reach your audience whether you are speaking to help an elderly patient understand when/how to take a prescription or to persuade your business to adopt your marketing plan. Oral communication is essential to conveying this information. It is critical to examine our audience in all communication contexts. An audience analysis is the process of learning who your audience is, what they are thinking, and how you can best reach them (Dlugan, 2013) An audience analysis focuses on analyzing the following components: Demographic Analysis (age, gender, Psychological Analysis Contextual Analysis Age? Gender? Race? Culture? Profession? Education level? What do they know about the topic? What do they want/need to know? What type of jargon are they familiar with? Do they support your viewpoint? Are they against it? Neutral? What distractions may be present? How much time do you have to deliver your message? Is the situation formal or informal? 50

51 Provide Opportunities for Students to Practice Create an Audience Analysis Let students create their own audience analysis. After explaining the importance of audience/context, provide students with scenarios they may encounter in their field and discuss how they would tailor the message based on the target audience. Have them discuss different types of individuals/audiences and evaluate how the message would need to be tailored to different groups for maximum impact. If it is a large class, have them discuss in small groups. Notes for Instructional Delivery During any discussion on audience and contexts, be sure to emphasize that it is important to tailor the message whether it is a large audience, a small audience, a formal context, or an informal context. In addition, the speaker needs to demonstrate respect and sensitivity for the intended audience. As towns and communities become increasingly more diverse, this sensitivity is critical, especially in situations where language barriers may be involved. Central Message Explanation The WSSU Oral Communication Rubric states that the central message should be compelling and strongly supported. Identifying the clear goal of the message is going to be the most important step of the entire oral communication process. Everything will branch out from this idea. It is essentially the thesis statement. The central idea needs to be narrow and specific. Use the following checklist as a guide to ensuring the central message is effective. Is the central message written as a complete sentence? Is the central message a statement (as opposed to a question)? Does the central message encapsulate the main points that need to be addressed during the speech or conversation? The answer to these questions should be YES! Will the central message fit into the allotted or estimated timeframe of the speech, meeting, or conversation? Is the central message tailored to the audience? (Lucas, 2005, p. 104) 51

52 Provide Opportunities for Students to Practice Main Messages Give students a list of topics related to the chapter and course content that is being discussed. Have them brainstorm as many central messages as they can. Then, have them research the topic and orally discuss their findings. Notes for Instructional Delivery Often times, students have a difficult time focusing 100% on the central message. Really emphasize that if it does not relate directly to the central message, it does not need to be included. 52

53 Organization Explanation According to the WSSU Oral Communication Rubric, messages should follow a pattern that is clearly and consistently observable. It should be well structured and makes the content of the message cohesive. The organization is going to be the skeleton of the message. Whether formal or informal, an oral communication message should follow this pattern: Introduction Body Conclusion Effective Introductions Effective Bodies Effective Conclusions Grab the audience s attention and interest (generate curiosity) Reveal the topic Establish credibility (why are you a trustworthy source?) Preview the information that you will be sharing Use transitions to help your message have a clear and logical flow Use a variety of supporting material to help you achieve your message Includes both logos (logical appeals) and pathos (emotional appeals) Signal that you are ending the presentation/message Reinforce the main point Conclude with a WOW statement- make a final impression on your audience Oral communication speeches are written out in the form of a preparation outline. This is a detailed outline that includes: The title of the speech The specific purpose The central idea Introduction Main points Subpoints Connectives/Transitions Conclusion Bibliography/List of Works Cited 53

54 A preparation outline creates a visual framework of the speech ideas (Lucas, 2005, p. 255). It keeps speakers centered on their central message and ensures a logical organization that the audience can easily understand. Here s an example: I. Main point A. Subpoint B. Subpoint 1. Sub-subpoint II. 2. Sub-subpoint Main Point A. Subpoint 1. Sub-subpoint 2. Sub-subpoint B. Subpoint The most important ideas (main points) are furthest to the left. Subpoints and sub-subpoints are less important and progressively further to the right. Provide Opportunities for Students to Practice Preparation Outline Practice Provide students with the opportunities to create their own preparation outlines in order to effectively organize oral communication messages. For more of a formal/high stake assignment, students can be instructed to teach a lesson from a specific chapter and use the preparation outline to prepare their presentation. For informal/low stake assignments, students can use a preparation outline to deliver difficult news to a patient, plan what they may say during a studentteacher conference or how they might like to share a scientific experiment with their work colleagues. Emphasize career-oriented scenarios as it relates to course content. Notes for Instructional Delivery Stress how a well-organized message can help to reduce speech anxiety; speakers are going to feel more confident when they are in control (Lucas, 2005, p. 206). This applies to both formal and informal oral communication. Anytime a person has an interview, anticipates a difficult conversation, has exciting news to share, or anything in between, it is generally considered a good idea to preplan the conversation and have an idea as to how the conversation will play out. You can use the same outlining principles as a way to craft any message, whether it is to make mental notes or to actually jot down ideas on an index card. 54

55 For oral assignments, provide students with sample preparation outlines along with assignment guidelines. Include the preparation outline as part of their grade. Providing students with concrete example will help them to master the art of creating this document. Students have a tendency to skip over this critical step. Sometimes it is helpful to tie in examples of plays and movies. A well-rehearsed play has a solid organization and no one likes a movie to end without a solid conclusion. All oral communication messages need to be crafted in similar ways. Supporting Materials Explanation The WSSU Oral Communication Rubric focuses on providing a variety of supporting material that makes appropriate reference to information or analysis that significantly supports the message or establishes the speaker s credibility/authority on the topic. To achieve this, oral communicators need to focus on three areas as they are building their messages: Ethos, logos, and pathos. Ethos Logos Pathos Ethos is a speaker s credibility. Ethos is the audience s perception of whether a speaker is qualified to talk about the subject. (Lucas, 2005, p. 435) Oral communicators must build their credibility. Competence and character both influence and audience s perception of the speaker s credibility. The more competence and character a speaker has, the greater the chance that the audience will be receptive to the message (Lucas, 2005, p. 435). 55

56 Competence The level of expertise demonstrated by the speaker Character How an audience views a speaker s concern for their well-being (Lucas, 2005, p. 435) Ethos needs to be demonstrated in both formal and informal contexts. Ways to demonstrate competence, character, and ethos: Tell your audience why you re credible whether it is through education, research, interests, experience, or background. Relate to your audience by establishing common ground (whether it is with a patient, a client, a casting director, someone speaking a different language, a group/team, or an audience of 75). Be confident in your message delivery. Logos is supporting material centered around logic, evidence, and reasoning. Examples of different types of supporting material that builds logos are discussed below. Examples Statistics Testimony Examples. This form of logos is helpful in clarifying ideas, reinforcing ideas, or personalizing ideas. Make your examples clear, vivid, and practice for maximum effectiveness (Lucas, 2005, p. 178). 56

57 Statistics. Use statistics sparingly, always identify the source, explain how it directly relates to your central message, and round your statistics to the nearest whole number (Lucas, 2005, p.184). Testimony. This is when a speaker uses quotes or paraphrasing as supporting material. Sources of testimony can be experts from the field, individuals with firsthand experiences, and quotes from secondhand sources. Always remind students that quoting out of context is a form of plagiarism. Pathos is supporting material centered on emotional appeals. In order to create an emotional appeal, a speaker would try to make his/her audience feel fear, compassion, pride, anger, guilt, or reverence. (Lucas, 2005, p. 456) Ways to weave pathos into a message include: Using emotional language. When actively using an emotional appeal, be sure to use words that invoke emotion. Wretched and dejected are more meaningful than sad. Exuberant and jubilant are going to have more of an impact that happy. Developing vivid examples. Set the tone for the recipient of your message. There is an element of storytelling with oral communication and you want your vivid examples to make your audience picture the geologic site, taste the culinary delight, hear the sounds of the machine, feel the fear, and all the rest. This can all be achieved through pathos. Making your tone of voice and facial expressions reflect your words. Be believable. Convince your audience that you are sincere through both your language and your nonverbal delivery. Body language conveys emotions better than words can. 57

58 Provide Opportunities for Students to Practice Creating Supporting Material A great way to get students engaged in practicing and evaluating logos, pathos, and different types of supporting material is through debates. This can be done as a formal/high stake or informal/low stake activity. Choose controversial and current events issues to discuss in class. Break the class into groups of four. Two of the team members will discuss the pro side of the issue and the other two team members will discuss the con side of the issue. Each side will build their argument based on logic/reasoning, emotional appeals, and a variety of supporting material. Notes for Instructional Delivery Be sure that students have a strong understanding of the relationships between credibility and speech delivery. Even speakers who are recognized experts on their topics can undermine their credibility with poor delivery. By the same token, speakers who are not experts can boost their credibility by presenting their ideas sincerely, dynamically, and with strong eye contact (Lucas, 2005, p. 439). For example, say a student has an intermediate level of Spanish and they are having a conversation with someone who does not speak English. The effort is going to build credibility through their sincerity. How something is said is going to make a huge difference in the receiver s perception. Language Explanation The WSSU Oral Communication Rubric states that language should be imaginative, memorable, compelling, and appropriate while enhance the effectiveness of the message. The following outlines some key language elements of oral communication: Use language accurately. Oral communicators need to always ask the question: What do I really mean to say? For example, students studying ethics, law, or criminal justice should be careful to say criminal persecution as opposed to criminal prosecution (Lucas, 2005, p. 275). Be 100% sure of the meaning before it is used. Use familiar words. Avoid language bloat when speaking and tailor your message to level of your audience, whether it is a class of middle school students or a patient with low health literacy. 58

59 Choose concrete words. Be specific with your word choice and avoid vague terms. In history courses, for example, refer to the Red Coats and the Battle of the Bulge as opposed to the soldiers or the battle. Eliminate clutter. Unless the example, word, or story is directly needed to support your message, leave it out. Add in imagery. Use language to paint a mental picture for your audience. Use repetition to reinforce main points. Keep a running theme throughout your message (specifically speeches). Martin Luther King s I Have a Dream speech is a perfect example of this technique. Use inclusive language (i.e. firefighter as opposed to fireman). Take extra care to avoid language that does stereotype, demean or patronize people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors (Lucas, 2005, p. 291). Oral communication language can also be enhanced by using a variety of common writing techniques. These are outlined in the chart below. Imagery Similes Metaphors Rhyme Parallelism Alliteration Antithesis 59

60 Provide Opportunities for Students to Practice Directions This can be a formal or an informal exercise. Let students demonstrate something that relates to course content. If it s a science class for example, have students demonstrate how to do a specific experiment with the class following along. This illustrates how clear language must be used for the audience to accurately understand the intended effect of the speaker. Directions to somewhere on campus also works well (if it s a foreign language course, have students give directions in the language being studied). However this exercise is administered, the end goal is the same: accurate languages takes requires attention. Notes for Instructional Delivery In formal oral communication assignments, require students to include a variety of language strategies. For example, require them to use two of the following: Imagery, similes, metaphors, rhythm, parallelism, alliteration, or antithesis. In more informal and low stake assignments, have them discuss the power of language and how it reflects certain attitudes, values, ideals, or beliefs and what this means as an oral communicator. Delivery Explanation The WSSU Oral Communication Rubric defines effective delivery as consistently demonstrating mastery of delivery techniques and appearing polished and confident. To start, public speaking is often referred to as one of the top five fears of Americans. With a few tips and tricks, students can overcome speech anxiety. Speech apprehension is fear or anxiety associated with communication interactions. This can be anxiety related to interpersonal, group/team, or presentational oral communication. (McCornack, 2013, p. 198) Notice that this definition includes more than just public speaking. Speech apprehension encompasses all oral communication interactions. 60

61 Provide Opportunities for Students to Practice Personal Report of Public Speaking Anxiety Provide the opportunity for students to take the PRPSA: Personal Report of Public Speaking Anxiety Inventory. This is an instrument designed to measure speech apprehension. Often times, students find that they are not as nervous as they thought they were. This realization tends to give them a confidence boost. There is a copy of this inventory at the end of this section. Next, we all engage in an internal dialogue with ourselves, which serves the double function of shaping our view of the world. It is often referred to as self-talk. Here s an example: Let s say you see two friends ride on a roller coaster together. As they exit the ride, one says, That was incredible!! The other one says something like, That was horrendous. Their self-talk probably went something like this: I m really scared. This is scary, but I know there are safety precautions to protect me. This is never going to end. The ride lasts only a few minutes. I m going to be sick. I can close my eyes if I need to. I m never going to do this again. I ve done it! Pinpointing specific apprehension areas will help students to address personal anxietyinvoking situations. Students can identify these weaknesses, then change the cognition, and work to overcome them for a confident delivery. 61

62 Changing the Cognition Give students the opportunity to evaluate their own self-talk as it relates to oral communication and relevant course scenarios. Having a plan to overcome some of their apprehensions can help them to feel more comfortable when engaging in oral communication practices. Have students change the cognition for a variety of different types of settings- interpersonal, team/group, public speaking, etc.). Notes for Instructional Delivery If a student has severe anxiety about oral communication, it can be helpful to recommend that they see an on campus counselor for more individualized attention. It is also beneficial to let students know that even celebrities experience speech apprehension before a big event. The chart below outlines key vocal and physical elements that build a polished oral communication message and ways to achieve this. Volume Speak louder than normal while still retaining natural inflections of daily conversation. Rate The average speaking rate is 150 words per minute. Let students find their average speaking rate and adjust. Pauses A planned pause let s an audience think and emphasizes main points. Count to three and maintain strong eye contact. Vocal Variety Varying your pitch, rate, and volume; this determines how monotone a speaker is (or isn t). Pronunciation/Articulation Use dictionary pronunciation and be sure to enunciate all words. Know how to pronounce all names, places, sources, and all the rest. 62

63 Accents If you have an accent, don t try to hide it. Talk slower than normal and don t start out with the most important information. Movement All your movements count from before the speech until after you are finished. Be natural and make an effort to avoid distracting mannerisms like pacing, leaning on a desk, fidgeting, foot tapping, hands in pocket, and all the rest.) Gestures Gestures should appear natural and spontaneous, help clarify or reinforce your ideas, and be suited to the audience and occasion (Lucas, 2005, p. 315). Eye Contact Make direct eye contact, look at all areas of the room (if a speech), and look at your audience, not above them. Provide Opportunities for Students to Practice Impromptu Delivery Much of the speaking we do is impromptu and spontaneous conversational speaking. This is the most common type of oral communication that students will be doing on the job and in everyday life. Help them to improve their skills through impromptu speaking exercises. Come up with a list of discussion questions, concepts to review, or what would you do scenarios and encourage each student to substantially answer the question while using good delivery form. If it s a large class, break them into groups to save time. Oral Critiques Critiquing oral communication can help students to see what works and what to avoid in subsequent communication. Find speech presentations related to your course content (TED Talks are a great option) and let students evaluate the speaker s delivery. What techniques stood out? What could he/she could improve on? What distracting mannerisms were present? Offer open-ended questions to generate the most discussion. It may be helpful to provide a question list for students to fill in as they are watching the video. 63

64 Role Play Either provide or let students come up with common scenarios they may encounter as it relates to course content. Have them role play the situations in front of the class, then respectfully have the class critique what could be done to improve the delivery of the specific message, either verbally or nonverbally. You can even take it a step further and record the role play scenarios (cell phone cameras work well for this). This way, students can evaluate themselves. This activity should be set up in a way that is not embarrassing or mean-spirited. Notes for Instructional Delivery Even the best oral communicators make mistakes! The important thing is that students avoid calling attention to those mistakes. The audience (whether formal or informal) doesn t know what s coming up next. Being prepared is always important, but being flexible is going to make a good oral communicator a great oral communicator. Encourage students to start being aware of how they communicate verbally and nonverbally in interpersonal, group/team, and public contexts. Self-awareness of delivery mannerisms will help students to improve in this area of oral communication. 64

65 Personal Report of Public Speaking Anxiety (PRPSA) Directions: Below are 34 statements that people sometimes make about themselves. Please indicate whether or not you believe each statement applies to you by marking whether you: Strongly Disagree = 1; Disagree = 2; Neutral = 3; Agree = 4; Strongly Agree = While preparing for giving a speech, I feel tense and nervous. 2. I feel tense when I see the words speech and public speech on a course outline when studying. 3. My thoughts become confused and jumbled when I am giving a speech. 4. Right after giving a speech I feel that I have had a pleasant experience. 5. I get anxious when I think about a speech coming up. 6. I have no fear of giving a speech. 7. Although I am nervous just before starting a speech, I soon settle down after starting and feel calm and comfortable. 8. I look forward to giving a speech. 9. When the instructor announces a speaking assignment in class, I can feel myself getting tense. 10. My hands tremble when I am giving a speech. 11. I feel relaxed while giving a speech. 12. I enjoy preparing for a speech. 13. I am in constant fear of forgetting what I prepared to say. 14. I get anxious if someone asks me something about my topic that I don t know. 15. I face the prospect of giving a speech with confidence. 16. I feel that I am in complete possession of myself while giving a speech. 17. My mind is clear when giving a speech. 18. I do not dread giving a speech. 19. I perspire just before starting a speech. 20. My heart beats very fast just as I start a speech. 21. I experience considerable anxiety while sitting in the room just before my speech starts. 22. Certain parts of my body feel very tense and rigid while giving a speech. 23. Realizing that only a little time remains in a speech makes me tense and anxious. 24. While giving a speech, I know I can control my feelings of tension and stress. 65

66 25. I breathe faster just before starting a speech. 26. I feel comfortable and relaxed in the hour or so just before giving a speech. 27. I do poorer on speeches because I am anxious. 28. I feel anxious when the teacher announces the date of a speaking assignment. 29. When I make a mistake while giving a speech, I find it hard to concentrate on the parts that follow. 30. During an important speech I experience a feeling of helplessness building up inside me. 31. I have trouble falling asleep the night before a speech. 32.My heart beats very fast while I present a speech. 33. I feel anxious while waiting to give my speech. 34. While giving a speech, I get so nervous I forget facts I really know. 66

67 Scoring: To determine your score on the PRPSA, complete the following steps: Step 1. Add scores for items 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 13, 14, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, and 34 Step 2. Add the scores for items 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 24, and 26 Step 3. Complete the following formula: PRPSA = 72 minus (Total from Step 2) plus (Total from Step 1) Your score should be between 34 and 170. If your score is below 34 or above 170, you have made a mistake in computing the score. McCroskey, J. C. (1970). Measures of communication-bound anxiety. Speech Monographs, 37, Interpreting Your PRPSA Score Scores above 131 indicate High Anxiety Scores between 98 and 131 indicate Moderate Anxiety Scores below 98 indicate Low Anxiety For more resources please contact the University Counseling Center:

68 Section 5: Oral Communication and the Second Language Learner When I speak it is in order to be heard. -Roman Jakobson American Linguist Overview The ultimate goal of acquiring a second language is to be able to communicate with a native speaker of that language. Once humans are past a certain developmental age, though, it can be an arduous task to learn another language. 1 Indeed, by its very nature, learning another language would appear to be a existentially subversive activity, overpowered only by our human desire to communicate. Oral communication is embedded in the four standard skills targeted in second language instruction: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Oral Communication is also embedded in The Partnership for 21 st Century Skills, led by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. The first of the 21 st Century Skills, the first of the 5 Cs is Communication, which is targeted in three modes: The Interpersonal The Presentational The Interpretive 1 Krashen (2009) reminds us that younger is not always better and that quantity of comprehensible input is the most important variable in second language acquisition. However, Acquirers who begin natural exposure to second languages during childhood generally achieve higher second language proficiency than those beginning as adults. This would appear to be a matter of the amount comprehensible input children can get, whereas the adult is often limited to relative short classroom exposure. 68

69 Two of these modes have been discussed in this section, and, it is safe to say that sooner or later, the second language learning will develop these modes over long term study. Thus everything that has been said about Oral Communication in this manual applies to second language learning. Two additional considerations enter into play, though, and they have to do with the third of these modes. First, recall the transactional model of communication mentioned above. A component of the model is the (linguistic) code. Typically, the code is not the first matter that concerns us in Oral Communication, because we assume in the classroom setting that everyone speaks English. Of course, even in the English-speaking classroom, we must concern ourselves with the facts that (1) Not everyone shares the same dialectal codes and that those codes more often than not are not Received American English; (2) Students are still acquiring sophisticated command of registers of formality and academic vocabulary; and (3) Sometimes there are students in the class with limited proficiency in the language of the classroom (here, English). In the second language classroom, all of the students are dealing with the three challenges above, usually with very limited proficiency in the new code, the target language. In other words, the interpretive mode must constantly be assessed from the beginning of language study. As a corollary to this, sequencing and scaffolding of skills and content in the new code are the main concern in the language course. This means that, for purposes of training for and assessing the Oral Communication Learning Outcome, the criteria are not developed at the same pace. Developing proficiency in the new code is the main concern, typically, of the first three years of instruction, and this learning occurs with the four skills in mind, listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In addition the properly designed course sequence must also address the 5 Cs of 21 st Century Skills. All of this also means giving learners knowledge and skills in cultural awareness, informational literacy, and visual literacy. With so many course and program goals, it is clear that any one goal is given a small percentage of attention. All the more reason that each of these skills be handled efficiently. 69

70 Second language instructors have as their yardstick the ACTFL Oral Proficiency Guidelines, which establish a reliable and valid scale and assessment criteria: Proficiency Level Global Tasks and Functions Context / Content Accuracy Text Type Superior Discuss topics extensively, support opinions and hypothesize. Deal with a linguistically unfamiliar situation. Most formal and informal settings. Wide range of general interest topics and some special fields of interest and expertise. No pattern of errors in basic structures. Errors virtually never interfere with communication or distract the native speaker from the message. Extended discourse Advanced Intermediate Narrate and describe in major time frames and deal effectively with an unanticipated complication. Create with language, initiate, maintain, and bring to a close simple conversations by asking and responding to simple questions. Some informal settings and a limited number of transactional situations. Predictable, familiar topics related to daily activities. Some informal settings and a limited number of transactional situations. Predictable, familiar topics related to daily activities. Understood, with some repetition, by speakers accustomed Paragraphs to dealing with nonnative speakers. Understood, with some repetition, by speakers accustomed to dealing with nonnative speakers. Discrete sentences Novice Communicate minimally with formulaic and rote utterances, lists, and phrases Most common informal settings. Most common aspects of daily life. May be difficult to understand, even for speakers accustomed to dealing with nonnative speakers. Individual words and phrases Source ACTFL (2012), Oral Proficiency Interview Familiarization Manual In the lower level language courses at WSSU, oral proficiency is always an important goal. At the same time, the realistic goal of teaching during the first three years is the threshold of the Advanced Level. Understandably, at these levels, there is heavy focus on acquiring basic structures and vocabulary, performing with linguistic accuracy as often as possible, understanding the functional and linguistic frontier between formal and informal, and 70

71 progressing from phrases and formulas to questions and answers to connected and, finally, ideally, to paragraph discourse. If we compare the lower level proficiencies in the guidelines with the criteria of the Oral Communication Rubric, we see that only Language (within the limits of existing proficiencies, of course) and Delivery can be evaluated reasonably well, and a liminal assessment can be made of Audience & Context and of Organization. It is not that students do not have the other Oral Communication skills; it is that they do not have sufficient control of the new code to demonstrate them. In such courses, one may use the Oral Communication Rubric for these criteria, especially for assessing free conversation and formal presentation, which often take place in these classes. The Department of World Languages and Cultures, however, has adopted a rubric for assessing oral proficiency in the first three years. It appropriate captures the oral performance that the students have been prepared for and engage in during their oral exams. We usually assess students through a simple dialogue of questions and answers using content at their level, as is appropriate for the Novice High and Intermediate levels on the ACTFL scale. (See Section 6.) The performance elements on this rubric are: Pronunciation Fluency (speed, cadence, and pauses) Grammar Vocabulary Listening Comprehension Communication of Message (global measure of intelligibility) The situation is much different of the third- and fourth-year level, as competence in the code grows exponentially. Of course, in the second- through fourth-year courses in which Oral Proficiency is the main learning outcome, even more time and effort is devoted to developing the various modes of Oral Communication. In fact, oral proficiency is developed even in upper-division courses such as literature when students participate in discussions in class or make oral presentations. In a conversation course that is to serve as a General Education, though, we must ensure that there are activities that can be used to assess Oral Communication as WSSU has defined it and asks us to measure it. We do not attempt, however, to assess all three modes of communication: the interpersonal, the presentational, and the interpretive. For the General Education Learning Outcome, it is sufficient that we assess one mode even as we attempt to develop all of them. From the student s perspective, they are constantly evaluated at the lower levels for their interpretive competence, using the tasks and rubric mentioned earlier. At higher levels, the ability to communicate interpretively is embedded in their courses tasks, such as the presentations and discussions mentioned earlier. 71

72 In Portuguese, therefore, we have chosen to assess multiple formal presentations. (See Section 6.) This is viable because the pre-prepared formal presentation can be well executed by a student at the Intermediate High level or on the Advanced threshold. If followed by a question and answer period, the Advanced and Superior levels can be probed to the extent desired, which also has the effect of checking command of Audience/Context and Central Message. Preparing students to do these presentations, of course, must be built into the course so that the students are working incrementally on features of successful organization, delivery, and documentation. However, students often have acquired these skills from other courses or can quickly learn them because, with the exception of from pronunciation and some linguistic reflections of formality and register, they are not dependent on the new code. One could also opt to assess interpersonal communication in place of or in addition to a public speaking assignment. To do this, one would adapt the capstone assignment for the Intermediate II courses (XXX 2312), which asks student to conduct a 30-minute recorded interview with a native or near-native speaker. In designing this assignment for an oral communication course, one would need to follow the recommendations elsewhere in this section and adapt the general education rubric s use accordingly. Indeed, both instructors and students would gain from enlarging their awareness from the narrowly linguistic and cultural, and perhaps carry out an even more successful interview. Either the interpersonal or presentation assessment can also be used with an oral proficiency rubric such as the one mentioned above, as these can be complementary and give a finer measure of linguistic accuracy and scope of competence. Note that, at the same time, scores on the General Education Oral Communication Rubric will not be unduly weighed down by mediocre or low performance in linguistic accuracy as long as the student is communicating. A final benefit to the second language learner is exactly the complementarity just mentioned. If students are being assessed by the criteria on the Oral Communication Rubric, then backward course design can ensure that second language learners not only do a better job of communicating, they will also better engage the other four Cs : Communities, Comparisons, Cultures, and Connections. 72

73 Section Six Winston Salem State University Oral Communication SECTION 6: Oral Communication Assignments and Instructor Reflections "Regardless of the changes in technology, the market for well-crafted messages will always have an audience." Steve Burnett The Burnett Group Following are several course-specific examples of the Oral Communication student learning outcome and instructional strategies and authentic assessment methods that might be used for achieving and demonstrating that outcome. Also included are some reflections from instructors who teach this outcome. Contributors: Dr. Robert Anderson, Dr. Faye Cobb, Dr. Andrea Patterson, Dr. Nancy Polk, Dr. Shawn Ricks Course: Rehabilitation and Human Services Desired Outcome: As a result of this course, students should be able to display effective communication skills (verbal and nonverbal communication), interviewing techniques, and other helping skills necessary to establish professional helping relationships. Instructional Strategies: Information from the textbook, handouts, lectures, videos and classroom discussions will provide the theoretical foundation. Role plays will provide the opportunity to demonstrate techniques and allow for feedback from the instructor. Authentic Assessment Method: Clinical case scenarios: A clinical scenario will be required for this course. The clinical scenario will allow the opportunity to apply practical communication skills with a mock client. The clinical scenarios will be conducted in small groups, which will be determined within the first two weeks of class. Each group will receive introductory information about their client a week prior to the session. 73

74 Section Six Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Instructor Perspective: Dr. Andrea Patterson-Masuka Assistant Professor of Speech, Department of Mass Communications Chair Oral Communication Committee How long have you been teaching your course as an oral communication course? This oral communication course for a year. I have been teaching oral communication course since Have you revised the course as you ve collected assessment information? Yes. Do you have any changes in mind for the course? I will modify the assignments to be more social justice focused. Which course assignments were most helpful in developing oral communication proficiency in students? Why do you think those particular assignments were most effective? Self-introduction speeches, informative speech, and persuasive speech. What other comments or thoughts would you like to share with instructors considering the oral communication outcome for their courses? Take the time to read this manual and an oral communication textbook and the instructor s manual for your specific course (public speaking, group, interpersonal, health communication etc.). It will help you integrate the oral communication into your curriculum. How do you incorporate or use the rubric with your specific courses? I distribute to the students in the beginning and discuss the elements. They also review it and critique a peer partner and give them written and oral feedback utilizing the rubric. 74

75 Section Six Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Course: Healthcare Management Desired Outcome: As a result of this course, students should be able to conduct a patient medical history interview, synthesize and organize the information gathered, and present the information orally during patient staffing/rounds at their clinical internships/residencies. Instructional Strategies: Information from the textbook and handouts, lecture, and class discussions will introduce interviewing skills and strategies; YouTube or videos will illustrate positive and negative history-taking interview examples; roleplaying and their peer reviews will allow students the opportunity to practice their skills and get feedback from peers regarding their skills; and professors in the Virtual Hospital will assess the medical history compiled and presented orally following the simulated client interview, using the WSSU oral communication rubric guidelines. A detailed assignment will be provided to students that describes the assignment, including the oral presentation criteria, evaluation standards, and how the presentation will be assessed. Authentic Assessment Method: Students will be required to conduct a medical history interview with assigned clients in their healthcare settings as part of their affiliations, internships or residencies. Students will then compile the data collected during these interviews and present them in formal oral presentations during regular client intake staffing/rounds. Clinical instructors will assess the presentations against the oral communication rubric and assign performance points for the type and quality of information gathered during the interview, the organization of the information presented, as well as the student's ability to speak effectively and correctly using standard American English and professional disciplinary terminology. Each criterion will be assigned a point value. 75

76 Section Six Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Instructor Perspective: Dr. Robert Anderson Associate Professor of Portuguese Department of World Languages and Cultures How long have you been teaching your course as an oral communication course? Portuguese 3309, Advanced Portuguese Conversation has only been taught once as an Oral Communication Gen Ed course, in Fall Do you have any changes in mind for the course? Actually, the course works very well as is. The only revision will be to change the course name to Portuguese Conversation and Pronunciation. This is motivated not by the General Education experience but by standardization of language courses within our department. It has the advantage of (a) removing the ambiguous Advanced, which has the benefit of making the course name appear more in line with a General Education course, and (b) underscoring the content importance of phonetics and pronunciation, which is foundational for successful oral communication as well. Which course assignments were most helpful in developing oral communication proficiency in students? Why do you think those particular assignments were most effective? Midterm and final oral presentations, because these are synthetic, comprehensive, and holistic. Having a midterm and final presentations allows students and instructors to witness improvement throughout the semester. What other comments or thoughts would you like to share with instructors considering the oral communication outcome for their courses? I encourage instructors to use oral presentations in almost any course they teach. Although it is not a general education learning outcome for the courses, I assign individual informational and persuasive presentations in my LLSs and group informational presentations in my literature in translation courses. I encourage non-specialists to seek out mentoring from oral communications specialists before conducting these assignments, as I have done. I have learned much from such help. 76

77 Section Six Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Second language instructors with adequate training as language pedagogues already know the issues facing as a matter of expertise and routine. They still may find my contributions to the manual useful in organizing their thinking and course conduct. How do you incorporate or use the rubric with your specific courses? In POR 3309, I use the rubric as is. Language instructors may initially worry that the inevitable proficiency limits third-year learners my drag down the score. But instructors are tolerant of some linguistic inaccuracy in the presentation, they can still use the rubric to measure relative effectiveness of the presentation. In other words, students at this level can still deliver effective oral presentations if instructors do not focus overmuch on the data points that so preoccupy us as second language teachers. Of course, for assessing linguistic accuracy, I use other rubrics and guidelines that are appropriate for gauging second language proficiency and this and all levels of the language courses. In my LLS and literature in translation courses, I have used the rubric as is, but only for reflection: both my comments and students (self) assessment. Course: POR 1311: Elementary Portuguese I Desired Outcomes: 1. As a result of this course, each student should be able to deliver effective oral presentations, such as group or individual informative presentations, recitations, and demonstration or process speeches. 2. As a result of this course, each student should be able to perform a 5- minute conversation with a native or near-native speaker, using appropriate verbal, non-verbal, and cultural behaviors, based on a situational prompt. Instructional Strategies: Structured oral practice in class, based on information prepared from the textbook and other sources and reinforced by listening, written and online practice exercises outside of class; active individual, pair, and group oral participation in Portuguese to the best of his/her ability; written work, compositions, and projects, while not directly oral, reinforce grammar and vocabulary while building fluency and confidence. Authentic Assessment Methods: Midterm and final oral exams (interview format); presentation of special projects. 77

78 Section Six Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Course: POR 3309: Portuguese Conversation and Pronunciation Desired Outcomes: 1. As a result of this course, students should be able to deliver effective oral presentations in Portuguese, such as group or individual informative presentations, recitations, and demonstration or process speeches. Instructional Strategies: Midterm and final oral presentations are assigned, because these are synthetic, comprehensive, and holistic and they can be assessed using the General Education Learning Outcome rubric along with other guidelines and rubrics. Building on the structured oral practice in class, based on information prepared from the textbook and other sources and reinforced by listening, written and online practice exercises outside of class, students will acquire increasing ability to engage in paragraph-level discourse. Parallel to this, students will learn the elements of an effective informational presentation. Most already know how to create Prezi or PowerPoint presentations; they can now have the experience of using cultural and language content from the target language and context. Students are introduced to the Oral Communication rubric, and they can use this, along with assignment instructions to reflect and shape their work as they prepare. Having a midterm and final presentations allows students and instructors to witness improvement throughout the semester. This scaffolded multi-thread approach enables students to both attempt an adequate midterm presentation and improve on it for the final. Authentic Assessment Methods: Midterm and final oral presentations are assigned, because these are synthetic, comprehensive, and holistic and they can be assessed using the General Education Learning Outcome rubric along with other guidelines and rubrics. An oral presentation on a topic to be decided in consulation with the instructor. Students should observe the following guidelines: --The presentation should be about 15 minutes long or slightly longer, plus 5 minutes ofr discussion; --It should be supported with a visual or multimedia component, typically a PowerPoint or Prezi show; 78

79 Section Six Winston Salem State University Oral Communication --Students must use appropriate vocabulary and expressions including those learned this semester; --Students should make adequate use of verb tenses as needed, especially past tenses; --The presentation should outside sources and your slide show should include a properly formatted list of works cited, including sources for images. Students will be evaluated using the General Education Oral Communication rubric along with a grade conversion scale. Detailed comments including on linguistic accuracy will also be provided. The midterm presentation is worth 10% of the course grade, and the final presentation is worth 25% of the course grade. 79

80 Section Seven Winston Salem State University Oral Communication SECTION 7: References Ambrose, S. A., et al. (2010). How learning works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. ACTFL (2012), Oral Proficiency Interview Familiarization Manual. Retrieved from Angelo, T & Cross, K. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for college teachers. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. ASCD, (2004). Introduction: The logic of backward design. Retrieved from Bain, K. (1994). What the best college teachers do. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press. Bean, J. (2011). Engaging ideas: The professor's guide to interactive writing, critical thinking, and learning in the classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. CARLA, (2013). Process: Why use rubrics? Retrieved from Dlugan, Andrew. (2013). Audience analysis: a guide for speakers. Web. SixMinutes.com. Retrieved February 24, 2014, from Johnson, D. (2000). Reaching out. (7th ed.). Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon. Lucas, S.E. (2005). The art of public speaking (9 th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. McCornack, S. (2013). Reflect & Relate (3 rd ed.). Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins. McCrosky, J. (2014). Introversion scale. Retrieved from Mueller, J. (2012). Authentic assessment toolbox. Retrieved from National Communication Association (2014). What is communication? Retrieved from Oakley, A. & Reagan, H. (2013). Feedback that works. Retrieved from 80

81 Section Seven Winston Salem State University Oral Communication Polk, N. (2014). Advantages of authentic assessment. Retrieved via personal communication. Polk, N. (2014). Formative versus summative assessment. Retrieved via personal communication. Polk, N. (2013). General education critical reading outcome: Frequently asked questions (FAQs). Retrieved via personal communication. UCONN (2013). Why assessment? Retrieved from h ttp://assessment.uconn.edu/why-assessment/ Van Servellen, G. (2009). Communication skills for the health care professional. Salisbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Wiggins, G. (2004). Socratic seminars: Guidelines. Retrieved from Wiggins, River, G. & NJ/Alexandria, McTighe, J. (2005). VA: Pearson Understanding Education/Association by design. (2nd Ed.). for Upper Supervision Saddle & Curriculum Development. Young, K., & Travis, H. (2012). Oral communication skills, choices, and consequences. (3rd ed.). Long Grove: Waveland Press, Inc. 81