THE SCALE OF THE ELECTRON

Transcription

1 THE SCALE OF THE ELECTRON Explaining the Atomic Dynamics Johan Oldenkamp

2 The Scale of the Electron Explaining the Atomic Dynamics First, Digital Edition, October 9 th, 2012 Second, Digital Edition, October 11 th, 2012 Third, Digital Edition, October 12 th, 2012 Fourth, Digital Edition, June 2 nd, 2014 To contact the author of this book: johan@pateo.nl TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Explaining the Atomic Dynamics Showing the Electrons Structures Geometrical Foundation of Scelth The Periodic Octahedron of the Elements...38 Acknowledgements...40 Publisher: Pateo ISBN: NUR: , Dr. Johan H. Oldenkamp All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the author. 2 3

3 1. Explaining the Atomic Dynamics The purpose of science is to provide explanations. Scientific progress results in an increase of explanatory strength, explanatory simplicity or both at the same time. Nearly all academic theories, however, offer us mere descriptions instead of genuine explanations. That is, for instance, what we find when we try to understand the so called periodic table of the elements, put together in 1869 by the Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev ( ), as shown on the previous page. When I, as a high school student, saw this table hanging in my chemistry classroom, I felt something very essential was missing. Every natural structure expresses harmony in its own way. Contrary to this, the periodic table showed no harmony at all. I am therefore very happy to reveal in this booklet the underlying structure that explains the ordering of Mendeleyev s table. The Scale of the Electron For each and every atom, its electrons are arranged according to a pyramidal structure. At the top of this pyramid, we find the level of Do, as the final tone of each musical scale (and the starting tone of the following scale). The levels below this top level of Do are respectively Si, La, Sol, Fa, Mi, Re, and again Do. Each lower level offers more space for the electrons. At level 1 (Do) this amount of space equals 1 2 (= 1). At level 2 (Si) this amount of space again equals the square of this level s number (2 2 = 4). The level with the maximum space is level 4 (Sol) with the amount of (4 2 =) 16. This squaring regularity does not only occur top down, but also bottom up. Because of this regularity, the numbers of electrons per shell create a kind of double pyramid or octahedral shape. This pyramidal scale is merely a model to help us understand the atomic structure. We should not take it literally. First of all, the top of this pyramid is pointed 4 inwards, and is closest to the core of the atom. The bottom layer is furthest away from this core, and in most cases contains the so-called free electrons. Each electron has a spin. When this spin is in the same direction as the electron s orbital direction around the atom s core, I refer to this spin orientation as positive or Yin. The reverse orientation I refer to as negative or Yang. Please read my other books on Wholly Science, which are mostly freely available as e-book on Pateo.nl, to learn more about this. In each space of the pyramidal scale structure, pictured as a block on the previous page, there is room for two electrons with opposite spins. In order to represent such a balanced couple of counter spinning electrons, I use the symbol of Tao, showing the perfect dynamic balance between Yin and Yang. To represent a space with just one electron, I use the white circle for a Yin electron and a black circle for a Yang electron. When situated in the bottom or outer layer of the pyramidal scale structure, the black circles represent free electrons. When these free electrons have jumped over to another atom, the remaining ion has a positive charge. Each white circle indicates a space where an additional free electron is required to create a balanced couple. When this happens, the ion has a negative charge. This is in fact all we need to know in order or to be able to explain the ordering of Mendeleyev s table. When you are unfamiliar with aspects of this short theoretical foundation, then I advise you to first study those aspects, for example on the internet, before reading the remaining of this booklet. 5

4 2. Showing the Electrons Structures Based on the principles explained in the previous chapter, this chapter shows the double pyramidal scale structure of each atom s electrons. Each building block is now represented as a square. 1 H The first atom can have a Yin or Yang electron at the top level, which is also the only level this atom has. In the Yang case, this atom s name is Hydrogen. The name Hydrogen comes from the Greek hydro (meaning: water) and genes (meaning creator). Together with the atom of Oxygen, this atom indeed creates water. Its ion is H +. In the Yin case, this atom s name is Hydride. Its ion is H -. Both Hydrogen and Hydride are abbreviated as H. 2 He Also the atom of Helium only has the top level. In the case of Helium, this level is filled with a balanced couple of counter spinning electrons. Now the top level of Do is complete. Helium is therefore a so-called noble gas. The additional electrons of the following atoms have to descend to a lower level. 3 Li, 4 Be, 5 B, and 6 C At that next level, the first four atoms have free electrons. Each following atom has one more. The ion of Lithium is Li +. Next, the ion of Beryllium is Be 2+. Then, the ion of Boron is B 3+. And fourthly, the ion of Carbon is C 4+. That last ion is however the Yang ion of Carbon. Carbon also has a Yin ion, as shown on the following page. 6 The Yin ion of Carbon has a charge of C 4-. That means it has room for four free electrons. Next, Nitrogen, meaning the creator (gen) of native soda (nitro), has room for three free electrons. Its ion is therefore N 3-. In some cases however, Nitrogen gives away all its electrons in the second shell (N 5+ ). The atom of Oxygen has room for two free electrons. Its ion is O 2-. When both spaces have been occupied by a free electron from an Hydrogen atom, then indeed water (H 2 O) has been created. Next in line, Fluorine has room for just one free electron. Its ion is therefore F -. Last in this line up, we find Neon. For Neon, all available spaces at the second hierarchical level of Si have been filled up with balanced couples of counter spinning electrons. Therefore, Neon is the second noble gas. 11 Na, 12 Mg, and 13 Al Initially, also the third level has four spaces, since it is for the atoms numbered from 11 up to 18 also the bottom level. The atom with 11 electrons is called Sodium in English and Natrium in Latin. That is why its name is abbreviated as Na. Its ion is Na +. Next, we find Magnesium and its ion is Mg 2+. Third and last in this line up is Aluminum in English or Aluminium in Latin. Its ion is Al Si The features of the atom of Silicon in English or Silicium in Latin resemble those of the atom of Carbon. The Yang ion of Silicon has a charge of Si 4+, while its Yin ion has a charge of Si 4-. 7

5 15 P, 16 S, 17 Cl, and 18 Ar Next, Phosphorus has room for three free electrons. Its ion is therefore P 3-. The atom of Sulfur has room for two free electrons. Its ion is S 2-. Next in line, Chlorine has room for just one free electron. Its ion is therefore Cl -. Last in this line up, we find Argon. For Argon, all available spaces at the third hierarchical level of La have been filled up with balanced couples of counter spinning electrons. Therefore, Argon is the third noble gas. 19 K, 20 Ca, 21 Sc, and 22 Ti All atoms up from number 19 have four layers (or more). The atom with 19 electrons is called Potassium in English and Kalium in Neo- Latin, on which the abbreviation of K is based. Its ion is K +. Next, we find Calcium and its ion is Ca 2+. Third in this line up is Scandium. Its ion is Sc 3+. Fourthly, we encounter Titanium with its ion Ti 4+. Titanium, however also has two different type of ions. Those ions occur when the amount electrons in the third layer (of La) exceeds the maximum of the 2 2 format for paired electrons. Then, the third layer expands to the much wider 3 3 format for paired electrons. That explains why Titanium also has the ions of Ti 2+ and Ti V, 24 Cr, and 25 Mn For the next atom, Vanadium, there are two similar types of ions: V 2+ and V 3+. There is even a third type of ion for Vanadium. For this third possibility, the layer structures of the third and fourth level have been swapped. Now the bottom layer suddenly has a 3 3 format, which very occasionally is possible (as an exception that proves the general rule). The atom of Chromium has two types of ions: Cr 2+ and Cr 3+. Although the third level is not completely filled with paired electrons, each constellation is always very well balanced. As this booklet shows, each atomic structure shows a not only a natural balance, but also a striking simplicity. As the atomic numbers increase, the ionic charges hardly do not. Also Manganese has two types of ions: Mn 2+ and Mn 3+. Compared to the previous atoms, only the arrangement on the third level has changed. 26 Fe, 27 Co, 28 Ni, and 29 Cu The next atom has 26 electrons. In Latin, its name is Ferron, abbreviated as Fe. In English it is Iron. Iron is able to retain magnetic energy because of the characteristics of its third layer of electrons. In 9

6 non-magnetic Iron, the distribution of the Yin and Yang electrons is balanced, as shown below. After Iron has been magnetized, the Yin electrons are on one side of the third layer, and the Yang electrons are on the other side. This theory called the Scale of the Electrons therefore not only explains the ordering of the periodic system, it also explains the magnetic features of the metals such as Chromium, Manganese, Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel. Below, we will also see how this theory irrefutably proves why Copper can not hold magnetic energy. Just like Chromium, Manganese, and Iron, Cobalt has also two types of ions, charged with respectively values of two positive and three positive. For Cobalt these ions are Co 2+ and Co 3+. The very same is true for Nickel. Its ions are Ni 2+ and Ni 3+. At Nickel s third layer, we see that it is still possible to move the Yin electron(s) to one side, and the Yang electron(s) to the other side. However, in the case of Copper, this division is no longer possible. In the case its ion is Cu 2+, there is only one space left at the third layer where we find a single electron (either Yin or Yang). Furthermore, when its ion is Cu +, all spaces of the third layer are filled with paired electrons Zn and 31 Ga 32 Ge Just like Carbon and Silicon, the atom of Germanium has two opposing ion types: Ge 4+ and Ge As, 34 Se, 35 Br, and 36 Kr The atom of Zinc always has two free electrons. Its ion therefore is Zn 2+. Next, the atom of Gallium always has three free electrons. Its ion therefore is Ga 3+. Neither of these two metals is able to retain magnetic energy. The atom of Arsenio has room for three free electrons. Its ion is therefore As 3-. The atom of Selenium has room for two free electrons. Its ion is Se 2-. Next in line, Bromine has room for just one free electron. Its ion is therefore Br -. Last in this line up, we find Krypton. For Krypton, all available spaces at the fourth hierarchical level of Sol have been filled up with balanced couples of counter spinning electrons. This means that Krypton is the fourth noble gas. 37 Rb, 38 Sr, 39 Y, and 40 Zr All atoms up from number 37 have five layers (or more). The atom with 37 electrons is called Rubidium. Its ion is Rb +. Next, we find Strontium, and its ion is Sr 2+. Third in this line up is Yttrium. Its ion is Y 3+. Fourthly, we encounter Ziroonium, and its ion is Zr

7 The atom of Niobium has two configurations. In the configuration, its ion is Mn 3+. In the configuration, its ion is Mn 5+. Both Molybdenum and Techneticum have that same exceptional configuration of Their ions are respectively Mo 6+ and Tc Ru and 45 Rh From the atom of Ruthenium upwards, we return to the regular It has two types of ions: Ru 3+ and Ru Nb, 42 Mo, and 43 Tc With the 40 electrons of Ziroonium, the pyramidal structure of offers no more space for an additional electron. Therefore, a 4- spaced layer gets widened into a 9-spaced layer, starting with Niobium. The atom of Rhodium has just one type of ion: Rh Pd The atom of Palladium has two types of ions: Pd 2+ and Pd 4+. When, in the first case, both free electrons would join the fourth layer, its configuration would be like the perfect one of a noble gas. However, the general rule is that the bottom layer is always 4-spaced, and not 9-spaced as it would have been in this theoretical case

8 47 Ag, 48 Cd, and 49 From the atom with 47 electrons up, the fourth layer is perfectly filled paired electrons. The first atom that has this perfect fourth level configurations is called Silver in English and Argentum in Latin, abbreviated as Ag. Its ion is Ag +. Next in line, we find Cadmium, and its ion is Cd 2+. After that, the atom of Indium is the next one. Its ion is In Sn The atom with 50 electrons is called Tin in English and Stannum in Latin, abbreviated as Sn. Tin has two types of ions. The first one follows the same structure as its predecessors Silver, Cadmium, and Indium. Its ion is Sn 4+. For the other ion, the fourth 9-spaced layer is widened into a 16-spaced level. The ion that corresponds to that structure is Sn Sb The atom with 51 electrons is called Antimony in English and Stibium in Latin, abbreviated as Sb. Just like Tin, Antimony also has two types of ions. The first one has the very unusual structure. Its ion is Sb 5+. For the other ion, the spacing for the electrons is based on the structure. That ion is Sb Te, 53 I, and 54 Xe From the atom of Tellurium upwards, we find the structure again. The bottom layer of Tellurium has room for two free electrons. Its ion is Te 2-. Next in line, Iodine has room for just one free electron. Its ion is therefore I -. Last in this line up, we find Xenon. For Xenon, all available spaces at the fifth hierarchical level of Fa have been filled up with balanced couples of counter spinning electrons. This means that Xenon is the fifth noble gas. 55 Cs, 56 Ba, and 57 La All atoms up from number 55 have six layers (or more). The atom with 55 electrons is called Caesium. Its ion is Cs +. Next in line, we find Barium, and its ion is Ba 2+. Thirdly, we find. Its ion is La 3+. These three atom have the structure for their electrons

9 61 Pm and 62 Sm Also the atoms with 61 and 62 electrons have the structure. The ion of Prometium is Pm Ce, 59 Pr, and 60 Nd Most atoms starting with Cerium have an ionic charge of three positive. Since the structure offers no space for additional electrons, these atoms have the structure. The atom of Samarium has two types of ions: Sm 3+ and Sm 2+. In the latter case, the fourth layer of 16 spaces is perfectly filled with paired electrons. 63 Eu, 64 Gd, and 65 Tb The ion of Cerium is Ce 3+. The ion of Praseodymium is Pr 3+. Thirdly, the ion of Neodymium is Nd The atom of Europium has two types of ions. The first one corresponds to the structure. This is Eu 3+. The other one corresponds to the structure. This is Eu 2+. The atom of Gadolinium shows very much resemblance to its predecessor, Europium. Just like Europium, also Gadolinium has an ion that corresponds to the structure. This is Gd 4+. Nextm 17

10 the other one also corresponds to the structure. This is Gd 3+. respectively Dy 3+ and Ho 3+. Starting with the atom of Erbium, the structure appears. Its ion is Er Tm and 70 Yb The structure of the atom of Thulium very much resembles its predecessor Erbium. Its ion is Tm 3+. Since there is no more space in the structure, the atom of Terbium has just one ion, corresponding to the structure, which is Tb Dy, 67 Ho, and 68 Er The atom of Ytterbium has two types of ions: Yb 2+ and Yb Lt, 72 Hf, and 73 Ta Also the atoms of Dysprosium and Holmium have a single type of ion, corresponding to the structure, which are 18 19

11 For the atoms of Lutetium, Hafnium, and Tantalum, the configurations of the first five layers are identical. That is why we see a climbing of the number of free electrons of these atoms. Their ions are respectively Li 3+, Hf 4+, and Te W, 75 Re, and 76 Os With the atoms of Tungsten or Wolfram, abbreviated as W, and Rhenium, this series continues. Their ions are respectively W 6+ and Re 7+. Just like Osmium, also the atom of Iridium has four free electrons Its ion is Ir 4+. The atom of Platinum has two types of ions: Pt 4+ and Pt Au Perhaps the most well-know metal is Gold. In Latin this is Aurum, abbreviated as Au. The atom of Gold has two types of ions: Au 3+ and Au +. In the structure corresponding to the latter ion, we see a completion of the fifth layer with nine paired electrons. From Osmium upwards, the fourth layer is now completely filled with paired electrons. The ion of Osmium is Os Ir and 78 Pt 80 Hg Another well-known metal is Mercury. In Latin this is Hydrargyrum, abbreviated as Hg. The atom of Mercury also has two types of ions: Hg 2+ and Hg Tl Just like is predecessors Gold and Mercury, the atom of Thallium also has two types of ions: Tl 3+ and Tl +. 21

12 84 Po The atom of Polonium also has two types of ions: Po 4+ and Po Pb Another well-known metal is Lead. In Latin this is Plumbum, abbreviated as Pb. We also see this Latin origin in the word plumbing, literally meaning working with lead. The atom of Lead also has two types of ions: Pb 4+ and Pb At and 86 Rn With the atom of Astatine, we are back at the perfect filling of the first five layers of the structure. In the case of Astatine, there is room for one more electron. Its ion is At Bi For Radon, also all available spaces at the sixth hierarchical level of Mi have been filled up with balanced couples of counter spinning electrons. This means that Radon is the sixth noble gas. The atom of Bismuth also has two types of ions: Bi 3+ and Bi Fr, 88 Ra, 89 Ac From the atom of Francium upwards, the structure develops as before

13 The atom of Thorium completes the series of Francium, Radium and Actinium. Its ion is Th 4+. Next, we find that the atom of Protactinium has two types of ions: Pa 4+ and Pa U The well-know atom of Uranium has two types of ions: U 4+ and U 6+. The ions of Francium, Radium and Actinium are respectively Fr +, Ra 2+, and Ac Np The atom of Neptunium has just one type of ion: Np Th and 91 Pa 94 Pu Just like Uranium, also the atom of Plutonium has two types of ions: Pu 4+ and Pu

14 With Plutonium, the six layers structure ends. 99 Es 96 Cm With the atom of Curium, the seven layers structure starts. Its ion is Cm 3+. The ion of the atom with 99 electrons is Es Fr 97 Bk The atom of Berkelium also has two types of ions: Bk 3+ and Bk 4+. The ion of the atom of Fermium with exactly 100 electrons is Fr Md 98 Cf From now on, the names given to the atom become even more strange. The atom of Californium is Cf 3+. The atom of Mendelevium has two types of ions: Md 2+ and Md Lr 26 27

15 The atoms with numbers 102 and 103 have been reversed because the page layout. The ion of the atom of Lawrencium with 103 electrons is Lr Nb 105 Db The ion of the atom of Dubnium with 105 electrons is: Db 4+. The atom of Nobelium with 102 electrons has two types of ions: Nb 2+ and Nb Lr By now, the application of the principles of the double pyramidal structure of the distribution of the electrons to atoms with 103 electrons or more should be straightforward. From Lawrencium (103 Lr) upwards, also the fifth layer (of Fa) is completely filled with paired electrons. 106 Sg The ion of the atom of Seaborgium with 106 electrons is: Sg Bh The ion atom of Lawrencium with 103 electrons is: Lr Rf The ion of the atom of Rutherfordium with 104 electrons is: Rf 3+. The ion of the atom Bohrium with 107 electrons is: Bh Hs The ion of the atom Hassium with 108 electrons is: Hs

16 109 Mt 113 Uut The ion the atom Meitnerium with 109 electrons is: Mt Ds The ion of the atom Ununtrium with 113 electrons is: Uut Fl The ion of the atom Darmstadtium with 110 electrons is: Ds Rg The ion of the atom Flerovium with 114 electrons is: Fl Uup The ion of the atom Roentgenium with 111 electrons is: Rg Cn The ion of the atom Copernicium with 112 electrons is: Cn 4+. The ion of the atom Ununpentium with 115 electrons is: Uup Lv The ion of the atom Livermorium with 116 electrons is: Lv

17 is the heaviest noble gas. I suggest to change its name into Pateon (Pn). 117 Uus The ion of the atom Ununseptium with 117 electrons is: Uus Uuo Ununoctium is a noble gas. 119 Uue The ion of the atom Ununennium with 119 electrons is: uue Ubn The current preliminary name of the atom with 120 electrons is Unbinilium. This atom with the highest possible amount of electrons 32 33

18 3. Geometrical Foundation of Scelth The formula for the maximum amount of electrons in each following shell is 2n 2, where n represents the number of the electron shell. The theory of the Scale of the Electron, as described in the previous chapters of this booklet, offers an explanation for this description. First of all, the Scaled Electrons Theory, abbreviated as ScElTh or Scelth, explains that each couple of a Yin electron and a Yang electron form a stable unit that perfectly fits the space of each building block of the double pyramid structure of the electrons. The fact that this structure is not a single, but a double pyramid is the second explanation offered by Scelth. Each layer of this double pyramid, where the top one is pointing inwards and the bottom one is pointing outwards, offers n 2 spaces, where n represents the number of layers of the top pyramid. The bottom pyramid is then a kind of mirror image of the top one. Furthermore, Scelth also offers a new model for studying the features of the atoms. It also explains why some metals like Iron can be magnetized, while others like Copper cannot. It also help to understand the phenomena of superconductivity. Now let us look at the geometrical foundation of Scelth. There are five three-dimensional shapes, each of which consists of identical surfaces, edges, and vertices. As an homage to the ancient Greek Plato, these shapes are called Platonic solids. The table below shows these five perfect, three-dimensional, solid shapes. Shape Faces Edges Vertices Namee Tetrahedron Hexahedron Octahedron Dodecahedron Icosahedron The maximum number of electrons in each shell or layer is 2n 2, as mentioned above. The highest number of electrons per level is 32, as described in the previous chapter. When we combine the shapes of the icosahedron and the dodecahedron, precisely fitting into the same sphere, we get exactly 32 vertices. In this combined shape, the 12 vertices of the icosahedron are exactly above the centers of the 12 pentagonal faces of the dodecahedron. The opposite is also true: the 20 vertices of the dodecahedron are exactly above the centers of the 20 triangular faces of the icosahedron, in this combined shape. These 32 combined vertices are the dynamic locations of the 4 2 pairs of electrons in the fourth layer (of Sol), when is it completely filled. Please not that within this sphere of 32 vertices, we also find exactly four hexahedrons. When the third layer (of La) is fully filled with paired electrons, this level or shell offers room for 3 2 pairs of electrons. We find these 18 electrons at the 18 vertices of the combination of three octahedrons, each having 6 vertices. The second layer (of Si) offers room for 2 2 pairs of electrons. We find these 8 electrons at the 8 vertices of the combination of two opposite tetrahedrons, together forming a so-called star tetrahedron. The first level, closest to the atom s core, offers room for 1 2 pair of electrons. The Yin and Yang electron of this single pair spiral in opposite directions according to the dynamic vortex movement of the so-called energetic apple, as described in the book The Bigger Picture, available as free online e-book on Pateo.nl. The figure on the left hand side shows this movement. 1 (Do) 1 2 single apple 8 (Do) 2 (Si) 2 2 double tetrahedron 7 (Re) 3 (La) 3 2 triple octahedron 6 (Mi) 4 (Sol) 4 2 quadruple hexahedron 5 (Fa) The figures on the next pages show these compound shapes

19 drawing three orthogonal lines from each of the vertices to opposite vertices, we find exactly three hexahedra or cubes within this compound shape. The compound of two tetrahedra gives a star tetrahedron: The compound of three octahedra looks like this: This shows that the platonic solids together with the energetic apple shape offer the required geometrical foundation for the Scaled Electrons Theory. 36 On the left hand side, we see this compound of three octahedra, each with a different color (i.e. grey, green, and purple). The figure on the next pages shows the compound of an icosahedron and a dodecahedron. This shape has 32 vertices. By 37

20 4 The Periodic Octahedron of the Elements The underlying structure of the elements is not two-dimensional, but three-dimensional. That is why a 2D table fails to reveal this underlying structure. The figure below show the underlying 3D structure of the 120 types of atoms. This shape resembles an octahedron in the same way as the electrons shell structure does. This is why it is called the periodic octahedron of the elements. It consists of eight layers. Layer Amount of Elements Cumulative 1 Do Si La Sol Fa Mi Re Do The figure below shows the corresponding atomic numbers. 38 The elements that lie on the same vertical axis have corresponding features. Presented in this way, the natural logic of the atoms or elements becomes crystal clear. 39

21 Acknowledgements First of all, I wish to express my gratitude to Jan Wicherink. His input helped me to discover the geometrical foundation of Scelth, as described in the previous chapter. Furthermore, I like to thank Frank Bonte, who has brought me into contact with many interesting theories and scientists during the past four years. Both Frank and Jan are open minded researchers (and creators) based in Netherlands, just like I am. Internationally, I am very happy to work with a number of leading scientists form all over the world. Some of their names are listed on the webpage of the Pateo Academia on the English section of Pateo.nl. Scelth focuses on the particle nature of electrons. Elementary physics shows that electrons have at the same time wave-like features. They occur as clouds around nucleus of atoms and are in phase-lock conjugation existing first as one type of scalar wave, then another alternating between charges. Scelth does not take these wave-like features of electrons into account, and neither does it include the protons and the neutrons in the core of the atom. Please feel free to contact me about Scelth or other scientific issues. You find my address on second page of this booklet. Zeist, The Netherlands, October 12 th, 2012 Johan H. Oldenkamp, Ph.D. 40