c Children's Workforce Development Council

Transcription

1 Poverty and disadvantage c Children's Workforce Development Council Child poverty training module Understand, recognise and respond to child poverty Learner resource

2 Contents Introduction How to use guidance... 4 Child Poverty Training Module... 6 Section 1 - Understand child poverty and disadvantage... 8 Section 2 - Understand the impact of poverty Section 3 - Understand how to recognise the risk factors and signs of child poverty Section 4 - Understand the role of a range of (public, private and voluntary sector) agencies, services and support networks available to work with a family to support them to move away from poverty Section 5 - Within your role as a practitioner, understand how to support a family in recognising and responding to the factors that are contributing to the family being in poverty Appendix 1 - Background Appendix 2 - Indicators Glossary Commonly used terms in child poverty literature and in this learner resource

3 Introduction Poverty is not simply about being on a low income and going without. It is also about having poor health, education and housing, impacting on basic selfesteem and the ability to participate in social activities. Poverty can have a profound impact on children, their families and the rest of society. It can set in motion a deepening spiral of social exclusion and create problems in education, employment, mental and physical health and social interaction. Poverty makes people s lives shorter and more difficult than they need to be. Children are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of poverty because people under 18 years old need care and protection that most adults do not. It is for this reason that how poverty affects the lives of children has become a primary concern (see Appendix 1 - Background). In 1999, the government announced the aim of eradicating child poverty in the UK by the year The Child Poverty Act 2010 enshrined this commitment into legislation. Below are some statistics that illustrate the extent of poverty in the UK over time: Child poverty has risen from 13% in 1961 to 20% in % of the whole population were living in relative poverty 2009/10 Before Housing Costs (BHC). Of these: 49% are in families which include at least one child. 28% are in families of people of working age without children. 22% are pensioner families. 2 Over 50% live in a household where someone is working. 3 There were 2.6 million children living in poverty in the UK 2009/2010. It is projected that 2.9 million children will be living in poverty by Poverty can vary within local regions. In 2008, Hampstead Town had 10.7 % of children living in poverty whereas neighbouring Haverstock had 51.8% of children living in poverty. 5 Poverty does not just affect those living in it, but has a large cost for society. By limiting children s educational attainment, it impacts on the skills available to employers, impeding economic growth; child poverty costs Great Britain at least 25 billion a year. 6 1 Department for Work and Pensions (2011) Households Below Average Income: An analysis of the income distribution.1994/ /10, 2 Department for Work and Pensions (2011) Households Below Average Income et al. 3 Child Poverty Action Group, Child Poverty in the UK, 2011, available at: 4 Joyce, R. (2011) Poverty Projections between and : a post-budget 2011 Update, Institute for Fiscal Studies. 5 Revised local child poverty measure August 2008, available online: 6 Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2008) Estimating the Costs of Child Poverty, Joseph Rowntree Foundation. 3

4 A significant amount still needs to be done to achieve the target of eradicating poverty in the UK by Ensuring that there is equality of life chances across local areas and throughout the UK is key. How to use guidance Child Poverty is not just about children. The effects of poverty on society and on service provision are wide ranging and underpin many of the reasons why a family's problems can seem intractable. This training module is aimed at any practitioner in any service that works with people. It will help you to understand how some seemingly unrelated issues are made worse by poverty, and why some of the problems that affect people seem to be so difficult to address. It will also help you to understand how the cycle of poverty needs to be broken if today's poor children are to avoid becoming the poor adults and parents of the future. This learner resource has been designed to accompany the CWDC digitally available training module Understand, recognise and respond to child poverty. The module provides an indicative course or training outline for learning. Practitioners can refer to the module to broadly indicate what knowledge and understanding of child poverty they need to be able to support families to move out of poverty. The module is not an accredited unit, but training providers and educational establishments may wish to include it in accredited programmes of learning if appropriate. The module has a set of five aims (the knowledge or outcome that it is hoped will be gained through completion of the learning outcomes) each with a set of learning outcomes (what it is intended that the learner will have specifically learnt, or will be able to do, as a result of the learning experience). This learner resource provides optional supporting notes, examples of useful tools and signposting of where to gain the required knowledge and understanding that the module recommends. This learner resource also suggests some activities and questions to support enquiry based learning. This learner resource can be used in a variety of ways including as a: Support to formal classroom and workshop style training programmes. Support to small group development activity, facilitated through a manager or senior practitioner. Self-directed learning tool for individuals or groups of peer practitioners (although it is strongly advised that individuals be supported in any selfdirected learning by managers or senior practitioners). Support to one to one support or supervision sessions. It is hoped that this learner resource will be accessed by staff from all sectors of the workforce including voluntary, public and private organisations. Reflecting the multi-faceted nature of child poverty, it has not been written for the children s workforce alone and organisations/individuals are encouraged 4

5 to adapt the resource to reflect local processes and priorities. Trainers, managers or senior practitioners may also wish to supplement this learner resource with resources to reflect local agendas and specific socio-economic challenges, develop or incorporate the learner resources into a formal training programme or use it as part of an induction programme or active learning sets. This learner resource is not intended to replicate the range of learner resources available from other organisations and publications on child poverty. It is also not part of an interactive online web-based training model; it is a document for reference purposes only and is intended to be used as a starting point for a learner to refer to. This resource should be supplemented with resources that reflect the local agenda and specific socio-economic challenges. Sections one to five directly mirror the learning aims and outcomes of the module Understand, recognise and respond to child poverty ; the module is provided at the end of this introduction. Learners may choose to undertake learning from one or more of the sections. Each section is broken down according to the learning outcome. At the end of each section, further suggested reading and training is identified so that learners can develop their understanding of the learning objective. Also at the end of each section and throughout this learner resource, exercises are suggested to extend and consolidate learning. Where reference is made to consulting local authority child poverty needs assessments and strategies, it should be noted that at the time of writing, not all local authorities had published their needs assessments and strategies. If they had been published, they may not necessarily have been called child poverty needs assessments or strategies, but may have been included in other local assessments or strategies. It is therefore recommended that learners refer to their local authority web pages or contact their local authority offices for guidance on where this information can be found. The Appendices provide further information or tools that support the learning identified in sections one to five. Appendix one, the background to child poverty, covers the political and legal context for this work nationally and locally. It can support a practitioner by explaining the duties placed on the government, local authorities and their partners in relation to tackling child poverty. A glossary is also provided at the end of this learner resource. The definitions given are not definitive; there are a multitude of different definitions available for the terms listed. The glossary simply provides one interpretation that has been adopted to assist the reading of this learner resource. Through this learner resource, learners are invited to research the different definitions of the terms so that they can come to their own conclusions on how these terms may be defined and interpreted. 5

6 Child Poverty Training Module Title Aim The learner will: Understand, recognise and respond to child poverty Learning outcomes The learner can: 1. Understand child 1.1 Explain what is meant by child poverty poverty and 1.2 Explain why families who are affected by disadvantage poverty experience disadvantage 1.3 Identify what may be the causes, underlying drivers and intergenerational cycles of child poverty in your local area and nationally 1.4 Explain what is meant by in-work poverty 2. Understand the 2.1 Identify the impact of poverty on families and impact of child poverty children and how this affects opportunity, achievement and outcomes over the course of their lives 2.2 Describe how poverty affects the perspectives, perceptions and actions of children, families and communities 2.3 Identify the issues and barriers preventing children and families from moving away from poverty nationally and in your local area 3. Understand how to recognise potential signs and risk factors of child poverty 3.1 Identify potential signs and risk factors of child poverty locally and nationally 3.2 Explain how to recognise potential signs and risk factors of poverty within a family 4. Understand the role of 4.1 Identify local and national agencies, services a range of (public, and support networks available to work with and private and voluntary support a family in moving away from poverty sector) agencies, 4.2 Explain the role and functions of these services and support agencies, services and support networks and how networks available to they can work with families and support them to work with a family to move away from poverty support them to move away from poverty 4.3 Explain what barriers there may be to a family engaging with agencies, services and support networks and why these barriers may exist 4.4 Recognise the importance of and how agencies, services and support networks can work together to develop opportunities and support families to move away from poverty 4.5 Recognise the barriers to inter-agency working between services 6

7 4.6 Identify the opportunities to overcome local barriers to inter-agency working and information sharing between services 5. Within your role as a practitioner, understand how to support a family in recognising and responding to the factors that are contributing to the family being in poverty 5.1 Explain how to work with a family to enable them to identify what factors are contributing to the family being in poverty 5.2 Explain how to work with a family to enable them to identify what actions, agencies, services or support networks could help them to address these factors 5.3 Identify how to support a family in implementing any agreed actions or referrals 7

8 Section 1 - Understand child poverty and disadvantage Learning Aim 1. Understand child poverty and disadvantage Learning Outcome 1.1 Explain what is meant by child poverty 1.2 Explain why families who are affected by poverty experience disadvantage 1.3 Identify what may be the causes, underlying drivers and intergenerational cycles of child poverty in your local area and nationally 1.4 Explain what is meant by in-work poverty The big issues Inequality and opportunity - poverty may be destructive of children s futures. Families living in poverty may have reduced life chances including lower life expectancy, poorer attainment, and lower earning potential. The UK has a high rate of child poverty relative to other developed countries. Child poverty has risen from 13% in 1961 to over 20% in 2009/2010, with over half of these children living in families where someone works. 7 In 2008/2009, almost 10 billion of means tested benefits went unclaimed. Increased take-up of benefits and tax credits could have a huge impact on many families. For example, a lone parent with two children working 30 hours a week earning the minimum wage could almost double their income by claiming child and working tax credits. 8 All of us have a part to play in eradicating child poverty Explain what is meant by child poverty Children do not cause poverty but may be born or brought into it by adults or circumstances that surround them. Whilst income is still relevant and important, it is not the exclusive or necessarily the dominant cause of poverty. Children s life chances are largely predicated on their development in the first five years of life and targeting the factors that determine those life chances is therefore critical. Lifting disadvantaged children out of poverty goes beyond raising short-term family incomes. Good local services, intervening early as problems arise, support with positive and responsible parenting, high quality childcare, 7 Department for Work and Pensions (2011) Households Below Average Income et al. 8 Kennedy, S. (8 February 2011) Recovery of benefit overpayments due to official error, House of Commons, London, available at: 8

9 encouraging a positive approach to learning at home and improving parents qualifications all go towards breaking the cycle of poverty. Therefore, child poverty is not just about children; it refers to the circumstances of the family surrounding the child. The term child poverty has been adopted throughout this learner resource because it is a term accepted and adopted within UK literature and research. Similarly, the experience of poverty will vary across individuals and groups of individuals, depending on a variety of interrelating inherent and contextual factors and the family/child s resilience to poverty; the term resilience refers to the capacity of human beings to survive and even thrive in the face of adversity. Resilience is explored further in section 5 (page 72). There are numerous definitions of poverty and disadvantage and the ways of defining poverty and disadvantage are complex and contested. As a result, the terminology and concept of child poverty are often not easily recognised by professionals working directly with children and families and the term poverty is misunderstood. 9 Establishing whether a family is in poverty can be expressed in pure income terms. National and regional estimates of the number and proportion of children living in poverty are published in the Households Below Average Income (HBAI) series. 10 In this publication, relative poverty is defined as the proportion of children living in households where income is less than 60 per cent of median household income before housing costs for the financial year. As they are based on survey data, child poverty estimates published in HBAI allow breakdowns only to regional level, and analysis by local authority (LA) is not possible. In 2009/10, 2.6 million children in the UK were living in relative poverty. This was around a fifth (20%) of the population. 11 As the HBAI data cannot be produced below regional level, administrative data is used to measure poverty at local level, although this does not provide the kind of breakdown that is possible with HBAI. The revised local child poverty measure (formerly NI 116) calculates the proportion of children living in families in receipt of out of work (means tested) benefits or in receipt of tax credits where their reported income is less than 60 per cent of median income (median income is the household income of the individual in the middle of the income distribution, taking into account household composition). The means tested out of work benefits include Income Support and Income Based Jobseekers Allowance. This measure is most closely related to the relative low income measure. Data is published annually to LSOA level and is 9 DMSS Consulting (2010) A review of training and materials which aim to support the children s workforce to reduce the impact of childhood poverty and disadvantage, CWDC, p Department for Work and Pensions (May 2011) Households Below Average Income: An analysis of the income distribution.1994/ /10, Department for Work and Pensions, London, available at: 11 Department for Work and Pensions (2011) et al. 9

10 available from 2006 to Those falling within this definition of poverty may also be said to be beneath the poverty line. 13 This may be mathematically represented as: Number of children in families in receipt of either out of work benefits, or in receipt of tax credits where their reported income is less than 60% median income Total number of children in the area The Child Poverty Act 2010 places on the current UK government a duty to annually review, report on progress and meet the four income targets by These targets are given below: Definition 2020 Target i) Relative The number of children living in Less than 10% Poverty households with a net income below 60% of median household income divided by the total number of children in the area. ii) Material Where the household s income Less than 5% Deprivation is less than 70% of median income and is calculated by a combination of material deprivation and low income. Children are materially deprived if they live in households that cannot afford basic activities such as school trips, to celebrate special events e.g. birthdays or to keep their home warm. iii) Absolute Where the child is living in a 5% Poverty family below a certain income threshold or the number of households unable to afford certain basic goods and services. Households in absolute poverty will have an average household income of less than 60% of an agreed base line amount. The combined low income and material deprivation target focuses on those children who live in households that experience both a low income and a low standard of living. This target measures the income of families against a level held constant over time. 12 The data relating to the number of children living in families in receipt of out of work benefits or tax credits where their reported income is less than 60 per cent of median income can be found here: 13 To find out where you are in relation to the poverty line, complete the Fiscal Studies assessment tool Where do you fit in? available at: 10

11 iv) Persistent Where a child is living in The target to be reached Poverty relative poverty for three out of is to be set in further four years. regulations to be published by However, generally, when the term poverty is used, more than just income after housing costs is being considered. Shelter, the housing and homeless charity, continues to oppose the use of a poverty income measurement on a before housing costs basis as it does not provide a complete picture of poverty. England has seen housing costs rise for many years and whilst there has been a recent fall in house prices, in general housing costs are now significantly higher than when the 2020 child poverty targets were introduced. 14 Many families have to pay disproportionately high housing costs due to location or required type of accommodation. In the last quarter of 2010, official figures showed that over 71,000 children were living in temporary accommodation. 15 The high costs of temporary accommodation can trap families in poverty and worklessness so that the changes to Local Housing Allowance (LHA) and cuts to housing benefit proposed will push thousands of children further below the poverty line. Therefore, it may be appropriate to consider alternative definitions of child poverty. Townsend s (1979) definition, which remains in use by the Child Poverty Action Group (CPAG), emphasises that poverty is relative (to time and place), and is more complex than being purely about survival : Individuals, families and groups in the population can be said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of diet, participate in the activities, and have the living conditions and amenities which are customary, or are at least widely encouraged and approved, in the societies in which they belong. 16 While raising household income is a key factor in reducing poverty, there are wider issues to be addressed, such as material deprivation, if the life chances of the people experiencing poverty are to be improved. Similarly, the aspirations of parents and children from disadvantaged backgrounds are shaped and sometimes limited by the opportunities available and the culture of institutions. Therefore, no simple definition of poverty can capture the complexity or the reality of the experience of living in poverty. 14 Shelter (Dec, 2010) Shelter warns of Rise in Homelessness press release. 15 Shelter, (Dec 2010), children will wake up homeless on Christmas Day press release. 16 Townsend, P. Poverty in the United Kingdom: a survey of household resources and standards of living, Penguin, 1979, p

12 Exercise Complete the Social Care Institute for Excellence (SCIE) Poverty E-Learning modules Poverty Is 17 Using the internet or your local authority resources, find and explain two definitions of child poverty. Compare these to the official government measures of child poverty as set out in the Child Poverty Strategy. 18 What are the differences? Given the complexity surrounding poverty, many people do not realise that they may be living in poverty. Research conducted for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation has shown that the majority of people in the UK appear to believe that they are 'in the middle of the income distribution. 19 Yet in reality, many of these people are nowhere near the middle. From poorer people in the bottom third of the income distribution, up to people in the top five or ten per cent, many will happily report that they think they are in the middle. Exercise Consider the definitions you have researched. Do you believe that you live in poverty or that you live in an area affected by poverty? Complete the online Institute of Fiscal Studies assessment tool Where do you fit in? (Available at: Find your local authority and local area on the End Child Poverty 2011 Poverty in your area spreadsheets (available at: Consider the results and your given position in the UK income distribution. Is this what you expected? How does this affect your opinion of who those living in poverty are and where they are? Having completed exercise 1.1.2, you will have an understanding of where you are positioned in terms of UK income distribution. To put this into context, below are some tables which illustrate where the poverty line may fall in monetary terms for the average household Department for Work and Pensions & Department for Education (2011) A new approach to child poverty: tackling the causes of disadvantage and transforming lives, HM Government, London, available at: pdf. 19 Bramfield, L. & Horton, T. (2009) Understanding attitudes to tackling economic inequality, Joseph Rowntree Foundation. 12

13 UK poverty line for a range of households, 2009/10 20 Household type Poverty line: Household income, a week Single person, no children 124 Couple with no children 214 Lone parent with two children (aged 5 and 14) 256 Couple with two children (aged 5 and 14) 348 Risk of income poverty by Household type, 2009/ Explain why families who are affected by poverty experience disadvantage Child poverty is relative, being not just about income and resources, but also about quality of life including health, education, housing and wellbeing. Child poverty is also relative, because where the poverty line lies, will depend upon that which it is being compared to, in other words other families life chances, incomes or resources. The term disadvantage is therefore used with reference to child poverty and refers to socio-economic drawbacks or shortcomings facing families that may be a root cause or an outcome of poverty. Families who experience disadvantage may also experience persistent poverty as the disadvantage experienced may be cumulative. Persistent poverty is where a child is living in relative poverty for three out of four years (see glossary and chart above). For example, a family may live in poor housing as a consequence of poverty and poor housing in turn can increase 20 Department for Work and Pensions (2011) Households Below Average Income: An analysis of the income distribution / Wenchao, M.J., Joyce, R., Phillips, D. & Sibieta, L. (2011) Poverty and Inequality in the UK 2011, Institute for Fiscal Studies, London. 13

14 the risk of future poverty as it may affect the health of the family and therefore their ability to secure and maintain work. Disadvantage can therefore act as a barrier to children s futures. It can be perpetuated by the experiences and outcomes of children growing up in disadvantage. This is true also of children raised in the care system who, as parents themselves, may struggle with the lack of life and parenting skills. The Cabinet Office has used the following indicators to identify the wider definition of multiple disadvantage ; individuals need to be disadvantaged at any one time in three or more of the following six areas in order to meet the multiple disadvantage threshold: 22 Live in a workless household or be unemployed. Be in income poverty or material disadvantage or financial stress. Lack social support. Have poor physical or mental health. Live in poor housing or a poor living environment. Have low qualifications. The Centre for Economic and Social Inclusion [CESI] has adopted different indicators of child poverty and disadvantage in its child poverty toolkit. 23 These include: Indicators of income such as the number of children in low income or workless families. Indicators of educational attainment such as the number of children failing to achieve five or more GCSEs. Indicators of health such as infant mortality rate. Indicators of access to resources or services such as availability of childcare. Indicators of behaviour that damage life chances such as the level of school absence in an area. Poverty and the causes of poverty may not always create disadvantage; recognition of poverty can have positive impacts. It has long been recognised that there is a link between children with special educational needs and poverty. 24 That a child is recognised to have special educational needs can give rise to better support for the child and family, an increase in welfare benefits, and greater life chances for the child. Equally, the relationship between poverty and disadvantage should not be presumed to be a dynamic that occurs at the level of the individual or the individual family alone. It has been established that the poorest performing schools are in the poorest areas, and in the primary schools identified as 22 Cabinet Office (2010) State of the Nation Based on Analysis by Strategy Unit and Social Exclusion Task Force using the 2007 British Household Panel Survey data Dyson, A. (1997) Social and Educational disadvantage: Reconnecting special needs education, British Journal of Special Education, 24(4),

15 underperforming in 2010 attainment has dropped 13% in the past three years. This is in line with an increase in poverty in those areas. 25 Exercise What do you think is meant by disadvantage when it is experienced by a family living in poverty? Outline how disadvantage can impact, both positively and negatively, on the progress of a family. Describe the links between disadvantage and poverty and how multiple disadvantages can result in intergenerational poverty. Exercise Using the CESI toolkit, find your local authority s measures of child poverty. Now choose a neighbouring / another local authority that you know of and find their measures of child poverty. How do they compare? How have they compared over time? Considering the history and social and economic development of these two areas, why do you think this is? 1.3 Identify what may be the causes, underlying drivers and intergenerational cycles of child poverty in your local area and nationally The cycle of poverty can be defined in a number of ways. Broadly speaking it is a set of factors or events which enable or foster the continuation of poverty, that are likely to continue unless there is outside intervention. Once an area or a person has become poor, this tends to lead to other disadvantages, which may in turn result in further poverty. This may also be known as a development trap. There are many disadvantages that can create a vicious circle making it difficult for individuals to break the cycle of poverty. When people do not have the resources necessary to move out of poverty (such as financial capital, education or connections) they may experience disadvantage, which in turn increases their poverty. This cycle has therefore also been referred to as a pattern of behaviours and situations which cannot easily be changed BBC article (11 July 2011) Poor pupils in struggling schools lag further behind, available at: 26 Valentine, C. A., (1968) Culture and Poverty. University of Chicago, London. 15

16 Dr. Ruby K. Payne distinguishes between situational poverty, which can generally be traced to a specific incident within the lifetime of the person or family members in poverty, and generational poverty, which is a cycle that passes from generation to generation. Dr Payne goes on to argue that generational poverty has its own distinct culture and belief patterns. 27 These patterns of behaviour, set of factors or events, or culture and belief patterns are sometimes referred to as the causes or underlying drivers of poverty. A cause of poverty may stimulate a circumstance or set of events that gives rise to poverty, whereas a driver may cause the poverty to continue. A cause may also be a driver, where for example, the circumstance persists. However, a cause and driver may not necessarily be as a result of the actions of the individual in poverty; the human, social, political and economic structures surrounding the individual may also be the cause or drivers. Similarly, the experience of poverty depends upon resilience. The causes and drivers of poverty may not have a negative impact on the family if the family are resilient to them and therefore to poverty. A family may be living in poverty and experiencing one or more disadvantages as a result, but because they have adopted strategies to deal with the disadvantage, they are still able to take advantage of opportunities available to them. Below are some examples of causes and drivers of poverty: Education and training Education is vital to both a child s physical and intellectual development. It enables a child to develop skills and knowledge, which will improve their livelihoods and earning potential during later stages of their lives. Similarly, education should allow the child to develop their personality, talents, and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential. It is therefore crucial that a child has access to good quality education and training throughout their lives. Education also contributes significantly to improvements in health, which as shown below, is a cause and driver of poverty. For example, providing sex education in schools can reduce unwanted teenage pregnancies and use of condoms will reduce the risk of HIV and STDs. 28 A parent s education and training will also affect the prospects of their children: A primary cause of child poverty is a lack of opportunities among parents with low skills and low qualifications. Such parents are less likely to work, and if they do work they are more likely to have low earnings. The task of balancing the economic demands of raising a family and the need to find 27 Payne, R. (2005) A framework for understanding poverty (4th edition). Highland, TX: aha! Process, Inc. 28 Dennison, C. (2004) Teenage Pregnancy: an overview of the research evidence, Health Development Agency. 16

17 time to devote to children is much harder for people in low-paid jobs with limited power to negotiate working arrangements. Where parents have to make a choice between low income and long hours, it is difficult to give children good life chances. 29 A parent s competency in skills such as literacy/numeracy will also affect the family as the parent may not be able to understand correspondence, bills, and other documentation that relates to the day to day living arrangements and processes of the family. A parent s literacy and numeracy skills are also likely to affect those of their children; a parent who cannot read well is less likely to engage with their child(ren) in reading/writing which may in turn affect the child(ren s) level of competency. Equally, low paid parents may not be able to afford to access the skills training which would help them to move their families out of poverty. In addition, multiple relocations due to changes in social housing policy and entitlement, rent arrears and eviction, employment opportunities for parents or prolonged periods in the care system, can all adversely affect children s school attendance and overall educational achievement. 30 Health, food and shelter Adequate nutrition is an important determinant of children s cognitive development and educational attainment and their ability to resist and recover from infection. Equally, overcrowded, poorly ventilated houses can contribute to respiratory illness and death. The health of a child will directly affect their ability to go to school, attend out of school activities and socially interact as well as affect their physical and mental development. As an adult, this may then affect their earning potential as well as their ability to attend appointments and maximise the opportunities open to them. Therefore, food, shelter and health are key to a child s wellbeing and development and therefore their ability to develop and succeed. 31 The following five outcomes identify how bad housing can affect children s health (taken from Shelter, Chance of a Lifetime): 32 Poor housing conditions have a long-term impact on health, increasing the risk of severe ill-health or disability by up to 25% during childhood and early adulthood. Homeless children are three to four times more likely to have mental health problems, even one year after being re-housed. Children living in overcrowded housing are up to 10 times more likely to contract meningitis, and as many as one in three people who grow up in overcrowded housing have respiratory problems in adulthood. 29 Joseph Rowntree Foundation (September 2007) Experiences of poverty and educational disadvantage, 30 ATD Fourth World (2000) Education: Opportunities Lost. 31 DFID (2000) Halving world poverty by 2015: economic growth, equity and security, 32 Chance of a Lifetime: The impact of bad housing on children s lives (2006), available at: 17

18 Children living in damp, mouldy homes are between one and a half and three times more prone to coughing and wheezing symptoms of asthma and other respiratory conditions than children living in dry homes. There may also be a link between increased mortality and overcrowding. It has also been identified that the poorest families in the UK pay higher prices than better-off families for basic necessities like gas, electricity and banking. The highest charges for gas and electricity are paid by those families who have a prepayment meter or who pay by standard credit. Prepayment meters are often installed for families on a low income who want to budget weekly or have been in debt. If families on a low income who pay the highest tariffs for gas and electricity were charged the same amount as families who pay by direct debit, they would save, on average, over 250 a year. 33 Therefore, the costs that poor families bear in acquiring cash and credit, and in purchasing goods and services, can amount to a poverty premium of around 1, Economic status and employment A household s economic status will determine the opportunities that a child has access to. Even though school education is free in the UK, charges for books, uniforms, school trips, exams and transport can add up to a large proportion of a family s income. This can result in children being excluded from extra curricular or related activities and so impact on their educational attainment. Access to regular income and the level of this income directly impacts upon whether a family is poor and in poverty. Employment, as a means of securing income, is key to lifting families out of poverty. Whether there is employment available and accessible, and whether a parent has the relevant skills and knowledge to undertake the work, will affect a family s prospect of moving out of poverty. However, being employed does not necessarily mean that someone does not live in poverty; low wages and/or low hours in low skilled jobs may mean that working families remain in poverty. Further, the low paid/hour/skilled jobs tend to be those that are most often cut when organisations restructure or cost savings undertaken. This results in this workforce moving from one low paid job to another, without progressing up the career ladder or moving away from poverty permanently. Equally, a parent who finds that they are unable to get or keep a well paid job but who cannot or does not want to retrain, may opt for welfare benefits as a long term solution. 33 Save the Children (January 2011) The UK Poverty Rip-Off: The poverty premium 2010, London, available at: 34 Save the Children (January 2011) et al. 18

19 Financial knowledge and understanding 35 A lack of financial understanding is also a key cause of poverty; if an individual does not understand the potential financial implications of an offer, they may end up spending more per unit. For example, savings on items can sometimes only be achieved by buying the item outright; monthly payment plans can lead to paying more for an item in the long term (e.g. household insurance). Buying a large item for cash may be impossible for a family living in poverty. They may not have the savings or means, for example a credit card, to purchase one off high value items. Another example is the current energy market. This works best for those who can navigate information provided by energy companies to minimise their costs. Informed consumers are able to switch between suppliers to get the cheapest deal and price comparison websites can make this process more straightforward. Research reveals that lack of awareness stops many families from accessing the best prices. 36 This lack of awareness is compounded by a lack of access to information, which is primarily through the Internet. Many low-income families do not have internet access. Although 70% of households in the UK had access to the internet by the end of March 2009, 37 50% of households with an income below 11,500 did not have internet access, compared with 5% of households with an income of over 30,000. A lack of awareness and lack of access to information restricts consumer choice. Price comparison websites show that customers who are able to pay by direct debit from a bank account can secure the lowest cost for their energy. The table below shows that this price difference for families who cannot pay by direct debit amounts to an extra 250 a year. Typical costs by direct debit Costs to lowincome families Difference Annual electricity and gas bill combined , Attitudes and relationships 38 How people think of themselves has implications for how they respond to challenges and whether they access support. 35 Save the Children (January 2011) The UK Poverty Rip-Off: The poverty premium 2010, London. 36 Perry, J (2010) Paying Over the Odds, Church Action on Poverty. 37 Dutton, W. Helsper, E. and Gerber, M. (2009) The Internet in Britain 2009, Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford University. 38 Salway, S. (2007) Long-term ill health, poverty and ethnicity, Joseph Rowntree Foundation. 19

20 A parent who has a disability may be reluctant to be identified as disabled. They may have a negative attitude towards welfare and so this may discourage them from taking up the level of welfare benefits that they may be entitled to as a result of their disability. They may also delay seeking healthcare or refuse help which may in turn impact upon their child(ren) or other family members. Their child(ren) may therefore take on the role of carer for the parent or take up paid work to make up for lost income rather than pursuing education and training. It is widely acknowledged that a lack of money and disputes around finances are the main causes for a breakdown in couple relationships. This may result in a one parent household and a reduction in the available income. Therefore, people s attitudes to poverty and how poverty is recognised and dealt with are key. If a parent does not acknowledge their financial issues, this can have a devastating effect on their relationships with others and compound the causes of their being in poverty. Discrimination Poverty and discrimination are often linked. Discrimination based on ethnicity/race or gender directly influences economic opportunity through a complex set of institutional effects in families, schools, and work settings. At the same time, people who are perceived as poor are routinely targets of discrimination in the form of stigma, and frequently viewed with contempt for circumstances beyond their personal control. Because of the stigma attached to being poor, families and children may seek to hide their personal circumstances and so not take up opportunities or support available to them. As an example, children entitled to free school meals often do not take them because of the stigma attached to being seen by their peers as being poor. 39 Similarly, families seeking to avoid being seen as poor may spend money that could have been put towards bills or rent on the latest trend such as a pair of trainers or clothing. This misuse of financial resources may result in the family or occasionally the child either missing meals (affecting their health and ability to learn/work), or in their using money that could otherwise have been put towards paying for other needs. Discrimination on the basis of location within the UK also affects families opportunities. Certain postcodes within the UK are deemed to be less secure and more synonymous with being poor, so that it is harder for families to obtain credit, get good rates on insurance and other financial services; they may also be charged higher tariffs for utilities, and lack access to fresh foods and services or high performing schools and education facilities. 39 McMahon, W. & Marsh, T. (1999) Filling the Gap: free school meals, nutrition and poverty, CPAG. 20

21 Exercise Read the case study of Winnie Gray on page 28 of this learner resource. Consider the different attitudes expressed by Winnie and those around her. What different attitudes towards poverty and those living in poverty can you identify in this case study? How have these attitudes affected Winnie s situation? How could different attitudes have affected and now affect Winnie and her family? Exercise Complete the Social Care Institute for Excellence (SCIE) poverty e-learning module: Service user perspectives on good practice. 40 Has your attitude to poverty and those living in poverty changed as a result of undertaking this e-learning module and the learning in this resource and if so, how? Social participation Out-of-school activities can help children build self-confidence which can affect a child s ability to recognise and take up opportunities available. Children from advantaged backgrounds tend to experience more structured and supervised out-of-school activities as they have the money and resources to allow them to participate in a wider range and greater number of activities. Disadvantaged children often hide opportunities for holidays, out of school activities and extra tuition from their parents as they are aware from a young age of the lack of money available for them to take part. Social participation also affects the confidence and opportunities available to parents. Through social interaction, parents share knowledge and experiences and this can lead to support and opportunities. However, parents in poverty can feel judged by better-off parents, which can embarrass and humiliate them, denying them social interaction with other parents and opportunities to develop friendships for their children. 41 Economic growth The local and national economy directly affects the availability and quality of work, education, and the provision of free and public services. Low inflation and market friendly policies underpinned by good governance and policies to ATD Fourth World (2000) Education: Opportunities Lost. 21

22 support the private sector are essential to promote economic growth. Where an area is lacking in economic growth, unemployment rates, low education attainment and crime rates are likely to be high and this directly impacts on the opportunities available to those seeking to move out of poverty. 42 Security and conflict Conflict and poverty are intricately intertwined. Conflict often directly leads to poverty, and the risks of conflict are higher where there is poverty and inequality. A child s ability to survive and develop can be hampered or scarred due to violence and exploitation, both inside and outside the family. These include hidden, hazardous and unregulated forms of labour, sexual or domestic abuse and exploitation, and direct and indirect consequences of conflict through, for example, family breakdown giving rise to children being taken into care. Although conflict can give rise to positive outcomes (for example, a lone parent may be on their own because they have left an abusive and violent partner), in order to reduce its impact on child and family poverty, it is essential to address the underlying factors that increase the risks of negative impacts that arise from conflict (the lone parent being without food or accommodation because they no longer have a family home). Early and appropriate family support can reduce conflict within the family and increase the capacity and coping strategies of parents. Policies to ensure individual safety and security may be of central importance. For example, in Leicester, it has been shown that there is a direct link between involvement in gang culture and disadvantaged areas. 43 Gangs have formed as a result of social exclusion and discrimination; people come together for a sense of safety and belonging. Immigrant populations, those excluded from education or people who have engaged in criminal activities from an early age have been shown to be particularly at risk of gang involvement, while others may join a gang simply for something to do, seeking protection in numbers, or for reasons of status and peer pressure. Although gang involvement can offer many positive things (support and understanding from peers), it was also shown in Leicester that the local crime rate increased in direct correlation with the number and location of gang members. The vulnerability of poor people to shocks also affects the likelihood of poverty. Events such as conflict, ill health, bad weather or economic downturns can drive poor people deeper into poverty and research has shown that life shocks" can be endured only to a limited extent, after which people are much more likely to be tipped into hardship Lozada, C. (6 July 2011) Economic Growth is Reducing Global Poverty Berry, R. (12 July 2006) Life shocks' tip people into hardship, New Zealand Herald 22

23 Family and home structure 45 Families support children to develop emotionally, mentally and physically and facilitate them to access their entitlements. Variations in family size and structure, as well as conditions inside and outside the family, play a key role in determining both a child s well being and access to rights and entitlements. Children in larger families are more likely to experience poverty than children in smaller households. A key factor is the dependency ratio, which is the ratio between economically active members of the household and dependent members. Where there are more mouths to feed, children are more vulnerable to poor nutrition and when food is limited, poor parents will often go without meals in order to feed their children. Households headed by young parents with young children are also more likely to be poor, as they have had less opportunity to accumulate assets. Female-headed households are more likely to be deprived. Illness, disability, death and/or desertion of family members or the break down of family relationships can also impact upon a child s well being. Children who live outside their family are especially vulnerable to poverty, especially care leavers who have no or limited contact with their birth families and extended social networks. Transport and accessibility Finally, a family s ability to access entitlements to resources and services outside the household is often dependent on social networks and family links to institutions in civil society, the market and the state. If living in isolated rural areas without a car, a family may find it too difficult or expensive to reach a place of work. A child s ability to access entitlements is dependent upon the composition, wealth, and social status of the household, as well as the skills and abilities of its members. A parent s ability to access employment may affect whether they are able to secure and retain an income and the availability, level and affordability of childcare while they are at work. How the above causes and drivers may depend upon the behaviours of the individual and human, social, political, and economic structures is represented below in Figure 1 (taken and adapted from the training manual Bridges out of Poverty 46 ). 45 DFID et al. (2000). 46 DeVol, P. E,m Payne, R. K., Dreussi Smith, T. (2010) Bridges out of Poverty: Strategies for Professionals and Communities, Hawker Brownlow Education. 23

24 Figure 1 Possible factors Human and Exploitation Political/ Economic that may contribute Social / Structures to an individual Community being in poverty Welfare Availability of Drug misuse Globalisation dependency local services Racism and Equity and Morality Availability of discrimination economic Crime jobs Level and growth Lone parenthood Availability of well-paying access to loans and Corporate influence on Breakup of jobs lenders government families Racism and Gambling Economic Intergenerational discrimination Availability disparity character traits Availability and quality of and standard of temporary Deindustrialisation Work ethic education work Redundancies Racism and Skill sets Availability / recession discrimination Childcare and standard Union decline Commitment to Crime of temporary Taxation achievement Decline in housing Salary ratios Spending habits social morality Sexual within Addiction Urbanisation exploitation employers Mental health issues Community wealth Immigration patterns Domestic violence Racism and discrimination Planning skills Orientation to the future Language experience Effective strategies for eliminating child poverty must take account of all of these factors, and aim to strengthen the capacity of families to provide a secure and stable framework for child care and development. 24

25 Exercise What other causes and drivers of poverty can you think of? Compare and contrast how these may affect a child and their parent. Analyse how and why causes become drivers. Consult your local authority s Child Poverty Needs Assessment and Child Poverty Strategy document (these may be available from your local authority s web pages or via the Child Poverty Communities of Practice Forum Library 47 ). What causes and drivers exist in your local area? 1.4 Explain what is meant by in-work poverty In-work poverty is a term used to refer to families where at least one of the parents is working but where the household income is below the relative poverty line. In 2006, there were 1.8 million UK children who belonged to families in inwork poverty. This represented half (50%) of all children in poverty and nearly a fifth (18%) of all children in working families. 48 In 2010, this had increased to 61% of all children in poverty and there are now 1.7 million poor children in working households compared to 1.1 million in workless households. Twothirds of working-poor families are couple families, and 60 per cent of workingpoor families have children. 49 Therefore, it is now clear that poverty is not dependent upon employment; the previous belief that getting a job/income can always lift a family out of poverty is no longer true. In June 2006, the DWP commissioned an independent policy advisor to carry out an independent review on in-work poverty. 50 The research identified three broad causes of in-work poverty which may be experienced either independently or in a combined fashion (Figure 2.) Kenway, P. (November 2008) Addressing in-work poverty, Joseph Rowntree Foundation. 49 Gottfried, G. & Lawton, K. (2010) In-work poverty in the recession, Institute for Public Policy Research ep2010%5b1%5d.pdf. 50 Harker, L. (2006) Delivering on Child Poverty: What would it take? 25

26 Figure 2 Low pay Families relying on one earner Lone/dual earners not working enough hours Requires measures to improve wage levels via the minimum wage, sector pay agreements or a voluntary approach. Better support for parents to advance in-work, so that low-paid workers do not remain trapped on low pay. Working Tax Credit is sufficient to lift some in-work couple families out of poverty more help is required via the tax credits system. There is a financial disincentive for some second earners to enter work. Second earners need help with preparing for and moving into work. Lone/dual earners need support to increase their hours and/or progress in-work. Recent research carried out by Teesside University and funded by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation found that labour market casualisation (i.e. typically where jobs are low paid, low skilled and, crucially, insecure) was the main reason people became locked into a cycle of shuttling between low level jobs and unemployment over the years (what is called, the low-pay, no-pay cycle ). This cycle of churning between low level jobs and unemployment was the main reason research participants experienced recurrent poverty. 51 Parents exited paid employment for different reasons including: that the job was only temporary; the job was financially unviable; incompatibility of the hours of work with childcare responsibilities; the lack and cost of childcare; etc. These same factors also made re-entering the labour market difficult and, the experience of the low-pay-no-pay cycle itself created new barriers to participating in paid employment, such as debt, low confidence, etc. This was found to be the case throughout an individual s working life so that, even though jobs were accessed, they did not provide protection from poverty. The research also found that providing support for those with shorter periods of unemployment and ensuring quantity and quality of employment were key to ensuring the poverty was not recurrent. It should also not be forgotten that parents who are in employment may still be eligible for benefits. In , between 100,000 and 180,000 entitled couples with children were not claiming Housing Benefit, worth between 240 million and 530 million. There are 400,000 children living in poverty as a result of families not claiming all the benefits and tax credits to which they are entitled. This means that compared to the current baseline, every 10% 51 Cases are taken from research funded by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation and published in the report: Shildrick, T., MacDonald, R., Webster, C., & Garthwaite, K. (2010) The low-pay, no-pay cycle: Understanding recurrent poverty, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, available at: 26

27 increase in take up of income related benefits and tax credits could lift 40,000 children out of poverty. 52 The dynamic of those experiencing poverty is therefore complex and child poverty in the UK is changing over time. What appears to be clear is that no quick solution to poverty can be found through employment alone. Exercise Read the 2010 publication In-work poverty in the recession. 53 What is the composition and ethnicity of the working families that are poor and not poor? Are families more at risk of being poor if one or two parents are working in the household? How does this paper suggest in-work poverty can be effectively tackled? Read your local authority s child poverty needs assessment and child poverty strategy (these may be available online from your local authority s web pages or via the Child Poverty Communities of Practice Forum Library). 54 Using the CESI toolkit, analyse the number of children in low income families in your local authority. Now choose a neighbouring / another local authority that you know of and analyse their number of children in low income families. Compare the composition of working families who are poor in your local area with that of another local authority s. How do they differ? How do the suggestions for tackling in-work poverty differ? 52 Child Poverty Unit (2009) Take up the Challenge, London, HM Government, pp sep2010%5b1%5d.pdf

28 Case study - Winnie Gray (aged 44) This case study has been provided by Teesside University and is taken from research funded by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation and published in the report, Low-pay, no-pay: understanding recurrent poverty. 55 CWDC would like to express thanks to Teesside University for their contribution to this learner resource. Winnie has one daughter aged 24 and an eighteen month old grandson. Winnie lives alone in local authority housing and pays 300 a month rent. She describes herself as not bothering much with the people in her neighbourhood: I keep myself to myself. Winnie left school with little expectation about what would happen after that. She followed what would at the time have been a fairly typical, gendered working class transition to adulthood: My biggest regret is never qualifying for anything you know. I dunno I think when I was at school like all those in my year we were leaving together I can't name one person that went on to college. I think then nobody ever really thought of the future. You know you just left school and wondered what was gonna happen after that. Apart from when her daughter was younger, Winnie had worked pretty constantly since leaving school. She describes herself as a job hopper but also says that she has never had any difficulty in securing jobs. She says she moves employment because she gets bored, but describes one of her current jobs as a very good job as it paid her above the minimum wage. Whilst Winnie had always preferred to work full-time, at the time of her interview she was working part-time in two cleaning jobs and she was seeking a third to supplement her low wages. Winnie has moved to working part time in order to care for her grandson and allow her daughter to go out to work and undertake voluntary work for the Citizen s Advice Bureau which Winnie felt was important for her daughter s future career prospects. She was also keen that her daughter did not get caught up in a life as a lone mother on benefits: I look after me grandson everyday so that my daughter can work. So I'm sort of between two jobs and I'm trapped through the day cos I have him (grandson) It's only till half 5 but to be honest it's more my money situation than anything I mean I actually give up a full time job so I could look after my grandson, to make it easier for my daughter so that but I don't wanna me daughter doesn't wanna be trapped in that cycle of being on benefits and stuff. So I'm trying to help her but I'm not really helping myself. Whilst a key motivation for Winnie in caring for her grandson was to assist her daughter and to help her avoid being reliant on benefits, Winnie (and her 55 Shildrick, T., MacDonald, R., Webster, C., & Garthwaite, K. (2010) The low-pay, no-pay cycle: Understanding recurrent poverty, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, available at: 28

29 daughter) held strong views about childcare. Winnie was of the view that her grandson would be best cared for by her as a family member rather than going to a childminder or a nursery. She also describes how she did not work herself when her own daughter was young because she didn t want to put her in childcare. Winnie had a very low income and was not entitled to any supplementary benefits as she was not working enough hours to qualify for tax credits: if I worked five hours more I could claim tax credits. We describe Winnie as being permanently poor as oppose to recurrently poor. Cycling on and off benefits and in and out of low paid jobs often takes people marginally above official poverty measures (recurrent poverty), but in Winnie s case her need to fit her work around caring for her grandson meant that she was only able to work part-time. When we interviewed her she was working twenty five hours a week in two part-time jobs. She told us that she earned 144 a week ( 576 a month in 2009). She paid 300 a month rent, then her bills and other costs and expenses from this sole source of income: Well for the pay I get for two jobs it's absolutely terrible. From here I come out it's like 101 a week here That's for 15 hours and this compared to most jobs is well paid. Yeah it is definitely me other job by the time I get it with tax I come out with about 43 a week. That's for 10 hours I struggle really struggle cos by the time I pay me bills, gas electric and that water rates, TV all that I'm left with I just barely anything, a couple of pound that's it. Yet despite this Winnie remained keen and committed to working: I wanted to work. If I didn't work I think I'd go crazy, I couldn't stand not working you know it gives me an incentive to get out the house. It's something to do err I mean to be honest somebody in my situation, I would probably be better off on benefits, but But I don't wanna do that. But it's just like a total no-win situation for me it really is. The difficulties of coping on a very low income led to Winnie getting into debt a situation exacerbated by low income and lack of ability to pay back debts over time: I've got debt yeah. Through loans...i mean not now...i've had to reduce everything. I'm still paying it but not as much a week d'you know what I mean? Cos sometimes if I'm in a situation like I'm behind with things it is the worst, worst way to do it to get a loan to bail yourself out but then you're just putting yourself deeper in. Sometimes you can't help doing that sometimes you just get caught up in a situation and you think 'I need the money quickly. Christmas and birthdays were a particular strain: D'you know what, we've got how long to Christmas three weeks? And I've got one present no three presents sorry. One for me grandson two for me 29

30 daughter and that's it. That is all I've got in I'm gonna be it's gonna absolutely kill me to do it (buy more presents). Winnie was astute and reflective about the difficulties of the situation she faced: Why do I even bother because you just work to get nowhere? I mean obviously everybody works and works for the money. But I'm working, earning money that I don't benefit from. It just just pays my bills that's it. It's not like I can have a social life out of it or go on holiday or treat myself because I can't. Yet she was well aware of how helping her daughter avoid what she felt was a benefit trap had left her trapped in a no-win situation: I'm just I'm just trapped with the baby I mean don't get me wrong I love him to bits and I don't mind having him but he's he's the limitation for me. Exercise Read the case study above; Winnie s case typifies the experience of in work poverty. What are the causes and drivers of Winnie being in poverty? What is the disadvantage that she and her family are experiencing as a result? Can you think of any other families that you have come across in your work who are in a similar situation? What type of poverty are they in? What are the causes and drivers of their situation? What is the disadvantage they are experiencing as a result? Why and how is their circumstance different to that of Winnie s and her family? Exercise Imagine that you and your partner s income and/or bank account had been frozen and for several weeks you would be unable to access or raise any money (from the sale of any property, car etc.) To whom would you turn? Who would support / help you? Now imagine that you that you have few friends and family with any extra money and/or you have moved regularly, would you have those people in your life? To whom, if anyone, would you turn in these circumstances? 30

31 Develop your understanding Further reading Allen, G. (2011) Early Intervention: Smart Investment, Massive Savings, HM Government, London, available at: ntion-smartinvestment.pdf. Blake, M., Clery, E., d Ardenne, J. & Legard, R. (2009) Cognitive Testing: British Social Attitudes child poverty questions, Department for Work and Pensions, Research Report number 574, Norwich. Child Poverty Unit (2009) Take up the Challenge, London, Her Majesty s Government. Department for International Development, Breaking the cycle of child poverty [ uments/publications/child-povtext.pdf]. End Child Poverty (March 2011) Child Poverty Map of the UK, available online at: Field, F. (2010) The Foundation Years: Preventing Poor Children Becoming Poor Adults: the Report of the Independent Review on Poverty and Life Chances [online], Chapter 1. HM Treasury (2008) Ending child poverty: everybody s business, Department for children, schools and families, Department for Work and Pensions, HM Treasury, Norwich. Joseph Rowntree Foundation: Experiences of poverty and educational disadvantage, September 2007 [ Poverty and Social Exclusion [PSE] webpages on What is Poverty?, available at: Save the Children: Guide to Local Authority duties under the Child Poverty Act 2010: How local authorities can involve children and young people. Further training Capacity, Understanding Child Poverty: Workforce Development (a 1 day course which can be accessed for a fee; further information available at: C4EO child poverty interactive e-learning resource, available online at: 31

32 Section 2 - Understand the impact of poverty Learning Aim 2. Understand the impact of child poverty Learning Outcome 2.1 Identify the impact of poverty on families and children and how this affects opportunity, achievement and outcomes over the course of their lives 2.2 Describe how poverty affects the perspectives, perceptions and actions of children, families and communities 2.3 Identify the issues and barriers preventing children and families from moving away from poverty nationally and in your local area Poverty blights the life chances of children from low income families, putting them at higher risk of a range of poor outcomes when compared to their more affluent peers. The consequences of poverty such as increased ill health, unemployment and criminal activity are expensive for the state. The public service cost of child poverty has been estimated to be somewhere between 10 and 20 billion a year. 56 The big issues Poverty is linked to low achievement at every key stage of education and to a lack of accessible employment. The effects of poverty are evident in children before they reach the age of two. Children and families are aware of and can feel stigmatised by being poor. 2.1 Identify the impact of poverty on families and children and how this affects opportunity, achievement and outcomes over the course of their lives The experience of poverty in childhood can be highly damaging and the effects of poverty are both pervasive and disruptive. Poverty permeates every facet of children s lives, from economic and material disadvantages, through social and relational constraints and exclusions, to the personal and more hidden aspects of poverty associated with shame, sadness and the fear of difference and stigma. 56 Field, F. (2010) The Foundation Years: Preventing Poor Children Becoming Poor Adults: the Report of the Independent Review on Poverty and Life Chances [online], p

33 If a child is living in poverty, possible impacts on the child may be: 57 Economic deprivation Material deprivation Social deprivation School deprivation The inadequacy of income coming into households and whether there is enough money for the child and their family s needs. If a child is living in poverty, they may lack important childhood possessions, like books, toys, bicycles and games. They may also be short of essentials and everyday items, like food, towels, bedding and clothing. Poverty may restrict children s chances to make and sustain friendships and reduces their opportunities for shared social activities due to the costs of attending social events, inadequate and expensive transport provision and the expense of hosting social occasions within their own homes. Children may experience restricted opportunities at school, largely through an inability to pay for resources such as study guides and exam materials. Children may also face restricted social opportunities through an inability to pay for school trips and other social activities. Inability to pay for compulsory items, such as uniforms, could also lead to conflict with teachers and disciplinary action. Visible signs of poverty and difference A lack of the same material goods and clothes as their peers and an inability to take part in the same social and leisure activities may mean that children experience bullying and are fearful of stigma and social isolation. This in turn may cause the child or family not to ask for help or support or engage with services that may support them in tackling poverty. Family pressures Children may be aware of the challenges and demands that poverty generates for their parents and therefore experience anxiety about inadequate household 57 Taken from Department for Work & Pensions [Research report 594] (20 July 2009) Living in Poverty: A review of the literature on children's and families' experiences of poverty. 33

34 income, household debt, their parents wellbeing and working conditions. Children may therefore try to moderate their own needs in response to their parents financial difficulties and so perpetuate their position. Tensions with parents Additional responsibilities Poor quality housing Homelessness Poor neighbourhoods Living in rural areas Conflicts may arise between children and parents who are under severe financial pressure, or who sometimes have to work long hours or rely on childcare to take care of children, which in turn, children may not enjoy. Children in low-income working families may take on additional responsibilities in the home, including housework and caring responsibilities. They may even engage in paid work themselves to ease financial pressures at home and to gain access to their own money. This may include inadequate heating, insufficient space, poor local services, etc. Poor quality housing can affect a child s health and wellbeing and mean that the child has difficulties sleeping, studying or playing at home. Children may experience considerable anxiety about the quality of their temporary accommodation, including a lack of privacy and no space for play. This may affect their health, their school lives and their social participation and increases their vulnerability to social work intervention and separation from their parents. Deprived neighbourhoods may create particular problems for children; children may feel insecure and or at risk of harm as a result. There may be a lack of safe space for play and a lack of local and low-cost leisure facilities. A child living in a rural area may lack social opportunities for shared play, be reliant on inadequate and costly public transport, and be unable to meet the high costs of participation. This may also mean that 34

35 children feel confined within their local environments. Although a child may be able to identify the impacts of poverty and social exclusion, they are not passive victims of poverty. Many employ coping strategies such as: Taking jobs so they can contribute financially to their families. Taking on caring or household duties so parents can work. Restricting financial demands to ease financial pressures within the home, such as not telling parents about school trips. It is important to be aware when coping strategies may be having a negative impact on child wellbeing. Exercise Analyse the possible impacts of poverty on a child as listed above. Can you think of any more impacts? How may these present through a child s behaviour or situation? Create a case study of a family affected by poverty. Choose three of these possible impacts and apply them to your case study. How do these three impacts affect the child? How are the opportunities, achievements and outcomes of the child affected? To be able to start to understand the medium and long term impacts of poverty on a family, the present state needs to be understood. Those impacts that may affect a child aged 0-5 years can become compounded and ingrained into the child s behaviour. However, the factors that influence children s outcomes can also change as they grow up. Figure 3 identifies some of the drivers that affect life chances at particular periods of a child s life. It should be noted that this figure is representative only and does not include all of the drivers and causes adduced elsewhere in this learner resource. 35

36 Figure 3 - Key drivers of life chances throughout childhood 58 Exercise Using your family case study from exercise 2.1.1, analyse how the three impacts you have chosen may differ or develop over time if the causes go unaddressed. How may these impacts affect a child over their lifetime? How may the drivers identified in Figure 3 compound these impacts? A family s experiences of poverty are not isolated from other factors in their lives, and complex social, cultural and economic processes and divisions create particular challenges. Family equilibrium can be easily destabilised or undermined by external and internal shocks such as unemployment, sickness, disability, bereavement and family upheaval. This can also have a negative impact on broader social and community relationships, particularly in relation to anger and violence. Individuals may have very low tolerance levels when interacting with others, services and statutory agencies. This can lead to the family being isolated and reported to 58 Field, F. (2010) The Foundation Years: Preventing Poor Children Becoming Poor Adults: the Report of the Independent Review on Poverty and Life Chances [online], Figure 3.1, p