Marine environmental issues of deep-sea oil and gas exploration and exploitation activities off the coast of Israel

Transcription

1 Marine environmental issues of deep-sea oil and gas exploration and exploitation activities off the coast of Israel פעילויות חיפוש וקידוח נפט וגז בים העמוק מול חופי ישראל- היבטים באיכות הסביבה הימית Bella Galil and Barak Herut IOLR Report H15/2011

2 חקר ימים ואגמים לישראל בע "מ Ltd. Israel Oceanographic & Limnological Research תל-שקמונה, ת"ד,8030 חיפה Tel-Shikmona, P.O.B. 8030, Haifa פקס : Fax: טלפון : Tel: פעילויות חיפוש וקידוח נפט וגז בים העמוק מול חופי ישראל - היבטים באיכות הסביבה הימית Marine environmental issues of deep-sea oil and gas exploration and exploitation activities off the coast of Israel IOLR Report H15/2011 Bella Galil and Barak Herut Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research P.O.Box 8030, Haifa 31080, Israel Citation: Galil B. and Herut B. (2011). Marine environmental issues of deep-sea exploration and exploitation activities (oil and gas) off the coast of Israel. IOLR Report H15/2011 פברואר

3 פעילוי תו חיפוש וקידוח נפט וגז בים העמוק מול חופי ישראל - היבטים באיכות הסביבה הימית תקציר בדו"ח זה מוצג מידע על ההיבטים העיקריים בנושאי איכות הסביבה הימית הקשורים בפעילויות ניצול משאבי הים העמוק (נפט וגז) מול חופי ישראל. הדוח כולל את הפרקים הבאים: מאפייני רקע של הכימיה, הפיסיקה ושל חי המצע בדרום אגן הלבנט מול חופי ישראל; לחצים על הסביבה הימית הנובעים מפעילות חיפוש והפקת גז ונפט; השפעות סביבתיות; ניטור אתרי קידוח בים העמוק ופעולות נדרשות לשימור הסביבה האקולוגית. יש צורך ביצירת בסיס מדעי (הרחבת הידע המדעי) של מאפייני הים העמוק בדרום אגן הלבנט, לקבלת החלטות וניהול מושכל של משאביו ולאכיפת ההוראות של האמנות הבינלאומיות הרלוונטיות. בכלל זה, על פי פרוטוקול אמנת ברצלונה בנושא פעילויות הקשורות בחקר וניצול משאבי הקרקע ותת הקרקע בים העמוק הסביבה שיכלול, בין היתר, מיפוי (בתוקף מדצמבר 2010), הצורך בתסקיר השפעה על מאפייני הסביבה הימית והערכת ההשפעות קצרות הטווח וארוכות הטווח של חיפוש והפקת אנרגיה על הסביבה הימית. כמו כן, יש לפעול להפעלת הנחיות והמלצות למניעת זיהום הסביבה הימית כדוגמת הקווים המנחים שאומצו ע"י מדינות OSPAR בנוגע לקידוחי נפט וגז (2009.(OSPAR, מאחר וחסר ידע על מאפייני האקוסיסטמה של הים העמוק מול חופי ישראל, ובידינו נתונים ראשוניים על קיום סביבות חיים ייחודיות באזור זה, יש צורך בהרחבת איסוף נתונים ביולוגיים ופיזיים (מיפוי בתימטרי, גיאולוגי, גיאופיזי, מיפוי הביטטים והערכת סיכונים) על ידי סקרים ימיים. כמו כן יש להיערך לתכניות ניטור קצרות וארוכות טווח של אתרי קידוח בהתאם לפרוטוקולים המקובלים. זאת בנוסף לידע שנאסף עד כה במסגרת חיפושי נפט וגז, שצריך לעמוד לרשות גורמים ממשלתיים. יש צורך לרכז, לתעד ולהפיץ את נתוני הסקרים והניטור במסגרת מרכז מידע ימי ולעבד מידע שימושי לצורך ניהול סביבתי. 3

4 Preface The Offshore Protocol of Barcelona Convention (the Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution Resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the Continental Shelf and the Seabed and its Subsoil, 1994) entered into force in December 2010 (Annex I). It obliges countries to perform a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for activities as oil and gas exploration. This should include, among other aspects, a description of the initial state of the environment of the area and a description of the foreseeable direct or indirect short and long-term effects of the proposed activities on the environment, including fauna, flora and the ecological balance The adequacy of the existing regulatory regime to assure the environmental safety of offshore drilling (as distinct from worker or occupational safety) has come under a great deal of scrutiny since the Deepwater Horizon incident. In its work on this question, the Commission focused on two issues: (1) the application of NEPA requirements to the offshore leasing process and (2) the need for better science and greater interagency consultation to improve decision-making concerning the management of offshore resources. National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling, January

5 1. Introduction This report summarizes the main marine environmental aspects that should be considered with regard to deep-sea exploration and exploitation of oil and gas off the Mediterranean coast of Israel. The following sections are presented: Background characteristics of chemical, physical and deep-sea biota; Pressures on the marine environment from oil and gas exploration and exploitation activities; Environmental impacts; Environmental monitoring of offshore drilling and measures for the conservation of the deep sea ecosystems off the Israeli coast. 2. Background the Levantine basin off the Israeli coast 2.1 The deep-sea biota in the southern Levantine Basin The deep-sea floor is characterized by complex sedimentological and structural features: (a) continental slopes, (b) submarine canyons, (c) base-of-slope deposits, and (d) bathyal or basin plains with abundant deposits of hemipelagic and turbidity muds. Sedimentological and stratigraphic features contribute to the complexity of the deepsea such as deep-hypersaline basins, cold seepage and mud volcanism. Mesoscale gyres (eddies) have implications for the primary productivity and the flux of organic matter settling to the seafloor. Deep and bottom currents are largely unexplored. The area investigated by IOLR is located off the coast of Israel, at depths between 734 and 1558 m. The biota was collected during monitoring surveys of three deepwater waste/dredge material-dumping sites: an acidic sludge disposal site off Haifa (between N E and N E), a coal fly ash disposal site off Hadera (between N E and N E), a control site off Atlit (between N E and N E), a dredge material dumping sites ( Alfa and Epsilon ) off Haifa (see Fig. below). The samples were collected aboard the R/V Shikmona (720 HP; 27 m). 5

6 The deep water fauna of the Levant Sea has been long considered the poorest in the Mediterranean (Fredj, 1974). However, it is recognized that the scanty data may be due to spotty research efforts, as acknowledged by previous authors (Fredj & Laubier, 1985; Bellan-Santini, 1990). A series of 22 cruises, conducted between 1988 and 1999, and totaling 167 trawl hauls, and more recent cruises, resulted in 60 species of fish, crustaceans and molluscs newly recorded for the Levant Sea (Galil & Goren, 1994, Goren & Galil, 1997, Sorbe & Galil, 2002, Bogi & Galil, 2004, Galil, 2004, Goren et al 2006) including species new to science (Galil & Clark, 1993). The growing list of bathybenthic species, owing to expanding research efforts, challenges the conventional view of the Levant deep-sea biodiversity. Samples collected at 800 m depth atop Eratosthenes Seamount, south of Cyprus, have yielded a relatively rich and diverse fauna, notably comprising two species of scleractinian coral (Caryophyllia calveri, Desmophyllum cristagalli), which are the first live records from the Levant Basin and significantly extend the species depth ranges (Galil & Zibrowius, 1998). In October 2009 an ROV survey cruise of the Israeli Nature and Parks Authority ( was conducted offshore Atlit (on board M/V Ares). More recently (September 2010), researchers from the University of Rhode Island, in partnership with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the Ocean Exploration Trust, and the Institute for Exploration, collaborated with researchers from the University of Haifa to conduct deep-sea exploration of the outer continental slope of Israel on board E/V Nautilus ( and recorded deep sea reefs at depth of 700 m some km off Tel Aviv. Whereas previous studies suggested that the west east gradient of decreasing surface water productivity of the Mediterranean Sea is reflected in a corresponding gradient of decreasing food availability in deep-sea sediments. Such a gradient could be responsible for a significant decrease in the abundance and biomass of most benthic components, including Meiofauna, Macrofauna, and Megafauna. However, in contrast to previous publications our results indicate that there is no corresponding gradient for most components of benthic biodiversity (Danovaro et al 2010). References Danovaro R, Company JB, Corinaldesi C, D Onghia G, Galil B, et al. (2010) Deep-Sea Biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable. PLoS ONE 5(8): e doi: /journal. pone Bogi C., Galil B.S. (2004) The bathyenthic and pelagic molluscan fauna off the Levantine coast, Eastern Mediterranean. Bolletino Malacologico 39(5 8), Galil B.S. (2004) The limit of the sea: the bathyal fauna of the Levantine Sea. Scientia Marina 68, Suppl. 3, Galil, B. S. and P.F. Clark (1993) A new genus and species of axiid (Decapoda, Thalassinidea) from the Levantine basin of the Mediterranean. Crustaceana, 64(1): Galil B.S., Goren M (1994) The deep sea Levantine fauna new records and rare occurrences. Senckenbergiana Maritima 25, Galil, B.S., Zibrowius, H. (1998) First benthos samples from Eratosthenes Seamount, eastern Mediterranean. Sencken. Marit. 28(4-6): Goren M., Galil B.S. (1997) New records of deep-sea fishes from the Levant Basin and a note on the deep-sea fishes of the Mediterranean. Israel Journal of Zoology 43, Goren, M., H. Mienis, B.S. Galil (2006) Not so poor - New records for the deep sea fauna of the Levant Sea, Eastern Mediterranean. JMBA

7 Sorbe J.C., Galil B.S. (2002) The bathyal Amphipoda of the Levantine coast, Eastern Mediterranean. Crustaceana 75, Physical and chemical characteristics The circulation patterns and water mass characteristics of the eastern Mediterranean have been studied as part of the research initiative, Physical Oceanography of the eastern Mediterranean (POEM Group, 1992; Ozsoy et al., 1993). Based upon the variations of salinity with depth in the water column, Hecht et al. (1988) identified four different water masses in the SE Levantine waters. These are: the Levantine surface water (LSW), Atlantic water (AW), Levantine intermediate water (LIW), and deep water (DW). The two upper water masses show seasonal variations in their properties. The upper 100 m of the water column is well mixed during winter, but it is stratified during the remainder of the year, with a mixed layer restricted to the upper 25 m and a sharp halocline and thermocline below the mixed layer. In ~1990 DW circulation changed following the Eastern Mediterranean Transient (EMT) event in which new deep water mass was formed at the Cretan Sea Outflow water (CSOW), having denser, warmer, saltier, more oxygenated and lower nutrient concentrations than the older Adriatic Sea (Adriatic Deep Water -ADW) source (Roether et al., 2007). The CSOW uplifted the older ADW and changed the distribution of the physical and chemical parameters in the Eastern Mediterranean creating a mid-depth layer with minimum temperature and salinity across the basin and a minimum oxygen (Min Ox ) and maximum nutrients (Max Nut ) layer in the Levantine basin (Gertman et al., 2010; Kress et al., in press). The circulation on the Israeli shelf is dominated by geostrophic currents, which are mainly northward, and by shelf waves (Rosentraub and Brenner 2007). Fluctuations in the currents occur on both diurnal (from variations in sea breezes) and synoptic (3 14 days) timescales. The strongest currents are predominately northward and occur in winter and summer. In spring and autumn, the currents are weaker and alternate from north to south during the summer period, the relatively strong and fluctuating currents, confined to the upper layer, increase in intensity towards the continental slope to mean speeds of 40 cm s 1. In the winter period when there is mixing, the distribution of the currents is uniform throughout the water column. The Levantine Basin contains extremely low nutrient concentrations and is of exceptionally ultra-oligotrophic nature (Krom et al., 1991; Kress and Herut, 2001). Its average phytoplankton productivity of gc m -2 y -1 is approximately half that measured in other oligotrophic areas of the world s oceans such as the Sargasso Sea (Bיthoux, 1989; Krom et al., 2003). These conditions have also been observed in the shelf-slope waters off Israel (Berman et al., 1986; Azov, 1986; Herut et al., 2000), both representing the environmental conditions along the Palmahim Disturbance. The main reason for the very low productivity is its anti-estuarine circulation in the basin in which nutrient depleted surface water from the Atlantic flows in through the straits of Sicily and a counterbalancing outflow of more saline and relative nutrient-enriched Levantine Intermediate Water (LIW) flows out at intermediate depths ( m) carrying with it dissolved nutrients (Bethoux et al., 1998; Krom et al., 2004). In addition, nutrient depletion results by the arid climate with little natural freshwater (nutrient-rich) run-off, most of it intercepted for use by man and a narrow continental 7

8 shelf capable of only limited benthic-pelagic recycling of nutrients. Although the water chemistry of the Levantine basin has undoubtedly changed since the construction of the high Aswan dam in 1965 and the consequent drastic decrease in nutrients supplied by the Nile outflow (Milliman, 1991), the data which might document these long-term changes in the neritic and pelagic zones of this region are scarce. The ecosystem functioning and nutrient dynamics and composition in this oligotrophic system seems to be complex (Thingstad et al., 2005; Krom et al., 2010; Tanaka et al., 2010) requiring further understanding. References Azov, Y Seasonal patterns of phytoplankton productivity and abundance in nearshore oligotrophic waters of the Levant basin (Mediterranean). J. Plankton Res. 8: Berman, T., Y. Azov, A. Schneller, P. Walline, and D. W. Townsend Extent, transparency, and phytoplankton distribution of the neritic waters overlying the Israeli coastal shelf. Oceanol. Acta 9: Bethoux, J.-P., and G. Copin-Montegut Biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the Mediterranean Sea. Limnol. Oceanogr. 31: Bethoux, J. P., P. Morin, C. Chaumery, O. Connan, B. Gentili, and D. Ruiz-Pino Nutrients in the Mediterranean Sea, mass balance and statistical analysis of concentrations with respect to environmental change. Mar. Chem. 63: Bonin, D. J., M. C. Bonin, and T. Berman Experimental-evidence of nutrients limiting the production of micronanoplankton and ultraplankton in the coastal waters of the eastern Mediterranean ocean (Haifa, Israel). Aquat. Sci. 51: Gertman I., Barak H., Kress N. (2010). Assesment of post-transient changes in Levantine basin deep water. Rapp. Int. Mer Medit., 39 (CIESM Congress Proceedings). Hecht, A., Pinardi, N., Robinson, A.R., Currents, water masses, eddies and jets in the Mediterranean Levantine Basin. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 18, Herut, B., A. Almogi-Labin, N. Jannink, and I. Gertman The seasonal dynamics of nutrient and chlorophyll a concentrations on the SE Mediterranean shelf-slope. Oceanol. Acta 23: Kress, N., and B. Herut Spatial and seasonal evolution of dissolved oxygen and nutrients in the Southern Levantine Basin (Eastern Mediterranean Sea): chemical characterization of the water masses and inferences on the N : P ratios. Deep-Sea Res. I 48: Kress N., Herut B. and Gertman I. (in press). Nutrient distribution in the Eastern Mediterranean before and after the transient event. Chapter in the Book: Life in the Mediterranean Sea: A look at habitat changes (Stambler N, Editor). Krom, M. D., B. Herut, and R. F. C. Mantoura Nutrient budget for the Eastern Mediterranean: Implications for phosphorus limitation. Limnol. Oceanogr. 49: Krom, M. D., N. Kress, S. Brenner, and L. I. Gordon Phosphorus limitation of primary productivity in the Eastern Mediterranean-Sea. Limnol. Oceanogr. 36: Krom, M. D., K-C Emeis, P. Van Cappellen Why is the Eastern Mediterranean phosphorus limited? Progress in Oceanography. Milliman, J.O., Flux and fate of fluvial sediment and water in coastal seas. In: Mantoura, R.F.C., Martin, J.M., Wollast, R. (Eds.), Ocean Margin Processes in Global Change. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, pp Ozsoy, E., Hecht, A., Unluata, U., Brenner, S., Sur, H.I., Bishop, J., Latif, M.A., Rozentraub, Z., Oguz, T., A synthesis of the Levantine Basin circulation and hydrography Deep-Sea Res. II 40, POEM Group, General circulation of the Eastern Mediterranean. Earth-Science Reviews 32, Rosentraub, Z., Brenner, S., Circulation over the southeastern continental shelf and slope of the Mediterranean Sea: direct current measurements, winds, and numerical model simulations. Journal of Geophysics Research 112, C doi: /2006jc Tanaka T., T. F. Thingstad, U. Christaki, J. Colombet, V. Cornet-Barthaux, C. Courties, J.-D. Grattepanche, A. Lagaria, J. Nedoma, L. Oriol, S. Psarra, M. Pujo-Pay, and F. Van Wambeke N-limited or N and P co-limited indications in the surface waters of three Mediterranean basins. BGD, Vol.7, pp Thingstad, T. F., M. D. Krom, R. F. C. Mantoura, G. A. F. Flaten, S. Groom, B. Herut, N. Kress, C. S. Law, A. Pasternak, P. Pitta, S. Psarra, F. Rassoulzadegan, T. Tanaka, A. Tselepides, P. Wassmann, 8

9 E. M. S. Woodward, C. W. Riser, G. Zodiatis, and T. Zohary Nature of phosphorus limitation in the ultraoligotrophic eastern Mediterranean. Science 309: Pressures on the marine environment from oil and gas activities Environmental impacts may arise at all stages of oil and gas activities, including initial exploration, production and final decommissioning. There is a broad range of environmental concerns including those relating to oil discharges from routine operations, the use and discharge of chemicals, accidental spills, drill cuttings, atmospheric emissions, light and noise, and the placement of installations and pipelines on the sea bed. The main pressures on the marine environment from oil and gas activities include operational and accidental discharges of chemicals, crude oil and produced water containing substances such as oil components, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, alkyl phenols and heavy metals (OSPAR, 2009). Oil Oil is released from a variety of sources during exploration and production activities. Most oil entering the marine environmental from such activities is in produced water, but deck and machinery space drainage may also contain small quantities of oil. Dropout of oil when flaring during well testing and well work-overs is another potential source of oil from offshore activities, but is generally considered insignificant. Another potential source of oil is accidental release during drilling, the operation of offshore installations and from shipping. Oil does not affect all components of marine ecosystems equally; some are more vulnerable to physical impacts, others to chemical toxicity and some are relatively resilient to both. The key effects of oil are: Coating: Oil in large quantities may coat the feathers of seabirds and fur of some marine mammals. This reduces their ability to provide buoyancy and insulation, leading to increased mortality. Ingesting: Mammals and turtles may ingest oil with food and thereby be exposed to potential toxic effects. When preening oiled feathers, birds may also ingest oil with attendant toxic effects. There is evidence to suggest that some tissue hydrocarbons may reduce breeding success in birds and mammals. Toxicity: Fish eggs and larvae are more susceptible to toxic effects of oil than are adults. Adult fish may accumulate hydrocarbons in their tissues that may affect their health and also taint their flesh. Toxic components in crude oil include Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), phenols, naphthalene, phenanthrene and pyrenes. PAHs can also be mutagenic and carcinogenic. Invertebrates vary greatly in their sensitivity to oil. Corals are among the most sensitive. Shellfish may accumulate oil residues with attendant secondary effects, particularly relating to health. Though individual planktonic organisms can experience toxic effects from oil in water, the very high turnover of plankton populations means that the plankton is relatively unaffected by oil. 9

10 Chemicals The main discharges of chemicals arise from drilling activities and discharges of chemicals in produced water. The use of chemicals is critical for the production of oil and gas. The main use of chemicals is for drilling and production operations and includes: rig and turbine washes; pipe dopes used to lubricate drill pipe joints; hydraulic fluids used to control wellheads, blow-out preventers and subsea valves; chemicals used in the actual production and processing of hydrocarbons; water-based and organic phase drilling fluids; cementing chemicals; work-over chemicals; stimulation chemicals; completion chemicals; water injection chemicals; water and gas tracers; chemicals used in closed systems where periodic refill is required; jacking grease. Chemicals are also used to maintain pipelines and ensure pipeline integrity; these include biocides and oxygen scavengers. Impacts from chemicals discharged into the marine environment can include acute or long term toxic effect to marine organisms. Among the long term effects especially hormone interfering, mutagenic and reprotoxic effects give rise to concern. Persistent and bioaccumulative chemicals can magnify in the food chain and result in high exposure levels for top predators like seabirds and marine mammals and for human seafood consumers. Low concentrations of some substances are sufficient to interfere with the hormone and immune system and reproduction processes. Biological effects can extend beyond individual marine organisms to a whole population with adverse consequences for species composition and ecosystem structures. Produced water Produced water is the water found in reservoirs along with the oil or gas. When the oil or gas is extracted, produced water is associated with it. Entrained within the water there are hydrocarbons that are, as far as possible, removed from the water prior to any discharge. As the volume of hydrocarbons found in a reservoir decreases over the life of the field the volume of produced water generally increases. Produced water is usually either discharged into the sea or injected back into the reservoir from where it originated. Produced water also contains low concentrations of hazardous substances1 that occur naturally in the reservoir, such as heavy metals, aromatic hydrocarbons, alkyl phenols and radioactive substances. Cuttings piles Cuttings piles arise from drilling operations where the drilled cuttings and associated drilling fluids are discharged at the location of the well. Drill cuttings range in size from clay-sized particles to coarse gravel. Cuttings can build up into piles around the platforms in areas where currents are generally weak. Cuttings may contain traces of the drilling fluids used in the wells from which they are derived. Old cuttings piles may contain organic phase drilling fluids and have been identified as possible sources of hydrocarbon releases into the marine environment, due to remobilisation of residues of oil still found in the piles and natural leaching in to the water column. Due to low rates of leaching, this is not considered a significant pressure. However, there have been concerns raised over the potential for oil and other contaminants to be released into the marine environment from the remobilisation of cuttings piles due to disturbance from other activities, i.e. trawling and decommissioning activities. 10

11 Depending on the depth, rate and total mass of discharge, and oceanographic conditions as well, deposited cuttings form piles of a few centimeters up to 3 m high and spread over distances of more than 200 m from the outflow (Neff et al. 2000). Drilling fluids When an offshore exploratory well is drilled, drilling fluids are used to balance subsurface and formation pressures preventing a blowout; and to cool, lubricate, and support part of the weight of the drill bit and drill pipe. Drilling fluids are categorised into either water-based or organic-phase fluids*. The main constituents in such fluids are weighting materials such as ilmenite, bentonite and barite. Both cuttings and weighting materials may contain traces of heavy metals. During the process, drilling fluid is circulated down the drill pipe continuously and return to the rig/platform carrying drill mud and cuttings in suspension. Up in the surface, the used mud is cleaned up by means of shale shakers, mud cleaners, to separate the cuttings from the mud. Mud is then reused for drilling, while cuttings embedded with drilling fluids are discharged in the water column and deposited on the seabed. * The terminology used to describe the main classes of drilling fluids can be confusing because it has changed over the years, to keep up with changes in mud technology: Water-based muds or fluids (WBM); Organic-phase drilling fluids (OPF), which is the newly-coined euphemism for Oil-based muds (OBM). These materials come back up the well in a slurry with drill cuttings, crude oil, gas, natural gas liquids, produced water, traces of heavy metals, biocides, surfactants and other, mostly organic, substances. The realisation that large areas of seabed around offshore installations had been smothered, sterilised and/or poisoned, by OBM-contaminated drill cuttings and the crude oil sticking to them, led to a number of international agreements which, by 1996, had outlawed the discharge of oilbased drilling muds containing diesel or mineral oils (OSPAR. 1992a. PARCOM Decision 92/2 on the Use of Oil-based Muds). Installations and pipelines The footprint of oil and gas offshore installations is significant. The footprint of the pipelines is dependent on the length, diameter and whether or not it is trenched. The seabed currents and the type of sediment will effect the accumulation and scouring of the sediment around the pipeline and, if trenched, the frequency of the appearance of spans (i.e. areas where the pipe emerges from the trench). The accumulation and scouring of sediment and the appearance of spans is dependent on local and pipeline specific conditions. The installations cause a physical impact on the seabed, but due to the large variety of dimensions of the different installations, the total area affected is not known. Accidental discharges Accidental discharges of oil and chemicals can arise from a number of different sources, including equipment failure, or human errors during offloading and filling of tanks, clean up operations and drainage of sea sumps. Since 2010, a greater awareness by industry is expected to prevent discharges and report all spills irrespective of the spill size. Even with safety protocols in place, leaks and spills are inevitable each year U.S. drilling operations send an average of 880,000 gallons of oil into the ocean. 11

12 Noise Noise arising from activities related to the offshore oil and gas industry stems from construction work, drilling, ships traffic and seismic surveys. Alien Invasive Species (AIS) Offshore pathways There are two main pathways for the introduction of AIS into new environments associated with offshore projects and operations: biofouling and ballast (water or sediment). Biofouling Recently, there has been a growing recognition that biofouling is a major pathway in the introduction of alien species (Galil, 2006). The transmission of biofouling communities has been documented on several occasions in the oil and gas industry. The oil drilling platform Southern Cross originating in Australia was brought to Haifa Bay, Israel, in 2003 for maintenance work including in-water scraping of its extensive fouling. The local divers employed described unfamiliar fish and crustaceans among the dense fauna, and from the shells that had been collected by the divers twelve species of molluscs were identified as new records for the Mediterranean (Mienis 2004). In the oil and gas industry, many vessels are involved throughout project and operational activities, such as tankers, supply ships, drill-ships, underwater vessels, floating cranes, survey vessels and supply vessels. Untreated hulls will rapidly develop complex communities. The long term presence of hard structures into the sea also results in the creation of hard substratum, which is available for easy colonization by species that may not otherwise have settled in the local habitat. This process can encourage local development (and thence introduction) of alien species, and also offer a stepping-stone for longer-distance relocation of alien species, this latter is especially of concern in the Levantine basin because of the Erytrean invasion (Galil, 2009). Offshore rigs develop fouling communities that could not otherwise survive owing to the depth of water at which the equivalent natural habitat is found. Equally, laying structures on the seabed (rather than burying them) in a soft-sediment habitat introduces new local habitat. Ballast Vessels that are designed to carry a heavy cargo, such as crude oil or LNG in tankers, are potentially unstable at sea once they have offloaded the cargo at the destination port. Therefore, after offloading they take on seawater and frequently sediment as ballast to weigh down and correctly balance the vessel. These waters including theie entrained biota are pumped out on arrival at the port where cargo is to be loaded. The impacts of AIS resulting from ballast water transmission have been some of the most severely damaging, far-reaching, large-scale and costly so far recorded. Upstream and midstream oil & gas activities can create direct and indirect pathways for AIS (IPIECA, 2010). 12

13 Exploration A seismic survey includes the detection of subsurface geological structures and determination of the location of oil/gas deposits. Key activities relevant to AIS potential include habitat disturbance and movement of equipment. Offshore seismic surveys are carried out using a survey vessel towing equipment on the surface of the water or along the sea bed. Offshore seismic surveys can cover large areas and take place over many months. There are a limited number of seismic survey vessels worldwide and these vessels move between regional seas and oceans to perform surveys. Seismic vessels may be accompanied by support vessels and serviced by supply vessels, all of which may move between widely separated areas. Exploration/appraisal drilling Exploration drilling and appraisal drilling encompass drilling through the subsurface down to the depths at which hydrocarbons are anticipated based on the information from the seismic survey, to confirm the presence and define the size of oil and/or gas deposits. Key activities relevant to AIS potential include the movement of vehicles, equipment, sediment and waste. Drilling rigs are brought to the site by water transport. In deeper water, a semisubmersible rig or drill ship is towed to the drilling location and anchored into position. Supply vessels transport supplies, equipment and personnel between ports and the drilling rig. Field development This involves the drilling of production wells and the construction of infrastructure and facilities. Key activities relevant to AIS potential include large-scale movements of vessels, equipment, sediment, and waste disposal. The drilling of production wells either in the initial stage of development or throughout the field s lifetime involves activities similar to exploration drilling, though likely involving more wells. Equipment, materials and supplies for drilling operations are provided by supply vessel. Offshore fields may also require the installation of flowlines and sub-sea development systems, all of which will be constructed and/or installed during the field development and production phases, and will entail additional vessel transportation. Floating production storage and offloading (FPSO) vessels may be used. These are anchored in position but have the potential to be moved from one site to another. Field production Field production involves the production, treatment, storage and offloading (or pipelining) of oil and gas. Production may proceed concurrently with additional development or drilling. Key production activities relevant to AIS potential include ongoing movements of vessels, and waste. Supplies and materials from other offshore locations may provide an AIS pathway if discharged/disposed to the sea. Product transport Transporting oil and gas may include pipelines and vessel options. Key activities relevant to AIS potential include movement of equipment, and the creation of access or connection between previously separated areas or ecosystems. Depending on the scale of the project, construction of onshore pipelines can involve the development of significant potential AIS pathways similar to those for offshore development and production. Where oil and gas are transported in tankers, with individual vessels loading and offloading at several different ports, frequent movement along the route and between these ports provides a key pathway. 13

14 References Galil BS (2006) Shipwrecked: shipping impacts on the biota of the Mediterranean Sea. In: Davenport JL, Davenport J (eds), The ecology of transportation: managing mobility for the environment. (Environmental pollution 10). Springer, pp Galil BS (2009) Taking stock: inventory of alien species in the Mediterranean Sea. Biological Invasions 11(2): IPIECA (2010) Alien invasive species and the oil and gas industry Guidance for prevention and management. OGP Report Number 436, 88 pp. Mienis HK. (2004) New data concerning the presence of Lessepsian and other Indo-Pacific migrants among the molluscs in the Mediterranean Sea with emphasize on the situation in Israel. In Öztük & Salman A. (eds): Proceedings 1st National Malacology Congress, Izmir. Turkish Journal of Aquatic Life 2 (2): Neff, J. M., McKelvie, S., & Ayers, R. C. (2000). Environmental impact of synthetic based drilling fluids. New Orleans: US Department of Interior, Minerals Management Service OSPAR (2009) Assessment of impacts of offshore oil and gas activities in the North-East Atlantic. 40 pp. 4. Environmental Impacts 4. 1 Effects of Discharges of Drill Cuttings During the exploratory phase, the deposition of cuttings and the associated hydrocarbons is the main cause of environmental changes (Breurer et al. 2004). The discharge of cuttings may affect the marine benthic fauna by two processes physical and chemical (e.g., Moore et al. 1987; Leaver et al. 1987; Netto et al. 2009). Effects with a physical nature are mainly those conditioned by the cuttings properties, which vary regarding their shape and size, as well as the final volume deposited (Schaanning et al, 2008). Over the past 40 years in the UK and Norwegian sectors of the North Sea, for example, about 1.3 million cubic metres of drill cuttings and associated wastes have built up on the seabed in 102 individual "cuttings piles" with an estimated mass of 2 to 2.5 million tones. The largest pile contains over 66,000 m3 of material and weighs about 100,000 tones. The deep sea benthos are not adapted to rapid sediment deposition and may be buried and smothered by accumulation of cuttings on the sea floor. Accumulation of cuttings to a depth of more than 1 cm would be sufficient to smother most of the smaller benthic fauna. The deposition of cuttings changes the bottom grain structure and influences the depth of the redox layer, influencing both surface and subsurface organisms (Breurer et al and references therein). Physical effects are independent of the fluid used and may cause a reduction of the benthic infauna, through burying by the cuttings accumulation, as well as an increase in epifaunal forms, through an increase in heterogeneity of the superficial sediment and colonization of cuttings mounts (Netto et al. 2009). Chemical deleterious effects refer to the toxicity of substances present in the fluids associated to the cuttings. Those effects are clearly dependent on nonaqueous fluids (NAF) used. The chemical impacts seen on the benthic fauna have been usually attributed to hydrocarbon toxicity and organic enrichment (Neff et al. 14

15 2000). However, there is growing evidence that the deposition of fine particles, such as barite and bentonite, characterized as non-toxic, may also affect growth patterns, reproductive success, and the survival of benthic forms, depending on the period of exposition (Cranford and Gordon 1991; Cranford et al. 1999). A recent literature review by Norwegian scientists underlined the dangers of allowing cuttings piles to develop, even if they contain mainly WBM wastes: "Higher concentrations of heavy metals such as chromium, copper, nickel, lead, zinc, barium and hydrocarbons were observed in association with the cuttings than those seen in natural North Sea sediments" (Det Norske Veritas, 2000). The Norwegians described "biogeochemical pathways such as adsorption and desorption, particularly from oxyhydroxides of iron and manganese and adsorption into organic matter of the assimilation into the gut of benthic infauna". This view is backed by other studies, one of which (Grant & Briggs, 2001) said: "... Sediment was acutely toxic to Corophium out as far as 600 m from the platform. Reviews of field studies assessing the impact of drill cutting discharge showed that the effects on the fauna are variable, regarding both space and time of recovery (Neff et al. 2000; OGP 2003; Breurer et al. 2004; Toldo and Ayup-Zouain 2009). The rate of deep-water benthic ecosystem recovery depends on the rate of recruitment and recolonization by the benthic fauna characteristic of the area. Because many species of the deep-water benthos reproduce and grow slowly, complete recovery may require many years. Most studies have traditionally focused on the macrofaunal groups and, to a lesser extent, on the smaller sized organisms from the meiofauna. Due to their ubiquitous distribution, high abundance and diversity, intimate association with sediments, fast reproduction, and rapid life histories, macrofauna are widely regarded as ideal organisms to study the potential ecological effects of natural and anthropogenic impacts. References Breurer, E., Stevenson, A. G., Howe, J. A., Carroll, J., Shimmield, G. B. (2004). Drill cutting accumulations in the Northern and Central North Sea: A review of environmental interactions and chemical fate. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 48, Cranford, P. J., Gordon, D. (1991). Chronic sublethal impact of mineral oil-based drilling mud cuttings on adult sea scallops. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 22, Cranford, P. J., Gordon, D. C., Lee, K., Armsworthy, S. L., Tremblay, G. H. (1999). Chronic toxicity and physical disturbance effects of water- and oil-based drilling fluids and some major constituents on adult sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus). Marine Environmental Research, 48, Det Norske Veritas (2000) Technical Report - Drill Cuttings Joint Industry Project. Phase I Summary Report. Revision 2: 20th January DNV doc. order No Oslo Grant, A., Briggs, A (2001) Toxicity of sediments from around a North Sea oil platform: are metals or hydrocarbons responsible for ecological impacts? Marine Environmental research 53: Leaver, M. J., Murison, D. J., Davies, J. M., Rafaelli, D. R. (1987). Experimental studies of effects of drilling discharges. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 316, Moore, C. G., Murison, D. J., Mohd Long, S., Mills, D. J. L. (1987). The impact of oil Discharges on meiobenthos of North Sea. Philosophical Transactionsof the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 316, Neff, J. M., McKelvie, S., Ayers, R. C. (2000). Environmental impact of synthetic based drilling f luids. New Orleans: US Department of Interior, Minerals Management Service. Netto, S. A., Gallucci, F., Fonseca, G. (2009). Deepsea meiofauna response to synthetic-based drilling mud discharge off SE Brazil. Deep-Sea Research II, 56,

16 Schaanning, M.T., Trannum, H.C., Øxnevad, S., Carroll, J., Bakke, T (2008) Effects of drill cuttings on biogeochemical fluxes and macrobenthos of marine sediments Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 361: Toldo, E. E. Jr., & Ayup-Zouain, R. N. (2009). Environmental monitoring of offshore drilling for petroleum exploration: A brief overview. Deep-Sea Resarch II, 56, The Effects of Discharges of Drill fluids Because of the widely recognized problems with OBMs, alternative muds, based on emulsions and polymers of various kinds that could do the essential work of OBMs but not cause gross pollution of the environment were welcomed. The oil and gas extraction industry developed Synthetic based drilling fluids (SBFs) with synthetic and non-synthetic oleaginous materials as the base fluid to provide the drilling performance characteristics of traditional fluids based on diesel and mineral oil, but with lower environmental impact through lower toxicity, elimination of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), faster biodegradability, lower bioaccumulation potential, and, in some drilling situations, less drilling waste volume. The variety of chemical components in drilling muds and their variation in both percentage composition and inherent acute toxicity means that there is the potential for large variations in toxicity between different muds. There is little information regarding the chronic or long-term toxicity of drilling fluids to marine organisms. Some studies have addressed this aspect of biological impact from a biodegradation perspective and looked at the percentage ultimate biodegradation using closed-bottle anaerobic biodegradation testing (Holdaway, 2002). Several field studies have shown that the highest concentrations of SBF cuttings usually are located in sediments within about 100 m of the platform. However, SBF cuttings may be deposited 1 to 2 km from the discharge point. Base fluid concentrations as high as 200,000 mg/kg dry wt have been observed in sediments. Concentrations in sediments usually are less than 10,000 mg/kg at distances of more than 200 m from the discharge. Concentrations of synthetic base fluids in sediments may decrease with time after discharge by resuspension, bed transport, and mixing, or by biodegradation. Base fluids are designed to be biodegradable under conditions that occur in offshore marine sediments: sedimentdwelling bacteria and fungi are able to use synthetics as a source of nutrition, releasing simple non-toxic metabolic degradation products (Roberts & Nguyen, 2000) However, biodegradation of synthetic base fluids results in a decrease in sediment oxygen concentration. If the initial base fluid concentration is high enough, the sediments become anoxic. However synthetic drilling fluids are likely to persist when discharged at high concentration where anaerobic conditions develop (OSPAR. 2000). The field and laboratory studies performed to monitor the biological effects of SBF cuttings discharges on the benthos show that where base fluids concentrations in sediments are high, adverse effects are evident (Cranford et al, 1999; Oliver & Fisher, 1999). The pattern of response is a decrease in the number of taxa of marine organisms, accompanied by little change or even an increase in the number of individuals present. The change in the community structure is considered an organic enrichment effect due to oxygen depletion and hypoxia or anoxia. Sensitive species are eliminated and are replaced by tolerant, opportunistic species. Population size of the opportunists may increase to a high biomass as the fauna use the elevated 16

17 microbial production as food. Recovery of affected benthic substrates occurs when synthetic concentrations decline to levels low enough for re-oxygenation. Biological effects of the SBF cuttings are commonly restricted to the sediments near the platform where base fluid concentrations accumulate to more than approximately 1,000 mg/kg. Synthetics are unlikely to accumulate to concentrations that are directly toxic to the benthic fauna. Impacts of SBF cuttings discharges on the deep-water benthos are largely unknown. The rate of deep-water benthic ecosystem recovery depends on the rate of recruitment and recolonization by the benthic fauna. Because many species of the deep-water benthos reproduce and grow slowly, complete recovery may require many years. The bottom fauna near the Pompano II platform (565 m) where discharges from the rig included 7,700 bbls of WBF cuttings, 5,150 bbls of SBF cuttings, and an estimated 7,695 bbls of a mixed 90% LAO/10% ester SBF, was studied (Neff et al 2000). Drill cuttings formed a thin layer on bottom sediments. The benthos abundance (mostly polychaetes) was correlated with higher SBF concentrations in sediment though there was a smaller number of taxa in the more heavily contaminated sediments. References Cranford, P.J., Gordon, D.C., Jr, Lee, K., Armsworthy, S.L., Tremblay, G.-H. (1999) Chronic toxicity and physical disturbance effects of water- and oil-based drilling fluids and some major constituents on adult sea scallops (Placopecten magellanicus). Marine Environmental Research 48: Holdway D.A. (2002) The acute and chronic effects of wastes associated with offshore oil and gas production on temperate and tropical marine ecological processes. Marine Pollution Bulletin 44: Neff, J.M., S. McKelvie and R.C. Ayers, Jr. (2000) Environmental impacts of synthetic based drilling fluids. Report prepared for MMS by Robert Ayers & Associates, Inc. August U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS pp. Oliver, G.A., Fisher, S.J. (1999) The persistence and effects of nonwater-based drilling fluids on Australia s north west shelf: progress findings from three seabed surveys. APPEA J., OSPAR (2000) Draft Measures Proposed by the OSPAR Working Group on Sea-based Activities (SEBA), February Amsterdam.) Raimondi, P.T., Barnett, A.M., Krause, P.R. (1997) The effects of drilling muds on marine invertebrate larvae and adults. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 16: Roberts, D.J., A.H. Nguyen (2006) Degradation of synthetic-based drilling mud base fluids by Gulf of Mexico sediments: Final report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS pp. 4.3 The Effects of Discharges of Produced Water Oil and gas reservoirs have a natural water layer (formation water) that, being denser, lies under the hydrocarbons. To achieve maximum oil recovery, additional water is injected into the reservoirs to help force the oil to the surface. Both formation and injected water are eventually produced along with the hydrocarbons and, as an oil field becomes depleted, the amount of produced formation water (PFW) increases as the reservoir fills with injected seawater. Almost all offshore oilfields produce large quantities of contaminated water that can have significant environmental effects if not 17

18 handled properly. At the surface, produced water is separated from the hydrocarbons, treated to remove as much oil as possible, and then either discharged into the sea or injected back into the wells. After treatment, produced water still contains traces of oil and, because of this, discharge into the sea is strictly controlled by legislation. The volumes of PFW are enormous: an estimated 234 million tones were discharged into the UK sector of the North Sea alone in 1997 (Henderson et al., 1999). The hydrocarbon content of formation water, which generally makes up the bulk of produced water, is only a small part of the total organic composition. Most of the hydrocarbon material is made up of naturally produced low molecular weight organic compounds along with a variable amount of chemicals used in the production process (Davies and Kingston, 1992). Environmental effects of PFWs are thus related to their specific chemical compositions, which vary greatly. In addition to the complex mixture of aliphatic, aromatic and polar compounds in PFW, there is production chemicals added for different purposes including corrosion inhibitors, scale inhibitors, demulsifiers, flocculents, anti-foaming agents and biocides (Brendehaug et al., 1992). The acute toxicity of these chemicals contributes to the overall toxicity of PFW. Exposure of early life stages to low concentrations of PFWs can cause a developmental response at a later stage in sea urchins (Krause et al., 1992): even at the lowest PFW concentration tested (0.0001% or 1 ppm), fertilization success was significantly reduced by as much as 10 20% from controls. Exposure of laboratoryreared abalone larvae which were transplanted into cages at varying distances from a PFW diffuser near Carpinteria, CA, USA, resulted in significant effects on mortality, settlement, metamorphosis, viability, and swimming behavior at distances up to 500 m from the diffuser and concentrations as low as 0.01% (100 ppm) PFW (Raimondi and Schmitt, 1992). References Brendehaug, J., Johnsen, S., Bryne, K.H., Gjose, A.L., Eide, T.H., Aamot, E. (1992) Toxicity testing and chemical characterization of produced water a preliminary study. In: Ray, J.P., Engelhardt, F.R. (Eds.), Produced Water: Technological/Environmental Issues and Solutions. Plenum Press, New York, pp Davies, J.M., Kingston, P.F. (1992) Sources of environmental disturbance associated with offshore oil and gas developments. In: Cairns, W.J. (Ed.), North Sea Oil and the Environment. Developing Oil and Gas Resources, Environmental Impacts and Responses. Elsevier, London, pp Henderson, S.B., Grigson, S.J.W., Johnson, P., Roddie, B.D. (1999) Potential impact of production chemicals on the toxicity of produced water discharges from North Sea oil platforms. Mar. Poll. Bull. 38 (12), Krause, P.R., Osenberg, C.W., Schmitt, R.J. (1992) Effects of produced water on early life stages of a sea urchin: stage-specific responses and delayed expression. In: Ray, J.P., Engelhardt, F.R. (Eds.), Produced Water: Technological/Environmental Issues and Solutions. Plenum Press, New York, pp Raimondi, P.T., Schmitt, R.J. (1992). Effects of produced water on settlement of larvae: field test using red abalone. In: Ray, J.P., Engelhardt, F.R. (Eds.), Produced Water: Technological/Environmental Issues and Solutions. Plenum Press, New York, pp

19 5. Environmental monitoring of offshore drilling and measures for the conservation of the deep sea ecosystems off the Israeli coast The management regime for the conservation of the deep sea ecosystems off the Israeli coast must be based on the principle that cumulative environmental effects must be assessed. The management regime is to be knowledge-based. Little is known about bathyal seabed habitats off the Israeli coast, and we have little information about where there are vulnerable areas. This makes it particularly important to apply such management principle for the Israeli slope and bathyal plain. The petroleum industry already collected large amounts of data in connection with its exploratory activities. Such data should be made readily available to appropriate governmental agencies. Mapping of wells (including dry wells) and seabed structures, together with information as to the composition and amounts of drilling muds and cuttings, should be supplied to appropriate governmental agencies. The reporting and monitoring of discharges should not be based on self-reporting. Hitherto, unannounced visits by government inspectors or researchers to platforms were tightly controlled by the oil industry, and almost impossible to arrange (i.e. MARI-B, and other rigs). The monitoring and reporting of discharges therefore should NOT FAIL the most elementary test of scientific independence. Otherwise, the data collected must of necessity be regarded as unverifiable. The offshore oil and gas industry is a significant industry within the OSPAR area, particularly in the Greater North Sea and the Celtic Seas, but increasingly so in Arctic Waters. OSPAR countries acknowledged the range of emissions, discharges and seabed physical disturbance associated with offshore oil and gas activities. Seventeen OSPAR decisions and recommendations relating to the offshore oil and gas industry have been accepted up to 2008 (OSPAR, 2009). The vast majority of these have been made since 2000 with the aim of reducing the impacts of the industry on the marine environment. OSPAR measures have achieved: a significant reduction in the use discharge of hazardous chemicals; the development of a Harmonised Mandatory Control System for the Use and Reduction of Discharge of Offshore Chemicals and a Harmonised Offshore Chemical Notification Format (HOCNF) which is a key element in OSPAR s control of offshore chemicals; a significant decrease in the volume of hydrocarbons discharged in produced water; a ban on the disposal of all but the most challenging installations offshore; a ban on the use and discharge of diesel based muds and cuttings; a ban on the discharge of untreated oil based muds and cuttings; a management regime for offshore cuttings piles; the implementation of environmental management systems offshore. It is suggested that the OSPAR regulations be considered for adoption, with monitoring scheme following accepted standards (Toledo et al, 2010). References OSPAR (2009) Assessment of impacts of offshore oil and gas activities in the North-East Atlantic. 40 pp. Toledo FAL, Toldo E, Ayup-Zouain RN (2010) Environmental monitoring of offshore drilling for petroleum exploration. MAPEM. Protocols and Field sampling. 174 pp. 19

20 Background surveys The deep sea areas Israel licensed for energy exploration and exploitation have barely been studied by the scientific community. Seabed surveys will improve our knowledge of the distribution of habitat types and provide a basis for better protection of vulnerable habitat types. There is an urgent need to map coral and seep habitats and other vulnerable seabed habitats so that they can be more effectively protected against damage from energy operations (Annex II). Document substrate characteristics (MultiBeam and side-scan sonar mapping at the South Levantine basin) The licensees have doubtlessly collected large amounts of data in connection with their exploratory activities. If such data is not readily available to appropriate governmental agencies, there is need to fill gaps in the multibeam (MB) coverage and perform sidescan sonar and high resolution geophysical mapping of the upper subsurface to map the type of the upper sub-surface (sand, mud, rock) and to detect man made features on the seafloor. The MB data analysis will include: i) compilation of a detailed depth grid and its integration with existing datasets; ii) backscatter analysis in which the strength (or amplitude) of the returned acoustic signal reflected from the seafloor (recorded as sound in decibels -db) can indicate on the nature of the seabed. This reflectivity depends on the substrate characteristics (e.g., mud, sand, gravel, bedrock or a mixture of these), and how rough or lumpy the seafloor is. Assessment of hazard The continental slope is sensitive to submarine landslides that may harm seabed installations such as pipelines, either directly or via triggered tsunami. These landslides may be triggered by near as well as by remote earthquake. It is proposed to study the probable extent (area, volume) of such landslides and to calculate the probability of their occurrence. GIS analysis All the relevant data (e.g. maps, vector, multibeam grids and backscatter analysis) will be built into a GIS software. This will enable us to do the following important analysis: 1. Slope analysis creating a map of slopes based on the MB grid. This map will include geological faults, areas were slumps can potentially occur, areas too steep for pipeline constructions etc. 2. Locate the best sites for construction of the pipeline by applying a set of rules on the GIS database. These rules include safety requirements, engineering limitations, tectonic and morphological limitations etc. Documenting the benthic fauna at representative sites At present no information exists on the benthic biota in the deep sea areas Israel licensed for energy exploration. In order to document the benthic infauna and epifauna a survey at representative sites is proposed. Benthic communities are widely used in the monitoring of effects of marine pollution and physical disturbance as the organisms are mostly sessile and integrate effects of pollutants and physical 20