AVTA Federal Fleet PEV Readiness Data Logging and Characterization Study: Final Report

Transcription

1 INL/EXT AVTA Federal Fleet PEV Readiness Data Logging and Characterization Study: Final Report Stephen Schey Jim Francfort June 2015 The INL is a U.S. Department of Energy National Laboratory operated by Battelle Energy Alliance

2 DISCLAIMER This information was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the U.S. Government. Neither the U.S. Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, expressed or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness, of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. References herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trade mark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the U.S. Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the U.S. Government or any agency thereof.

3 INL/EXT AVTA Federal Fleet PEV Readiness Data Logging and Characterization Study: Final Report Stephen Schey Jim Francfort 2 1 Stephen Schey, Project Manager, Infrastructure Planning and Analysis, Intertek Testing Services, North America, Phoenix, Arizona 2 Jim Francfort, Vehicle Systems Principal Investigator, Idaho National Laboratory, operated by Battelle Energy Alliance, Idaho Falls, Idaho June 2015 Idaho National Laboratory Idaho Falls, Idaho Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy Under DOE Idaho Operations Office Contract DE-AC07-05ID14517

4 ABSTRACT Battelle Energy Alliance, LLC, managing and operating contractor for the U.S. Department of Energy s Idaho National Laboratory, is the lead laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy s advanced vehicle testing. Battelle Energy Alliance, LLC contracted with Intertek Testing Services, North America (Intertek) to support the collection and evaluation of data on federal fleet operations as part of the Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity s Federal Fleet Vehicle Data Logging and Characterization Study. The Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity study seeks to collect and evaluate data to validate utilization of advanced plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) transportation. This report summarizes the fleets studied to identify the daily operational characteristics of select vehicles and report findings on vehicle and mission characterizations to support successful introduction of PEVs into the agencies fleets. Individual observations of these selected vehicles provide the basis for recommendations related to electric vehicle adoption and whether a battery electric vehicle or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (collectively referred to as PEVs) can fulfill the mission requirements. iv

5 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Federal agencies are mandated to purchase alternative fuel vehicles, increase consumption of alternative fuels, and reduce petroleum consumption. Available plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) provide an attractive option in the selection of alternative fuel vehicles. PEVs, which consist of both battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), have significant advantages over internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles in terms of energy efficiency, reduced petroleum consumption, and reduced production of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and performance benefits with quieter, smoother operation. This study intended to evaluate the extent that selected federal agencies could convert part or all of their fleet of vehicles from petroleum-fueled vehicles to PEVs and to generalize that information to be of use to all agencies. The study for each participating agency began with selection of a subset of vehicles closely representative of their inventory for specific data logging and monitoring. The data analysis provided information that supported recommendations relating to adoption of PEVs into that agency s fleet. A report was issued to each agency and posted to the Idaho National Laboratory website. This paper provides a summary report. More fuel-efficient ICE vehicles, including hybrid electric vehicles, exist that may provide improvements for the current fleet; however, this study s focus is on replacing ICE vehicles with suitable PEVs. BEVs provide the greatest benefit when it comes to fuel and emissions savings because all motive power is provided by the energy stored in the onboard battery pack. These vehicles use no petroleum and emit no pollutants at their point of use. PHEVs provide similar savings when their battery provides all or a majority of the motive power (depending on PHEV design); however, they also have the ability to extend their operating range with an onboard ICE. Because a PHEV can meet all transportation range needs, the adoption of a PHEV will be dependent on its ability to meet other transportation needs such as passenger or cargo requirements. Operation of PHEVs in charge-depleting mode, where all or a majority of the motive power is provided by the battery, can be increased with opportunity charging at available charging stations. This study focuses on mission requirements of the fleet vehicles, with an objective of identifying vehicles that may be replaced with PEVs, with emphasis on BEVs that provide maximum benefit. Fifteen federal agencies participated in this study, providing fleet information, assistance in selection of the total 153 vehicles for monitoring, and installation, and removal of data loggers. The published reports for each agency observe that a mix of BEVs and PHEVs are capable of performing most of the required missions and providing alternative vehicles for the pool, support, and enforcement vehicles. While some vehicles travel long distances, these groups could support some BEVs for the short trips and PHEVs for the longer trips. Replacement of vehicles in the current fleet would result in significant reductions v

6 in the emission of GHGs and in petroleum use, as well as reduced fleet operating costs. The study collected over 227,000 miles of data on 153 vehicles, which were in operation over 12,000 hours. Of these vehicles, 149 replacement PEVs appear to be able to conduct the same mission and usage requirements. With emphasis on use of BEVs, 71 BEVs and 78 PHEVs were suggested as replacements. PEVs currently commercially available cannot replace certain vehicles and missions, such as those requiring heavy-duty, load-hauling trucks, and specialty needs. However, based on data collected for the monitored vehicles, replacement of these 149 ICE vehicles with PEVs could potentially result in an annual GHG savings over 368,000 lb-co 2 e (40% reduction) and an annual fuel cost savings of over $116,300 (75% reduction). PEV replacement projects a savings per vehicle of approximately $780 per year in fuel costs and reduces GHG emissions by more than 1 ton each year. Based on data collected from the monitored vehicles and extrapolating to the appropriate fleets of vehicles, replacement of the 1,454 ICE vehicles with PEVs potentially results in an annual GHG savings over 4,843,000 lb-co 2 e (44% reduction) and an annual fuel cost savings of over $1,229,000 (76% reduction). Agencies determine their vehicle needs based on the mission they are required to perform. Fleet vehicle mission categories are defined in Section 4. While the agencies vehicles conduct many different missions, four (i.e., pool, support, enforcement, and transport missions) were selected by agencies management and INL to be part of this fleet evaluation. Data show that analysis of vehicles by mission type is effective in identifying potential PEV replacements for ICE vehicles and can provide guidance to fleet managers on vehicle acquisition. It is suggested that the agencies may wish to move forward in the near future with replacement of pool, support, and enforcement vehicles with PEVs as current budget and vehicle replacement schedules allow. Certainly, the vehicle types studied in these reports may be candidates for immediate replacement. Data show composition of fleets with percentages shown in the following figure is conservative. vi

7 This work was supported by the Federal Energy Management Program, and Vehicle Technologies Office, both located within the Department of Energy s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. The authors are hopeful that the reports provided to the agencies are helpful for incorporation of PEVs into their fleets. vii

8 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT... iv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY... v ACRONYMS... xii 1. INTRODUCTION PROJECT OBJECTIVE METHODS Fleet Vehicle Survey Data Collection Data Logger Data Captured Data Analysis Definitions Data Evaluation VEHICLES Vehicle Missions Alternative Fuel Vehicles Battery Electric Vehicle and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Benefits and Challenges Battery Electric Vehicle Benefits/Challenges Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Benefits/Challenges Plug-In Electric Vehicle Availability Plug-In Electric Vehicle Charging Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment Design Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment Stations NATIONAL AGENCIES MISSION ANALYSIS Analyzed Fleet Summary Pool Vehicle Mission Analysis General Vehicle Information viii

9 5.2.2 Summary for Pool Vehicles Pool Vehicles Daily Summary Pool Vehicle Observations/Summary Pool Vehicle Types Support Vehicles Evaluation General Vehicle Information Summary for Support Vehicles Support Vehicles Daily Summary Support Vehicle Observations/Summary Support Vehicle Types Enforcement Vehicles Evaluation General Vehicle Information Summary for Enforcement Vehicles Enforcement Vehicles Daily Summary Enforcement Vehicle Observations/Summary Enforcement Vehicle Types Transport Vehicle Analysis General Vehicle Information Summary for Transport Vehicles Transport Vehicles Daily Summary Balance of Fleet Missions Fleet Mission Summary GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS AVOIDED AND FUEL COST REDUCTION ANALYSIS OBSERVATIONS FIGURES 1. InTouchMVC data logger Example vehicle outing Vehicle missions AC Level 2 charging diagram SAE charging configurations and ratings terminology Chevrolet Volt AC Level 1 cordset ix

10 7. SAE J1772 connector and inlet J1772-compliant combo connector CHAdeMO-compliant connector Public AC Level 2 EVSE Public DCFC unit Composition of agencies monitored fleets Comparison of monitored vehicles types versus full fleet vehicle types Vehicle type by mission Mission comparison of monitored vehicles to the full fleet of vehicles Average and maximum daily travel for monitored vehicles Average and maximum outings for monitored vehicles Pool vehicle average and maximum daily travel miles (all vehicles) Pool vehicle average and maximum outing travel miles (all vehicles) Monitored pool vehicle types Support vehicle average and maximum daily travel miles (all vehicles) Support vehicle average and maximum daily outing miles (all vehicles) Monitored support vehicle types Enforcement vehicle average and maximum daily travel miles (all vehicles) Enforcement vehicle average and maximum daily outing miles (all vehicles) Monitored enforcement vehicle types TABLES 1. Agencies and vehicles for the Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity Federal Fleet Vehicle Data Logging and Characterization Study GSA vehicle replacement requirements GSA-certified PHEVs for GSA-certified BEVs for x

11 5. OEM PHEV cars and availability OEM BEV cars and availability OEM PHEV trucks, vans, and availability OEM BEV trucks, vans, and availability Study fleet vehicles Study fleet mission assessment Vehicle data logger reporting summary Pool vehicles travel summary Support vehicles travel summary Enforcement vehicles travel summary Transport vehicles travel summary All mission vehicle summary of possible PEV replacement PEV substitutions for current vehicles GHG emissions avoidance and fuel cost reduction for monitored vehicles Extrapolated GHG emissions avoided and fuel cost savings for the entire fleets xi

12 ACRONYMS AC BEV CD CS DC DCFC EPA EVSE GHG GSA ICE INL Intertek OEM PEV PHEV SAE SUV alternating current battery electric vehicle charge depleting charge sustaining direct current DC fast charger Environmental Protection Agency electric vehicle supply equipment greenhouse gas General Services Administration internal combustion engine Idaho National Laboratory Intertek Testing Services, North America original equipment manufacturer plug-in electric vehicle plug-in hybrid electric vehicle Society of Automotive Engineers sports utility vehicle xii

13 AVTA Federal Fleet PEV Readiness Data Logging and Characterization Study: Final Report 1. INTRODUCTION Federal agencies are mandated by the Energy Policy Act of 1992, 1 Energy Policy Act of 2005, 2 Executive Order (President Bush, 2007), 3 Executive Order (President Obama, 2009), 4 and the Energy Independence and Security Act of to purchase alternative fuel vehicles, increase consumption of alternative fuels, and reduce petroleum consumption. Battelle Energy Alliance, LLC, managing and operating contractor for Idaho National Laboratory (INL), is the lead laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy s advanced vehicle testing and manages the Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity Federal Fleet Vehicle Data Logging and Characterization Study, which promotes utilization of advanced electric drive vehicle transportation technologies. The Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity focuses its testing activities on emerging and newly commercialized plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) technologies because of the high-energy efficiency achieved and reduced consumption of petroleum by electric-drive vehicles. Battelle Energy Alliance, LLC selected Intertek Testing Services, North America (Intertek) to support the collection of data on federal fleet operations and report the findings on vehicle and mission characterizations to support successful introduction of PEVs into federal fleets. More fuel-efficient internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, including hybrid electric vehicles, exist that may provide improvements for the current fleet; however, this study s focus is on replacing ICE vehicles with suitable PEVs. Because of the large number of vehicles in federal fleets in the United States, these fleets provide a substantial opportunity for introduction of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) (collectively referred to as PEVs). However, to assess the scale of this opportunity, additional data are required to characterize the various missions performed by each fleet and to determine which existing vehicles are most suitable for replacement by a PEV. Table 1 identifies the agencies selected for analysis in this project. The total number of vehicles in the agency s fleet is shown, along with the number of vehicles that were monitored as part of the study. The results for those monitored vehicles can be extrapolated to a larger fleet of similar vehicles, which is also shown in the table. Each of these agencies received reports on the study pertaining directly to their monitored vehicles and extrapolated fleet of vehicles. These reports, available at characterized the mission and travel of the monitored vehicles, along with observations on potential PEV replacement. The replacement, using the listed PEVs, resulted in calculations of savings in fuel cost and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Those results were extrapolated to full fleet benefits. This report aggregates the results over all of the agencies fleets. 1 [accessed March 16, 2015] 2 [accessed March 16, 2015]. 3 [accessed March 16, 2015]. 4 [accessed March 16, 2015]. 5 [accessed March 16, 2015]. 1

14 Table 1. Agencies and vehicles for the Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity Federal Fleet Vehicle Data Logging and Characterization Study. Agency Location Acronym State National Park Service National Park Service National Park Service National Park Service National Park Service United States Forest Service National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Aeronautics and Space Administration U.S. Department of Homeland Security U.S. Department of Health/Human Services Department of Veterans Affairs Department of Veterans Affairs National Institutes of Health U.S. Department of Energy Golden Gate National Recreational Area Fort Vancouver National Historic Site Grand Canyon National Park Rocky Mountain National Park Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore Caribou-Targhee National Forest White Sands Test Facility Glenn Research Center Full Vehicle Fleet Size Vehicles Monitored Extrapolated Fleet Size GGNRA California FVNHS Washington Not 3 Not Available Available GCNP Arizona RMNP Colorado SLBE Michigan CTNF Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming Not available WSTF New Mexico GRC Ohio Stennis Space Center SSC Mississippi Not available U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters Assistant Secretary Preparedness and Response James J. Peters VA Medical Center-Bronx VA Manhattan Campus USCG ASPR Washington D.C. Maryland/ Virginia Not available Not available 12 Not available 10 Not available 8 Not available VA-Br New York VA-Man New York Bethesda Campus NIH Maryland Idaho National Laboratory INL Idaho PROJECT OBJECTIVE This study explored federal fleet vehicles and their usage characteristics, with a primary goal of supporting the goals of Presidential Executive Order 13514, which includes the following: Pursuing opportunities with vendors and contractors to address and incentivize GHG emission reductions and petroleum use reductions Implementing strategies and accommodations for transit, travel, training, and conferences that actively reduce carbon emissions associated with commuting and travel by agency staff 2

15 Meeting GHG emissions reductions associated with other federal government sustainability goals Implementing innovative policies and practices that address agency-specific Scope 3 GHG emissions. 6 Because of the large number of vehicles in the federal fleets, there is a substantial opportunity for PHEV and BEV adoption. Federal fleets offer an opportunity as a market for alternative fuels due to their scale, refueling patterns, and regular vehicle turnover. 7 This project had the following four defined tasks: 1. Data collection: Coordinate with the fleet manager to collect data on agency fleet vehicles. This includes collecting information on the fleet vehicle and installing data loggers on a representative sample of the fleet vehicles to characterize their missions. 2. Data analysis and review: Examine the data collected by the loggers and fleet vehicle characteristics to describe typical fleet activity. Incorporate fleet manager s input on introducing PEVs to the agency s fleet. 3. PEV implementation feedback: Provide feedback to fleet personnel and Battelle Energy Alliance, LLC on the selection criteria for replacement PEVs in their specific fleet vehicle missions. 4. Observations and recommendations: Provide actionable information to introduce PEVs into agency fleet operations and assess any related impacts for the facility. Data collected from vehicles include trip distance, idle time, time between uses, and stop locations. Data collection continued for 30 to 60 days on each site using a non-intrusive data logger, which gathered and transmitted information using a global positioning system and cellular service. The loggers collected data at 1-minute intervals and transmitted when an active signal was present. Extrapolating the results of this analysis to the larger fleet provides estimates of potential savings in gasoline consumption and GHG emissions. Individual agency reports also provided recommendations relating to fleet management of BEVs and PHEVs for additional consideration. Agency fleet managers may use the information supplied in these reports to help them identify which vehicles are candidates for replacement by a BEV or a PHEV based on their use and mission. BEVs are preferred because of the greater potential reduction of GHG emissions, fuel cost, and petroleum usage; however, they are not likely to be suitable for all vehicle missions. In the larger sense, the information in this final report aggregates results for all agencies fleets to provide an overview of federal fleets, vehicle missions, vehicle uses, and so forth. All federal agencies may be able to use this information to plan and establish a more systematic method for adoption of BEVs and PHEVs in their respective agencies. 3. METHODS 3.1 Fleet Vehicle Survey This study monitored 162 fleet vehicles. Agency fleet managers selected fleet vehicles from their facility for study and provided basic information for each vehicle, including its managing department, home base for the vehicle, contact information, primary vehicle mission, vehicle ownership, fuel type, and odometer reading. Through the course of each study, some vehicles failed to provide data or provided insufficient data for various reasons. Meaningful data were collected on 153 vehicles. The vehicles monitored were a mix of General Services Administration (GSA) and agency vehicles. 6 [accessed March 16, 2015]. 7 Fleet Purchase Behavior: Decision Processes and Implications for New Vehicle Technologies and Fuel, Nesbitt, Sperling, University of California, Davis

16 3.2 Data Collection Individual privacy concerns exist when monitoring vehicle movement with data loggers. Data collection occurs by vehicle identification as identified by Intertek, data logger number, and vehicle identification number or agency-assigned vehicle number. No information was collected relating to the vehicle operator and no raw data was provided to the fleet managers. In this manner, nothing is collected, analyzed, or reported on that relates to individual driving habits Data Logger Non-intrusive data loggers, produced by InTouchMVC 8 and depicted in Figure 1, were inserted into the vehicle s onboard diagnostic port to collect and transmit relevant data. Installation of the data logger and manual recording of information about the vehicle that ties the logger and vehicle together in the data, typically takes less than 5 minutes. Once installed and activated (during vehicle use), the data loggers collect vehicle information once every minute during vehicle operation and transmit by cellular communication to the data center. Figure 1. InTouchMVC data logger. Data logger connectivity and data transmission was verified to ensure full data sets were collected. Missing data (i.e., reported as null values) were frequently the result of lost global positioning system reception, logger device removal, or extended periods in regions with insufficient cellular reception. Vehicle and data logger information was filtered and if these null values presented a significant impact on the data collected and no resolution was possible. This report also identifies the statistics on this validation process Data Captured Data consist of key-on events, key-off events, and position updates logged every minute while the vehicle is keyed-on. InTouchMVC converted these data points into records of trip events, stop events, and idle events. From these data points, the following information was available for evaluation: Trip start and stop time and location Trip distance and duration Idle start time, location, and duration Stop start time, location, and duration 8 [accessed March 16, 2015]. 4

17 3.3.1 Definitions 3.3 Data Analysis Figure 2 illustrates a vehicle outing, which is comprised of trips, stops, and idle events, that may occur during one day or over several days. The following list provides a definition of these terms: 1. Outing: An outing is the combination of trips and stops that begin at the home base and includes all travel until the vehicle returns home. 2. Trip: A trip begins with a key-on event and ends with the next key-off event. 3. Vehicle stop: A vehicle stop includes a key-off/key-on event pair. 4. Idle time: Idle time is the amount of time a vehicle spends stationary after a key-on event when the vehicle is not moving for a period of 3 minutes or longer. 5. Trip travel time: Trip travel time is the amount of time required to complete a trip, excluding stops but including idle time. Definitions of additional analysis and survey terms are as follows: 1. Operating shift: Fleet manager-defined period worked. 2. Study days: Days during which the data loggers are connected. 3. Vehicle days: Study days during which a vehicle is used. 4. Null values: Data record unusable for analysis for various reasons. Figure 2. Example vehicle outing Data Evaluation Processing the data involves removal of null values and aggregation by different spatial and temporal scales. Aggregation was by day, by trip, and by outing to produce figures showing the patterns of use. Aggregation by vehicle mission followed to characterize use for the agency fleet. Section 5 presents these results by mission assigned. Data were extrapolated to provide overall fleet usage and benefit analysis when fleet information was provided. Section 6 presents these aggregated benefits; observations are included in Section 7. 5

18 Statistical data analysis used Python 2.7 with the MATLAB Plotting Library graphics environment (Matplotlib) and spatial display with ESRI ArcGIS. 9 Some analysis also used Microsoft Excel 10 and Tableau software. 11 Frequency distributions summarize the travel behavior of each vehicle and vehicle mission during the study period. 4. VEHICLES 4.1 Vehicle Missions Vehicle mission is an important characteristic in the fleet study. Information used to define vehicle mission includes the vehicle s configuration, vehicle use, classification per 40 CFR Part and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), participating agency use, and generally assumed vehicle use. Based on fleet information gathered, the following seven mission/vehicle categories were established for analysis (Figure 3): 1. Pool vehicles: A pool vehicle is any automobile (other than the low-speed vehicles identified below) manufactured primarily for use in passenger transportation, with not more than 10 passengers. 2. Enforcement vehicles: Vehicles specifically approved in an agency s appropriation act for use in apprehension, surveillance, police, or other law enforcement work. This category also includes site security vehicles, parking enforcement, and general use, but the vehicles are capable of requirements to support enforcement activities. 3. Support vehicles: Vehicles assigned to a specific work function or group to support the mission of that group. Vehicles are generally passenger vehicles or light-duty pickup trucks and may contain after-market modifications to support the mission. 4. Transport vehicles: Light, medium, or heavy-duty trucks used to transport an operator and tools or equipment of a non-specific design or nature. The vehicle s possible uses include repair, maintenance, and delivery. 5. Specialty vehicles: Vehicles designed to accommodate a specific purpose or mission (such as ambulances, mobile cranes, and handicap access assistance). 6. Shuttles/buses: Vehicles designed to carry more than 12 passengers and further outlined in 49 CFR Low-speed vehicle: Vehicles that are legally limited to roads with posted speed limits up to 45 mph and that have a limited load-carrying capability. 9 [accessed January 10, 2014] [accessed January 7, 2015] [accessed January 7, 2015]. 6

19 Figure 3. Vehicle missions. 4.2 Alternative Fuel Vehicles The adoption of PHEVs and BEVs is a primary goal of GSA and supports the directives previously referenced. As GSA increases its certification of PHEVs and BEVs, agencies can plan for vehicle replacement through GSA for passenger vehicles and trucks. Table 2 presents the replacement requirements for fleet vehicles. Note that both the age and mileage requirements need to be met in order for the vehicle to qualify for replacement, except where noted as or. Table 2. GSA vehicle replacement requirements. GSA Vehicle Replacement Requirements 12 Passenger vehicles Light trucks 4 x 2 Light trucks 4 x 4 Medium trucks Heavy Trucks Fuel Type Years Miles 3 36,000 Gasoline or 4 24,000 alternative fuel 5 Any mileage vehicle Any age 75,000 Hybrid 5 Any mileage Low-Speed BEV 6 Any mileage Non-diesel 7 or 65,000 Diesel 8 or 150,000 Hybrid 7 Any mileage Non-diesel 7 or 60,000 Diesel 8 or 150,000 Hybrid 7 Any mileage Non-diesel 10 or 100,000 Diesel 10 or 150,000 Non-diesel 12 or 100,000 Diesel 12 or 250, [accessed March 16, 2015]. 7

20 4.3 Battery Electric Vehicle and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Benefits and Challenges BEVs are fully powered by the battery energy storage system available onboard the vehicle. The Nissan Leaf is an example of a BEV. Because the BEV has no other energy source for propulsion, the range, power requirements, and mission of the needed vehicle factor greatly in purchasing decisions. Maximizing BEV capabilities typically requires batteries more than an order of magnitude larger in capacity than the batteries in hybrid electric vehicles. PHEVs obtain their power from at least two energy sources. The typical PHEV configuration uses a battery and an ICE, powered by either gasoline or diesel. PHEV designs differ between manufacturers. All have a charge-depleting (CD) mode, where the battery is depleted of its stored energy to propel the vehicle, and a charge-sustaining (CS) mode (or extended-range mode), which is entered after CD mode is complete. Some PHEVs operation in CD mode is purely electric, while others employ the engine to supplement the battery power during the initial battery depletion to a set state of charge (usually below 50%), with the latter known as blended CD mode. CS mode involves a combination of propulsion power of battery and ICE, while the state of charge of the battery is maintained between set limits Battery Electric Vehicle Benefits/Challenges EPA identifies the following benefits of BEVs: 13 Energy efficient: Electric vehicles convert about 59 to 62% of the electrical energy from the grid to power at the wheels, whereas conventional gasoline vehicles only convert about 17 to 21% of the energy stored in gasoline to power at the wheels. Environmentally friendly: PEVs emit no tailpipe pollutants, although the power plant producing the electricity may emit them. Electricity from nuclear, hydro, solar, or wind-powered plants causes no air pollutants. Performance benefits: Electric motors provide quiet, smooth operation and exhibit maximum torque at zero and low speeds, while also requiring less maintenance than ICEs. Reduce energy dependence: Electricity is a domestic energy source. The EPA also identifies the following challenges associated with BEVs: Driving range: Most BEVs can only travel about 100 to 200 miles (or less) before recharging, whereas gasoline vehicles can often travel over 300 miles before refueling and some much further. Recharge time: Fully recharging the battery pack can take 4 to 8 hours. With a high-power direct current fast charger (DCFC), restoration from a depleted state to 80% capacity can take approximately 30 minutes. Battery cost: The large battery packs are expensive and may need to be replaced one or more times. Bulk and weight: Battery packs are heavy and take up considerable vehicle space Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Benefits/Challenges EPA identifies the following benefits of PHEVs: 14 Less petroleum use: PHEVs are expected to use about 40 to 60% less petroleum than conventional vehicles. Because electricity is produced primarily from domestic resources, PHEVs reduce dependence on oil [accessed March 16, 2015] [accessed March 16, 2015]. 8

21 Fewer emissions: PHEVs are expected to emit fewer GHG emissions than conventional vehicles, but as with BEVs, the difference depends largely on the type of power plant supplying the electricity. Higher vehicle costs, lower fuel costs: PHEVs will likely cost $1,000 to $7,000 more than comparable non-phevs. Fuel will cost less because electricity is much cheaper than gasoline, but the fuel savings depends on how much driving is done with the off-board electrical energy. Recharging takes time: Recharging the battery typically takes several hours. However, PHEVs do not have to be plugged in to be driven. They can be fueled solely with gasoline, but will not achieve maximum range, fuel economy, or fuel savings without charging. Measuring fuel economy: Because a PHEV can operate on electricity alone, gasoline alone, or a mixture of the two, EPA provides a fuel economy estimate for gasoline-only operation (CS mode), electric-only operation (all-electric CD mode), or combined gasoline and electric operation (blended CD mode). In most cases, the PEV retail cost is higher than a non-pev model. This incremental purchase cost may be a fleet budget challenge; however, many original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) have offered incentives to encourage the use and adoption of BEVs and PHEVs. Some OEMs have recently reduced vehicle cost, while also increasing vehicle range. Additionally, federal and state incentives have increased the attractiveness of purchasing a PEV. A common assumption is that increasing PEV sales will result in a reduction in this incremental purchase cost and a positive feedback loop will ensue. 4.4 Plug-In Electric Vehicle Availability GSA provides a summary of light and medium-duty passenger vehicles available for lease or purchase through the GSA portal, 15 although not all BEVs and PHEVs currently on the market are certified to be GSA replacements. Vehicles not on the GSA list of certified vehicles require an agency to self-certify a functional need or provide alternative measures for exemptions. Table 3 summarizes the vehicles that may be suitable replacements and are certified replacements through GSA. Note that the CD/CS column provides the EPA fuel economy values for the CD and CS modes of PHEVs, while the city and highway fuel economy values are provided for BEVs. Fuel economy of the PHEV CD mode and BEVs is provided in units of miles-per-gallon-of-gasoline-equivalent (MPGe). This metric allows electricity consumption to be compared with fuel consumption during CS mode (or against conventional vehicles). The Nissan Leaf and Mitsubishi i-miev were not included in the alternative fuel guide available at this writing, but they have appeared in previous guides. Tables 3 and 4 provide summaries of PHEVs and BEVs currently listed by GSA. Tables 5 through 8 provide summaries of PEVs either currently available or near commercialization for all vehicle types and include those on the GSA list. These vehicles may qualify for use by the agency through demonstrating a functional need. Table 3. GSA-certified PHEVs for Make/Model GSA Class Type CD/CS GSA Incremental Price Chevrolet Volt* Sedan, Subcompact PHEV 98 MPGe/37 mpg $17, Ford C-MAX Energi Sedan, Subcompact PHEV 88 MPGe/38 mpg $14, Ford Fusion Energi Sedan, Compact PHEV 88 MPGe/38 mpg $13, * The Chevrolet Volt has an all-electric CD mode rated for 38 miles. The Ford vehicles have blended CD modes rated for 20 miles [accessed June 23, 2015]. 9

22 Table 4. GSA-certified BEVs for Make/Model GSA Class Type City/Highway GSA Incremental Price Ford Focus Electric Sedan, Subcompact BEV 110/99 MPGe $11, Smart Fortwo ED Sedan, Microcompact BEV 123/93 MPGe $7, Note that EPA differs from GSA in vehicle class designation. EPA identifies the Volt as a compact, the C-MAX Energi as a midsize, the Fusion Energi as a midsize, and the Focus Electric as a compact. 16 Table 5. OEM PHEV cars and availability. Initial Model Year/Estimated Make EPA Class Model Year for Commercialization Chevrolet Compact Volt 2011 Ford Midsize C-MAX Energi 2013 Ford Midsize Fusion Energi 2013 Toyota Midsize Prius PHEV 2012 Honda Midsize Accord PHEV* 2014 Cadillac Subcompact ELR 2014 Porsche Large Panamera S E-Hybrid 2014 BMW Subcompact i3 REx 2014 BMW Subcompact i Hyundai Midsize Sonata PHEV 2015 (estimate) Audi Compact A3 e-tron 2016 (estimate) Mercedes Subcompact C350 PHEV 2016 (estimate) Mercedes Large S550 PHEV 2016 (estimate) * Honda did not release a MY2015 Accord PHEV; the return of this vehicle model is uncertain. Table 6. OEM BEV cars and availability. Make EPA Class Model Initial Model Year/Estimated Year for Commercialization Nissan Midsize Leaf 2011 Ford Compact Focus Electric 2012 Tesla Large Model S 2012 Mitsubishi Subcompact i-miev* 2012 Fiat Mini 500e 2013 Honda Small Station Wagon Fit EV 2013 smart Two Seater Fortwo ED 2013 BMW Subcompact i Chevrolet Subcompact Spark EV 2014 Kia Small Station Wagon Soul EV 2014 Volkswagen Compact e-golf 2015 Mercedes-Benz Midsize B-Class Electric Drive 2015 * Mitsubishi did not manufacture a MY15 i-miev; the vehicle returned in the 2016 MY [accessed March 16, 2015]. 10

23 Table 7. OEM PHEV trucks, vans, and availability. Make EPA Class Model Initial Model Year/Estimated Year for Commercialization Via Standard Pickup Truck VTRUX VR Via Special Purpose Vehicle VTRUX Cargo Van 2013 Via Vans, Cargo Type VTRUX Pass Van 2013 Mitsubishi Small SUV Outlander PHEV 2016 (estimate) Table 8. OEM BEV trucks, vans, and availability. Make EPA Class Model Initial Model Year/Estimated Year for Commercialization Tesla Standard SUV Model X 2015 (estimate) Nissan Van e-nv (estimate) As further indication of the expanding market for PEVs, companies are offering after-market vehicle upgrades involving the addition of plug-in capabilities to OEM vehicles. For example, Echo Automotive headquartered in Scottsdale, Arizona offers a low-cost, bolt-on, plug-in hybrid system that can quickly be installed on new or existing fleet vehicles to increase fuel efficiency and decrease operating costs all without affecting the OEM power train or requiring costly infrastructure. 17 EVAOS conducts upgrades of Ford F-series pickup trucks to PHEV models and has delivered vehicles to the U.S. Air Force 18. Options such as these conversions might be of benefit for fleet vehicles for which no replacement PEV is currently available. 4.5 Plug-In Electric Vehicle Charging Refueling electric vehicles presents some challenges and some opportunities not encountered when refueling petroleum-fueled vehicles. Recharging the battery of a PHEV follows the same methodology as that for BEVs. This section provides basic information on recharging PEVs Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment Design Charging Components. Electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) stations deliver electric power from the utility to the applicable charge port on the vehicle. Figure 4 illustrates the primary components of a typical conductive, alternating current (AC) Level 2EVSE unit [accessed March 15, 2015] [accessed March 16, 2015]. 11

24 Figure 4. AC Level 2 charging diagram. 19 The electric utility delivers AC current to the charging location. Conversion from AC to the DC electricity necessary for battery charging can occur either on or off board the vehicle. Section provides further explanation of the different EVSE configurations. For onboard conversion, AC current flows through the PEV inlet to the onboard charger. The charger converts AC to the DC current required to charge the battery. A connector attached to the EVSE inserts into a PEV inlet to establish an electrical connection to the PEV for charging and information/data exchange. Off-board conversion, also known as DC charging, proceeds in a similar manner except that the AC to DC conversion occurs in a charger that is off board the vehicle and, thus, bypasses any onboard charger. For both AC and DC charging, the PEV s battery management system on board the vehicle controls the battery rate of charge, among other functions. All current PEVs have an onboard charger; some BEVs (but no PHEVs currently available in the United States) accommodate DC charging Charging Configurations and Ratings. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standardized the requirements, configurations, and equipment followed by most PEV suppliers in the United States in the J1772 TM standard. Figure 5 summarizes these attributes and the estimated recharge times. Actual recharge times depend on the onboard equipment, including the charger, battery, and battery management system [accessed March 16, 2015]. 12

25 Figure 5. SAE charging configurations and ratings terminology. 20 PEVs are typically sold with an AC Level 1 cordset included. This cordset is generally intended to be used when a 120-volt electrical outlet is available (and a slower charge rate is acceptable) or in emergencies when the vehicle is away from installed AC Level 2 EVSE. A typical cordset is shown in Figure 6. Figure 6. Chevrolet Volt AC Level 1 cordset. 21 AC recharging capabilities found in the public arena more typically are AC Level 2. Figure 7 depicts a typical SAE J1772-compliant inlet and connector for both AC Levels 1 and [accessed June 25, 2015]

26 Figure 7. SAE J1772 connector and inlet. 22 The J1772 standard also identifies requirements for DC charging. For PEVs that accept both AC and DC inputs, the SAE approved a single connector and inlet design, known as the combined charging system. Figure 8 shows this connector, which is colloquially known as the J1772 combo connector. Figure 8. J1772-compliant combo connector. 23 Some BEVs introduced in the United States prior to the approval of the J1772 standard for DC charging employ the CHAdeMO (designed in Japan) standard for connector and inlet design. Figure 9 shows this connector. DC EVSE units that are either J1772-compliant or CHAdeMO-compliant are both known as DCFCs. Tesla Motors has installed proprietary EVSE units for their vehicles because these vehicle do not meet either DCFC standard; however, Tesla offers adapters for their vehicles that allow for charging at J1772 AC Level 2 and CHAdeMO EVSE. 24 The presence of the three separate standards for DC charging presents challenges for vehicle owners to ensure the EVSE accessed provides the appropriate connector for their vehicle inlet. Not all PEV suppliers include DC charging options. BEV suppliers have provided DC inlets, where PHEV suppliers have not, because the rapid recharging provides opportunities for expanded vehicle range with minimal operator wait 22 [accessed March 16, 2015] [accessed March 16, 2015] [accessed March 19, 2015]. 14

27 times. PHEV operators can rely on the gasoline drive in the event they deplete the vehicle s battery (and for comparison to the energy transfer of the charge rate, the energy being added by the gasoline pump is about 10 MW). At present, no PHEV on the market or near commercialization has DC charging capability (although the upcoming Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV may offer DC charging capability as an option). Figure 9. CHAdeMO-compliant connector. 25 Because the battery of a BEV is typically much larger than that of a PHEV, recharge times are longer (see Figure 10). BEVs that see daily mileage near the limits of the advertised range do better when recharged using AC Level 2 EVSE or DCFC, because AC Level 1 recharge times are usually extensive. PHEVs, on the other hand, generally can use AC Level 1 EVSE for overnight charging to ensure a fully charged battery at the start of daily use. AC Level 2 EVSE units provide greater range in the shortest amount of time when intermediate or opportunity charging. DCFC provides the fastest recharge capability for those vehicles equipped with DCFC inlets. Figure 10. Public AC Level 2 EVSE Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment Stations AC Level 2 charging is the predominant rating of publicly accessible EVSE because of its wide acceptance by auto manufacturers and recharge times that are faster than AC Level 1 charging. Purchase and installation costs are more manageable than DCFCs and less space is required. Several manufacturers of AC Level 2 equipment exist and the agency should review brands for comparison purposes. Figure 10 provides an example of a public AC Level 2 EVSE unit. DCFCs also are available from several manufacturers. Figure 11 illustrates one such charger. This particular charger uses the CHAdeMO connector standard [accessed March 16, 2015] 26 [accessed March 16, 2015] 15

28 Figure 11. Public DCFC unit. 27 In general, installation costs are higher for DCFC because of the higher voltage requirements and the inclusion of an AC to DC converter and other safety and design features. Costs for both types are highly dependent on site characteristics such as distance to the nearest power source, asphalt or concrete cutting and repair, conduit requirements, and payment systems, if any. Payment and equipment control systems included by some suppliers provide the potential for use by privately owned vehicles for a fee, but can allow agency fleet vehicle use without direct payment. These systems also allow for accurate record keeping of vehicle charging requirements. 5. NATIONAL AGENCIES MISSION ANALYSIS 5.1 Analyzed Fleet Summary This study selected 162 vehicles for monitoring. Heavy-duty trucks, buses, and specialty vehicles were removed from the summary because no production PEVs are available for replacement or, if available, specific replacement and charging analysis would be required. Meaningful results are available on 153 of the monitored vehicles. Table 9 lists the vehicles for each agency by EPA class. Table 9. Study fleet vehicles. Sedan Compact Sedan Midsize Sedan Large SUV Mini- Van Cargo Van Pass Van Pickup Total GGNRA FVNHS GCNP RMNP SLBE CTNF WSTF GRC SSP USCG ASPR VA-BR [March 16, 2015] 16

29 Sedan Compact Sedan Midsize Sedan Large SUV Mini- Van Cargo Van Pass Van Pickup Total VA-MAN NIH INL Total Figure 12 shows the relative composition of all vehicles analyzed. High reliance on pickup trucks and sport utility vehicles (SUVs) as the most versatile of vehicles is evident. Figure 12. Composition of agencies monitored fleets. The selection of vehicles for monitoring intended to be a representative sample of the full fleet of vehicles in order to provide the possibility of extrapolating results to the full fleet. The composition of monitored vehicle types compared to available full fleet information is shown in Figure 13. Figure 13. Comparison of monitored vehicles types versus full fleet vehicle types. As displayed, the monitored vehicles fairly represent the full fleet, although the figure slightly emphasizes sedans and minivans. PEV sedan models are more generally available as vehicle replacements and are currently the only PEV vehicle type available on the GSA list. Note that certain vehicle types, such as low-speed vehicles, heavy-duty trucks, buses, specialty vehicles, forklifts, and non-powered equipment were not analyzed. Based on the agencies inputs on fleet vehicles, an assessment of mission by vehicle type was completed. Table 10 shows the results of that assessment. 17

30 Table 10. Study fleet mission assessment. Sedan Compact Sedan Midsize Sedan Large SUV Mini- Van Cargo Van Pass Van Pickup Total Pool Support Enforcement Transport Total The vehicle types used in the mission assignments monitored are shown in Figure 14. For example, 57% of all pickup trucks monitored were used in the support mission and 47% of SUVs monitored were involved in enforcement activities. Figure 14. Vehicle type by mission. The selection of vehicles for monitoring intended to be a representative sample of the full fleet of vehicles in the mission assigned. Mission assignments of monitored vehicle types compared to available full fleet information are shown in Figure 15. As displayed, monitored vehicles fairly represent the full fleet. Data collection took place from August 2011 through March Vehicle data sheets (presented in each agency s report) detail the collected data and individual analysis for each vehicle. Of the data collected, validation occurred for 97.9% of the total collection, while null values exist for the balance. Table 11 shows this information by mission type. Trips and outings were described in Section 3.3. Aside from specific vehicle cargo requirements, these factors are the most important in determining the ability of BEVs and PHEVs to replace their ICE vehicle counterparts. A BEV driver must be able to complete the mission within the range capability of the BEV, which is typically defined by an outing (i.e., all trips away from and back to the vehicle s home base). If charging stations are available at more locations, the length of the trip to that location becomes important. The total of all daily travel is also important because if all daily travel is within the range capability of the BEV, charging may be accomplished once per day when the vehicle is idle. PHEVs do not have the same range limitations, but daily travel is important for calculations of fuel and GHG emissions reductions. Figure 16 shows the cumulative percent of vehicle daily travel for all monitored vehicles. Fully 84% of all vehicles traveled less than an average of 70 miles per day, which is the typical range for BEVs. Considering the peak travel days, 34% of all monitored vehicles traveled less than the average of 70 miles 18