PROMOTING HIGHER EDUCATION FOR POLICE PERSONNEL: SUCCESSFUL PRACTICES IN ARIZONA POLICE AGENCIES. G. Kelly Michelson. August 2002

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1 PROMOTING HIGHER EDUCATION FOR POLICE PERSONNEL: SUCCESSFUL PRACTICES IN ARIZONA POLICE AGENCIES by G. Kelly Michelson August 2002

2 ABSTRACT The purpose of the study was to determine which Arizona municipal police agencies had implemented a college requirement, the specific nature of the requirement (pre-service or promotional requirement and amount of college required), and successful practices utilized to implement and maintain the requirement. A comprehensive literature review traces the historical support for a college degree requirement and the nexus between this requirement and law enforcement s recognition as a profession. A macro view of the research over the past three decades linking improved police performance with higher education is presented. Recommended strategies and practices to implement a college requirement identified in the literature are evaluated in light of the experiences of Arizona municipal agencies. The research revealed that few Arizona municipal agencies have implemented a college requirement. Only 17.8% of the municipal agencies in Arizona reported having a college requirement for promotion, and only 5.6% of the agencies reported having a pre-service college requirement. 86% of the practices\strategies identified in the literature review were found to be applicable to Arizona municipal agencies reporting to have a college requirement. 58% of these practices\strategies were employed by a majority of respondents. Strategies for implementing and maintaining a college requirement unique to Arizona municipal police agencies are also presented. ii

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES...v CHAPTER 1 - THE PROBLEM...1 Introduction...1 Development of the Problem...1 Need for the Study...3 Purpose of the Study...4 Research Question...4 Assumptions and Limitations...4 CHAPTER 2 - REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE...6 Introduction...6 Higher Education and Law Enforcement Professionalism...7 Higher Education and Its Impact On Police Performance...12 Obstacles to Implementing College Requirements for Police...19 Recommendations for Successful Recruitment of College-Educated Individuals...24 Summary...27 CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY...29 Introduction...29 Research Design...29 Source of the Data...30 Procedure...31 Instrumentation...33 Methods of Analysis...34 Assumptions and Limitations...35 CHAPTER 4 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA...36 College Requirements by Agency Size...36 Findings on Successful Practices and Strategies...38 Findings on Obstacles or Barriers Experienced...41 iii

4 Findings Specific to Arizona Agencies...43 CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...47 Summary...47 Conclusions...50 Recommendations...53 REFERENCE LIST...55 APPENDIX A - INITIAL SURVEY LETTER...56 APPENDIX B DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE...59 APPENDIX C AZ POLICE AGENCIES WITH COLLEGE REQUIREMENT...66 iv

5 LIST OF TABLES Figure 1 Proportion of Minority\Female Officers by Educational Level Figure 2 - Arizona Municipal Police Agencies With College Requirements Figure 3 Successful Practices and Strategies for Requiring College Figure 4 Obstacles or Barriers to Requiring College v

6 CHAPTER 1 - THE PROBLEM Introduction Observers, both from within and outside the law enforcement profession, have recognized for years the value of college-educated police officers. Nonetheless, an educational requirement for police officers of more than a high school diploma has yet to become a reality in most law enforcement agencies. The focus of this study was to determine which Arizona municipal police agencies have implemented some form of college requirement and then examine the steps used to implement the requirement and subsequently attract, recruit and hire college graduates. The goal of the study was to identify successful practices leading to the implementation and maintenance of a college requirement to serve as a model for other police agencies seeking to implement the requirement. Development of the Problem During the past century, numerous national bodies have cited the need for better-educated police officers. As early as 1931, the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement (Wickersham Commission) identified higher education as a means for enhancing professionalism within law enforcement. In Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, the final report of the President s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice (1967), it was recommended that agencies primary goal should be to hire officers with college degrees. The Task Force Report The Police (President s

7 Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice 1967), more specifically recommended that future officers possess a two-year degree, while supervisor and administrators hold four-year degrees. In 1972, the American Bar Association Project on Standards for Criminal Justice stressed that police departments needed sworn personnel who had acquired characteristics (intellectual curiosity, analytical ability, articulateness, and social and political sensitivity) that a liberal arts college education fosters. Subsequently, the National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals recommended that by 1982 all officers have an undergraduate degree (1973). Despite these recommendations, any form of college requirement for the law enforcement profession has been elusive. Minority recruitment issues, inadequate salaries, and the continuing debate on the value of a college degree in law enforcement have been cited in the literature as possible distracters to the achievement of this goal. In a study conducted for the Police Executive Research in 1989 of law enforcement agencies serving jurisdictions with more than 50,000 inhabitants, the authors noted that only about 13.7 percent of the law enforcement departments they surveyed required more than a high school diploma (some college, an associate s or a bachelor s degree) and that almost three-fourths had no policies requiring college education for promotion (Carter, Sapp, and Stephens, 1989, p. xvii). A subsequent study by the Bureau of Justice Studies (Local Police Departments 1997, 2000) examined 3,417 state and local law enforcement agencies. As a requisite for employment, only one percent of these agencies required a four-year degree, eight percent a two-year degree and five percent some lesser amount of college. Eighty-three percent of these agencies continued to require only a high school diploma. 2

8 Despite the lethargic adoption of a college requirement by police agencies, support for the requirement has not waned. Emphasis on a college requirement is now being embraced by associations internal to the law enforcement profession, rather than from without. Recently, both the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF) and the International Association of Directors of Law Enforcement Standards and Training (IADLEST) have passed contemporary resolutions (1998) in support of the need for college educated police officers, with the former advocating a 4-year degree requirement by the year In addition, the federal courts have recognized college education as a bona fide occupational qualification for police, noting that a college education develops and imparts the requisite level of knowledge [Davis v. City of Dallas 777 F.2d 205 (5 th Cir. 1985, Certiorari Denied to Supreme Court May 19, 1986)]. A college education was found to provide the foundation for better judgment, critical thinking, and analytical ability, and these traits were found to be essential in a high risk professions such as law enforcement, both for the officers and the public s safety. Need for the Study Given the historical and ongoing support for a college degree requirement for police officers, it was important to ascertain those agencies who have been successful in implementing such a requirement and how. Case studies of such agencies provide valuable insight into the factors leading to successful implementation and maintenance of a college degree requirement. As a bi-product of the study, real and perceived obstacles 3

9 faced in implementing the college requirement were identified, along with the steps taken to ameliorate them. Clearly, in the new millennium, the challenges facing the police profession will continue to grow, and to respond to these challenges effectively the profession must promote higher education in our pre-employment and promotional processes. It is hoped that the findings of this study can provide a blueprint for the successful implementation of a college requirement for other law enforcement agencies. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to identify those Arizona municipal police agencies with some form of college requirement for the hiring or promotion of municipal police officers, and identify successful practices employed by them to implement and maintain the requirement. Research Question What Arizona municipal police agencies have some form of college requirement (some college, an associate s degree or bachelor s degree) and what practices have been successful in the implementation and maintenance of that requirement? Assumptions and Limitations This researcher believes that there is conclusive research concerning the positive impact of higher education on police performance and the law enforcement professional overall. While, as in any body of research, there have been some contradictory findings, there is 4

10 ample evidence to suggest that college education positively affects various performance indicators of law enforcement officers. These officers have been shown to out perform their less educated counterparts in a number of critical areas including communication skills, public relations, report-writing, analytical skills, decision-making, and adaptability to change (Carter, Sapp, and Stephens, 1989 p. ix). Therefore, for the purposes of this study, it was assumed that a college degree requirement was worthy of attainment. Given this assumption, the identification of successful practices for the implementation of a minimum level of college for hiring or promotion, and subsequently attracting, recruiting and hiring of college-educated applicants was considered worthy of study. A limitation of the study was the use of a selected sample of Arizona police agencies. It was also being limited to municipal law enforcement agencies, rather than all law enforcement agencies in the state. The qualitative nature of the study, size of the study population, and unique factors associated with each individual agency also limit the study findings generalizabililty. Finally, the nature of the study was inductive, rather than deductive, and therefore relies on the observation of individual cases in establishing general findings. Nonetheless, it is hoped that the findings will serve as a valuable template for law enforcement agencies wishing to implement a minimum level of college for entry-level police officers or for promotional requirements. 5

11 CHAPTER 2 - REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction This study s review of literature first traces the historical support for a college requirement and the nexus between this requirement and law enforcement s recognition as a profession. It next presents a macro view of the research over the past three decades. The review relies on several seminal works, supplemented with supporting contemporary efforts, linking improved police performance with higher education. Finally, it summarizes real and perceived barriers noted in the literature that have impeded the implementation of a college requirement for police, along with recommendations that have been made to overcome these barriers. Many of these recommendations focus on proactive steps the literature suggests are necessary to successfully recruit, hire and maintain college-educated officers. According the Bureau of Justice Studies (Local Police Departments 1997, 2000) as of June 1997, there were over 19,000 state and local law enforcement agencies in the United States, with 14,000 of these being local police departments. Within these municipal departments there are an estimated 420,000 sworn police officers. As these statistics demonstrate, law enforcement is a very large and decentralized field, and it is one that affects everyone s life. As such, it should come as no surprise than a significant amount of intellectual interest and research concerning the area of police professionalism and performance has been conducted. Overall, higher education is seen to contribute to both.

12 Higher Education and Law Enforcement Professionalism As early as the 1900s higher education was linked by many to be the key to police professionalism. One of the earliest and most prominent advocates of this relationship was August Vollmer (Palumbo, 1995). Vollmer was a nationally renown figure in the 1930 s and was know for his pioneering work in professionalizing the Berkeley, California, Police Department. As both the president of the International Association of Chiefs of Police, and the Los Angeles Police Department Police Chief in the 1920s, his reputation was grounded in his beliefs on what constituted a professional police agency and officer. He believed in the application of scientific methods to both the administration of the police as well as to the apprehension of criminal offenders. To that end, he recognized the importance of obtaining highly qualified police officers to perform the police function. Vollmer was extremely critical of the quality of police officers in his time, and felt that a professional officer was synonymous with an educated officer. He felt that for an officer to become an expert in their field, they must have requisite credentials provided by a college education. He felt that college educated persons possessed more favorable attributes to do the work required in policing than those with less formal education (Vollmer, 1936 as cited in Palumbo, 1995). Vollmer s campaign to professionalism in law enforcement, along with efforts of other progressive reformers, prompted the formation of the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement in This commission, commonly know as the Wickersham Commission, recommended that professional police administrators serve a fixed term of office run police departments. It 7

13 was also extremely critical of the majority of police officers in the United States at the time, noting that they were neither suited by temperament, education, or training for the police work. It found that at least 75 percent of the officers were mentally unqualified to engage in police work (National Commission, 1931, p. 58). Prior to the depression, due to the economy, a large number of college graduates were recruited in to policing, however, this success was short lived and ended after the depression (Palumbo, 1995, p. 30). The next major milestone, and perhaps most significant, in the recognition of higher education s relationship with professional policing was in the 1960s. Up until the 1960s, much of the effort to professionalize the police function was focused on improving the police bureaucracies. Emphasis was placed on improvement of the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization, yet little attention was given to the service related goals of a professional police officer (Walker, 1977 and Goldstein, 1979 cited in Palumbo 1995). This led to an impersonal form of policing with predictable and inevitable consequences. In late 1960s there was a flurry of activity related to higher education and law enforcement. The impetus for this activity came from many factors: changing social values, civil unrest and the police response, police relationships with minorities, increasing interest in law enforcement research, and the changes to the reform management styles in policing decade of the 1960s, with it social and political turmoil and rising tension between minority groups. (Carter, Sapp, and Stephens, 1991, p. 1) Perhaps the most significant upshot of this period s tension and turmoil was the formation of the President s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice in A major tenant of the Commission s recommendations was increased 8

14 educational requirements for all officers entering policing. The President s Commission recommended that police educational standards be raised, with the ultimate goal of requiring a baccalaureate degree as a minimum standard for employment. The basis for these recommendations was the increasing complexity of police tasks, coupled with police officers need for a strong foundation on which to base many critical decisions while policing the community (President s Commission, 1967). Subsequently, Congress created as one of the provisions of the Omnibus Crime Control Act of 1968, the Law Enforcement Education Program (LEEP). LEEP was the monetary engine for promoting higher education in law enforcement. It was designed to stimulate criminal justice personnel s attendance in college. In the case of the police, the belief was that better-educated law enforcement officers would provide more responsive, more comprehensive, and more insightful police service. In the long term, as college-educated officers rose into police leadership positions, they would explore new approaches [to policing], with more creativity and better planning (Carter, Sapp and Stephens, 1989 p. 167). Patrick Murphy, a renowned former Commissioner of the New York City Police Department and advisor to the 1967 President s Commission on Crime, perhaps sums up the feeling of the time best in the following quotation: Policing has been called the unprofessional profession; officers are entrusted with expansive powers and have broad discretion in the exercise of those powers. Police officers must wear many professional hats to perform their duties with skill and success, including those of information processor, community organizer, crime analyst, counselor, street corner politician, arresting officer, school liaison, 9

15 and community leader. Any of these positions, taken individually, would warrant a higher education requirement; collectively, they point out the necessity of an educated police force. (Carter, Sapp and Stephens, 1989, p. iii) The momentum for college educated police officers accelerated in the 1970s. The American Bar Association joined the cry for better educated officers, stressing that police departments needed sworn personnel with characteristics that a college education fosters, including intellectual curiosity, analytical ability, articulateness, and a capacity to relate the events of the day to the social, political, and historical context in which they occurred (American Bar Association, 1972, p. 212 cited in Palumbo, 1995, p. 41). The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (1973) subsequently established target dates by which police departments were to establish formal educational requirements. They called for implementation of a baccalaureate requirement for entry-level police officers by However, the issue of a college requirement for police was not without controversy. LEEP created a proliferation of college criminal justice and police science programs in a relatively short time frame. Concerns started to be expressed about the value of the coursework being offered by many of these institutions. Criticisms directed toward the quality of the curricula and instruction in college criminal justice programs were compiled and forwarded to Congress by what became known as the Sherman Commission (Sherman and National Advisory Commission, 1978 cited in Carter, Sapp and Stephens, 1989). However, although there had been scholarly debate as to what information and emphasis preprofessional education for law enforcement should include, a study of the effects of education generally showed that students intellectual aptitudes, including the ability to 10

16 think critically and independently, increased as they progressed though college (Sherman and the National Advisory Commission, 1978 p. 44 cited in Palumbo, 1995, p. 38). Another area of criticism that surfaced in the 1970s was the lack of research in support of the 1967 President s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice recommendations for a college degree requirement. Many felt that the goals of the Commission were generally rhetorical and based on intuitive logic rather than empirical evidence, even though the qualitative nature of their arguments were cogent (Carter, Sapp and Stephens, 1989). While arguments to date had driven public opinion that higher education was central to police professionalism, there was little empirical evidence that it impacted on police attitudes or performance. As a result, starting in the 1970s through the present, there has been a proliferation of research concerning various aspects of the relationship between higher education and police performance. In the next section of this literature review, the last three decades of research concerning higher education s impact on police performance will be recapped. However, before addressing this section, it is important to point out that higher education continues to be seen as a critical element in law enforcement receiving recognition as a profession. Despite the lethargic adoption of a college requirement by police agencies, support for the requirement has not waned. As previously noted, two of today s prominent organizations, the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF) and the International Association of Directors of Law Enforcement Standards and Training (IADLEST), have recently passed contemporary resolutions in support of the need for college educated 11

17 police officers, with the former advocating a 4-year degree requirement by the year 2003 (Mayo and Murphy, 1998). Higher Education and Its Impact On Police Performance While voluminous research has been conducted on the topic of higher education and its impact of police performance, two seminal works stand out in the literature of the last decade. Their value is not only in the independent research conducted by their authors, but by the comprehensive and objective nature of their review of previous research. The first of these works, sponsored by the Police Executive Research Forum, was The State of Police Education: Policy Direction for the 21 st Century (Carter, Sapp, and Stephens, 1989). The second, published as part of the academic series, Current Issues of Criminal Justice, was entitled Academic Professionalism in Law Enforcement (Palumbo 1995). Collectively, the extensive bibliographies in these texts provide a comprehensive recap of the literature through In addition to these sources, relevant publications since 1995 were added to this study s literature review to supplement the record and make it more contemporary. In The State of Police Education: Policy Direction for the 21 st Century, the authors assessed the recommendations of various national commissions on higher education for police, developed a profile of current practice, and examined related policy issues facing law enforcement administrators. Data was collected via a content analysis of the literature, a survey of 699 State, County, and municipal law enforcement agencies nationwide, and site visits to selected police departments. The authors found that certain 12

18 patterns emerged related to police performance and higher education; overall, college educated officers were better communicators, more flexible and adaptive, and performed better in several key areas. The authors noted that previous methodologies used in research on the effects of higher education had included quasi-experimental designs, longitudinal studies, survey research, participation observer studies, qualitative research, and various modifications and variations of these methods. Several consistent themes emerged from their extensive literature review (Carter, Sapp, and Stephens, 1989 p. ix): College-educated officers perform the tasks of policing better than their non-college counterparts. College-educated officers were generally better communicators, whether with a citizen, in court, or as part of a written police report. The college-educated officer was more flexible in dealing with difficult situations and in dealing with persons of diverse cultures, life-styles, races, and ethnicity. Officers with higher education were more professional and more dedicated to police as career rather than as a job. Educated officers adapted better to organizational change and were more responsive to alternative approaches to policing. College-educated officers were more likely to see the role of police in relationship to the broader picture of the criminal justice system, rather than to view police more provincially as an exclusive group. 13

19 Law enforcement agencies had fewer administrative and personnel problems with the college-educated officers compared with the noncollege officer. In addition, through their interviews and site visits, the authors observed that police executives found numerous advantages to college-educated officers; they found these officers communicated better with the public, wrote better reports, performed more effectively, received fewer citizen complaints, showed more initiative in performing police tasks, were more professional, used discretion more wisely, were more likely to be promoted, were better decision makers, showed more sensitivity to racial and ethnic groups, and had fewer disciplinary problems officer (Carter, Sapp, and Stephens, 1989 p. xxii). In Academic Professionalism in Law Enforcement, the relationships between education, officer performance, and professionalism was examined for a group of patrol officers in the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD). The primary issue addressed in Dr. Palombo s study was whether an officer's educational level (the presence or absence of some level of college education) influenced the probationary performance levels and subsequent professional attitudes of Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) officers assigned to patrol. In addition, a determination was made as to whether the educational or academic status of the officer mediates or assists in interpreting the relationship between education level, probationary performance, and professional attitudes. Using multivariate statistical results of weighted data from a systematic random sample of officers from the LAPD, a functional model was developed to examine the relationships between higher 14

20 education and professionalism. The model examined the complex relationships between the pre-service educational level of officers and professional values. Links between officer pre-service educational level, early performance indicators, subsequent educational attainment or academic status, and the professional values of patrol officers were examined. Dr. Palumbo s research demonstrated that as pre-service education levels 1increased, early performance and professional values of police officers increased as well. In addition, based on the extensive review of the literature, the study also concluded that the overwhelming majority of research conducted over the past 20 years showed that higher educational attainment by police officers did have a positive impact on their performance, values, and attitudes when compared with non-college educated officers. Beginning in 1967 and culminating with her own research in 1995, Dr. Palumbo conducted an extensive literature review that examined a series of studies concerning the relationships between college education and various indicators of officer performance. Not surprisingly, the author noted mixed findings. Seven of the 54 studies reviewed noted negative factors apparently related to a college education, but these were limited to the areas of officer cynicism, attrition, and involvement in violent incidents, field performance and respect for citizens. The remainder of the studies reviewed by the author found either no impact or a positive correlation between higher education and police performance. Sixteen studies were examined where no correlation between higher education and various factors associated with police attitudes or performance could be shown. However, thirty-one studies revealed that education had a positive effect on a 15

21 variety of performance and attitudinal factors. These included officers being less cynical, less conservative, less authoritarian, less dogmatic, less insular, and less rigid. Conversely, officers were found to be more flexible, more adaptive to their environment, more open minded, and more receptive and empathetic to minorities and they were found to place higher value on ethical behavior. College-educated officers demonstrated greater intelligence, higher motivation, higher self-esteem and they had greater academic success, greater success in the basic training academy, better evaluations and performance ratings, better performance on promotional examinations, and received more promotions. They had lower attrition and absentee rates, took less sick time, had fewer disciplinary problems, had fewer sustained complaints, used less excessive force, had fewer allegations of harassment, and fewer dismissals. They were also found to have received less derision by youths, to have fewer citizen complaints and to have local citizenry express more pride in college-educated officers. Operationally, college-educated officers had more arrests, were less inclined to resolve all incidents by arrest, had fewer injuries by assault and fewer preventable accidents, had higher report completion rates, made better decisions, demonstrated less negative attitudes toward legal restrictions, and were more favorably disposed to decisions of the U. S. Supreme Court (Palumbo, 1995, p ). Collectively, the multi-faceted research recapped in Dr. Palumbo s and Carter, Sapp and Stephen s work, supports the intuitive and qualitative findings of Commissions and National Associations previously noted. In addition, subsequent research has continued to support the argument for college-educated officers. 16

22 In 1997, Smith and Aamodt examined the relationship between police education and performance. Data from 299 police officers from 12 municipal police agencies in Virginia was used to examine the relationship. Police performance was measured by means of supervisor evaluations of each police officer's overall performance, communication skills, public relations skills, report-writing skills, decision-making ability, response to new training, and commitment to the police agency. Results revealed significant correlations between education and most measures of performance. The only variables not significantly related to education were objective measures of the volume of arrests, the number of times the officer required discipline, and the number of accidents they were involved in. These contemporary findings were consistent with previous research supporting the relationship between higher education and police performance. A unique finding of the study revealed that the benefits of a college education did not become apparent until the police officers gained experience. Officers with more tenure and with a college education demonstrated the greatest competency. In addition, police officers with only a high school diploma demonstrated a decrease in overall performance after 5 years of experience. Again, in 1997, Michals and Higgins examined the relationship between educational levels and the performance, this time specific to the role of campus police officers. The participants in the study included police officers from public and private colleges, universities, and community colleges throughout Virginia. Data came from a survey of police chiefs regarding the officers' report-writing proficiency, communication skills, frequency of discipline problems, overall performance, as well as years of service and the 17

23 highest level of education completed. Data from 165 campus police officers at 16 campus police agencies in Virginia were used. Results revealed that education was significantly related to supervisor ratings of report-writing proficiency and communication skills. This contemporary work also identified a relationship between experience and the positive influence of higher education, specifically in the area of report writing. Officers with 5 or more years of experience and higher levels of education performed better, but education was not found to be a predictor of better report writing ability in police officers with less than 5 years of experience. Contemporary research not only supports the relationship between a college education and police performance, it also supports the relationship between college education and police officers attitudes on the job. In 1996, J.T. Krimmel examined officer s perceptions as to whether college-educated police officers performed better than police officers without a college degree, using a self-reported performance survey. Police officers in New Jersey and Pennsylvania localities were asked to anonymously rate their performance using a questionnaire that contained 45 separate performance indicators. Educated police officers in Howell Township, New Jersey, rated themselves higher than non-degreed police officers in all categories. Their ratings were statistically significant on knowledge of police department rules, use of safety practices, and ability to accept change. In Bucks County, Pennsylvania, educated police officers rated themselves higher on several performance indicators than non-degreed police officers, particularly with regard to employee contacts, knowledge of the law, preparation for court, quality of work assignments, level of problem-solving ability, level of arrest analysis, confidence with 18

24 supervisors, quality of written work and oral presentations, self-image, and interpersonal relationships. In both samples, respondents with a college degree or higher scored better on almost all performance indicators. While discrepancies between studies continue to exist, as the preceding review of the literature clearly reflects, it is clear that college-educated officers out perform their less educated counterparts in a number of critical areas including communication skills, public relations, report-writing, analytical skills, decision-making, and adaptability to change. Obstacles to Implementing College Requirements for Police As previously noted, the most recent survey by the Bureau of Justice Studies (Local Police Departments 1997, 2000) examined 3,417 state and local law enforcement agencies. It found that only one percent of these agencies required a four-year degree, eight percent a two-year degree and five percent some lesser amount of college for entrylevel officers. In fact, eighty-three percent of these agencies continued to require only a high school diploma. In light of the preponderance of evidence in support of a college requirement, why have so few law enforcement agencies implemented some form of college requirement? One of the major obstacles believed to impede the implementation of a college requirement for entry-level officers was concern over the availability of college-educated minorities, as well as the possibility of a disparate impact on minorities, and the resulting 19

25 liabilities. Carter, Sapp and Stephens, as a part of their 1989 survey work, focused on the minority makeup of the law enforcement profession. When compared to the general population, the aggregate data collected in their research indicated that law enforcement agencies had a proportionate number of minority group members in their organizations. Educational levels of minority police officers were approximately the same as white officers at the undergraduate level and higher than white officers at the graduate level. Specifically, minority representation in law enforcement was 12.3 percent black, 6.4 percent Hispanic, and 1.0 percent other. The authors noted These proportions compared favorably with the general population distributions (12.1 percent black, 8.0 percent Hispanic, 3.0 percent others). Not only did minority employment compare favorably with the minority make-up of the community at large, the educational profile of these officers provided evidence that college-educated minorities could be effectively recruited. In addition, currently employed minorities and female employees were found to have equivalent or greater amounts of college education than white males. The following statistics from the authors survey help to illustrate this point (Carter, Sapp, and Stephens, 1989 p. xii - xv). Percent of Officers Having Blacks Hispanics White Other Male Female No college Some undergraduate credits Graduate college degrees Figure 1 Proportion of Minority\Female Officers by Educational Level 20

26 As the authors noted, the data from their survey indicated that underrepresented groups (minorities and females) with a college education could and were being effectively employed by law enforcement agencies. They felt that the number of minorities with college education was of particular importance, noting The data suggests that higher education may not have an inherently discriminatory effect on minorities as strong as previously estimated... it may not be necessary to establish differential educational criteria for minority group members to meet affirmative action goals. (Carter, Sapp, and Stephens, 1989 p. xv) Not only was the availability of college educated minority officers a concern impacting the establishment of a college requirement for police officers, so to was the fear of adverse court decisions concerning affirmative action. Carter, Sapp and Stephens (1991, p ) and Dr. Palumbo (1995, p ) addressed this issue by conducting extensive legal reviews concerning bona fide occupational qualifications (BFOQ) for employment, discrimination in employment, and affirmative action practices. These reviews span related case law established by court decisions since 1972, with both reviews concluding that an educational requirement for police officers was legally enforceable. Case law prior to 1985 showed a recognition of the unique responsibilities of public safety, the difficulty of quantifying skills for qualitative job tasks, and an evolutionary foundation for required education level for law enforcement (Carter, Sapp and Stephens, 1991, p. 16). It was with this foundation that the court ruled in the now landmark case in this arena, Davis v. Dallas. In Davis the court found that policing was a professional occupation requiring an unusual degree of risk with a unique public 21

27 responsibility. With these factors present, the court concluded that the educational requirements bears a manifest relationship to the position of officer, thereby mitigating the requirement s discriminatory effects (Carter, Sapp and Stephens, 1991, p. 15). As the court observed in Davis, Few professions are so peculiarly charged with individual responsibility as police officers. Officers are compelled to make instantaneous decisions, often without clear-cut guidance from the legislature of departmental policy, and mistakes of judgment could cause irreparable harm to citizens or even the community. (Davis at 215) In it s ruling, the court recognized a college education as a bona fide occupational qualification for police, noting that a college education develops and imparts the requisite level of knowledge [Davis v. City of Dallas 777 F.2d 205 (5 th Cir. 1985, Certiorari Denied to Supreme Court May 19, 1986)]. This finding paved the way for an educational requirement for police. Employment law requires equal opportunities for minorities; it does not require an employer to hire individuals who do not possess the requisite requirements. The Supreme Court of the United States has yet to address this issue, however, based on Dr. Palumbo s extensive review of the case law she notes if the Supreme court were to follow the methods and rational of the previous circuit court rulings, it would seem that 1) a finding of disparate impact and hence, discrimination, most likely may not be supported, and (2) a college education, nonetheless would be considered a bona fide occupational qualification exception for police officers positions (Palumbo, 1995, p. 105). 22

28 While minority recruitment has been a central issue, other concerns have slow acceptance of a college-degree standard as well. In discussion with police administrators throughout the country, Carter, Sapp and Stephens identified three important myths related to recruiting to be central to the problem (Carter, Sapp and Stephens, 1991). 1) Law enforcement salary and benefits are not competitive. 2) There are few college students who want to enter local law enforcement after graduation. 3) There are virtually no minority group members who are college educated and interested in the local law enforcement. The authors labeled these barriers to recruiting college-educated individuals into policing as myths, finding they were not supported by the data or the authors experiences. Related to salaries and benefits, the authors noted that based on their review of starting salaries in law enforcement agencies, officers typically earned $23,000-26,000 annually plus overtime, court time, pay and benefits. They pointed out that average starting salaries for college degree-holders varied, but for other entry level occupations commonly requiring social science backgrounds the average annual starting salary was $23, 310, and they typically did not pay overtime. With respect to college graduates and their willingness to seek employment in a law enforcement agency, the authors found a significant body of college students interested in police work, many expressing an interest in patrol. Noting that some had speculated that college educated officers would seek federal law enforcement positions, the authors found that these positions often were 23

29 not as financially attractive, and they required a person to relocate away from their family and friends. Finally, addressing the issue of college educated minorities lack of interest in policing, the authors pointed out that a large number of minority students in colleges and universities were enrolled in social science majors, many of which were enrolled in criminal justice classes and were in fact interested in law enforcement careers (Carter, Sapp and Stephens, 1991, p ). Based on the review of the literature, the primary obstacles to implementing a college-degree requirement are more often perceived than real. Nonetheless, it is important to define strategies that can be employed to overcome these barriers, as well as to successfully implement a college requirement. Recommendations for Successful Recruitment of College-Educated Individuals While there is a great deal of literature concerning the impact of an educational requirement for police, little research has been conducted on how to best implement a college requirement. However, the Police Executive Research Forum, through the work of Carter, Sapp and Stephens, has tried to provide some strategies and policy guidelines to promote this requirement. In The State of Police Education: Policy Direction for the 21 st Century, the authors believed that educational requirements for entry-level officers could be effectively implemented. Based on site visits of police departments conducted during their study, the authors developed a series of recommendations. Among these recommendations, they suggested several strategies that are paraphrased below (Carter, Sapp, and Stephens, 1989, p. xxiii-xxvii): 24

30 Educational requirements should be implemented as a matter of policy, not through informal mechanisms Organizational commitment to the educational requirement must exist, it could not just be a token program A policy paper should establish higher education as a bona fide occupational qualification A plan for implementation and programming, and dedicated resources for effective implementation Involvement of the police officers association in the dialogue and planning prior to implementation of an educational requirement Flexibility in implementation of the plan, providing for temporary suspension of entry-level educational requirements with appropriate alternatives (obtaining degree in-service) Support for an educational requirement in the career development plan Ongoing communication between the police department and local colleges and universities to enhance the ability to implement higher education policies Implementation of educational support polices including incentive pay, tuition assistance, tuitions reimbursement, on duty class attendance, shift and days-off schedule adjustments, scholarships, and support in the form of recognitions, such as citations 25

31 Specific to recruiting college-educated officers, the Commission on Accreditation of Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA) observed that law enforcement agencies should identify and employ the best candidates available, not merely eliminate the least qualified (CALEA Standards 1987:31-1 as cited in Carter, Sapp and Stephens, 1991, p. 21). Recruiting must be a proactive process that seeks to identify the best possible candidates and sell the potential candidates on applying to the police agency. Unfortunately, as Bock (1989) observed in law enforcement, the approach that typically is used is hiring, not recruiting. There is little selling of the department and even fewer attempts to overtly identify the best possible candidates (Carter, Sapp and Stephens, 1991, p. 21). Recommendations suggested for selling police work and recruiting college-educated officers suggested by these authors include: Revise Civil Service Regulations to appropriately value college educational achievement Elimination of residency requirements to allow for a broader pool of applicants Develop a regional applicant pool for the recruitment of qualified candidates Making the recruitment function a priority, providing it the needed resources and utilizing qualified people to perform the recruiting function Provide a flexible testing environment that accommodates applicants schedules Establish cadet or community service programs (programs that hire high school graduates in a non-sworn capacity and provide access and incentives to complete college) primarily designed to increase the number of college-educated applicants 26

32 Develop programs to enhance the police image including public service announcements, publicity and paid advertisements Remove maximum age restrictions for police service Clearly, many of the recommendations contained in the literature are merely good management, personnel and human resource practices. Nonetheless, they are at least a starting point for establishing a framework of support for a college requirement. Unfortunately, little contemporary research exists to measure the effectiveness of these, or other strategies in implementing a college degree requirement. Summary As the preceding review of the literature demonstrates, support for the implementation of some form of college degree requirement has been around since the early 1900s. Supporters of such a requirement believe that college educated personnel perform better as police officers and that a degree requirement for entry level officers is essential if law enforcement is to be recognized as a profession. Today, support for a college degree requirement is stronger than ever, and the body of research in support of such a requirement has grown significantly. Unfortunately, the number of agencies requiring some form of college requirement for entry-level police officers has not grown at an equivalent rate. 27

33 If education is indeed the answer to more professional and competent policing, then the challenge is to determine what steps can be taken to successfully implement a college requirement for police officers. It is also important to identify the perceived and real barriers to implementing such a requirement, and to provide strategies for overcoming them. As the review of the literature has shown, a number of myths concerning the feasibility of implementing a college degree requirement have been debunked. In addition, several strategies have been suggested to promote and implement such a requirement. However, little contemporary research has validated the effectiveness of these strategies in implementing college requirements for police. To this end, the current study identified municipal law enforcement agencies in Arizona that had implemented some form of entry-level or promotional college requirement, and assessed the strategies and practices they employed to implement their requirement. 28

34 CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY Introduction The purpose of this study was to identify those municipal agencies in Arizona that had some form of college requirement for hiring or promotion of officers, and then catalog successful practices employed by these agencies in implementing and maintaining the requirement (some college, an associate s degree or bachelor s degree) for municipal police officers. The study first determined how many law enforcement agencies within the state had established a college requirement and at what level. It then explored what these agencies had found successful in attracting, recruiting and hiring college-educated applicants. It also ascertained obstacles or perceived obstacles these agencies had to overcome in establishing the requirement. Research Design This study utilized a descriptive research design. As noted in 1986 by Kerlinger (cited in Merriam and Simpson, 2000), the central focus of descriptive research is to examine facts about people, their opinions, and attitudes. The purpose of a descriptive design is to systematically describe the facts and characteristics of a given phenomenon, population or area of interest (Merriam and Simpson, 2000, p. 61). The descriptive research design was used in this study based on the need to understand and discover the content of

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