PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF TRAINING AND PERFORMANCE IN SENIOR AND JUNIOR ELITE JUDO ATHLETES

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1 - PSYCHOLOGCAL CORRELATES OF TRANNG AND PERFORMANCE N SENOR AND UNOR ELTE UDO ATHLETES (j\![1mm33 3fZRG121f 9 fj 1 %m) Davd MATSUMOTO (San Francsco Sae Unversy USA) Masayuk TAKEUCH (Dao Bunka Unversy apan) B*j\![ apanese Academy of Budo

2 - f \$Vf33-(l) : <'!f> PSYCHOLOGCAL CORRELATES OF TRANNG AND PERFORMANCE N SENOR AND UNOR ELTE UDO ATHLETES \ T! "! f ;! nroducon Davd Masayuk MATSUMOTO TAKEUCH Research has documened he psycholgcal facors ha predc compeve success n Amercan udo ahlees )these sudes were unque because hey lnked pre-compeon psychologcal saes wh acual performance n compeon n one sudy for example senor ele and non-ele ahlees compleed he Sae-Tra Anxey nvenory (ST A) he Spor Compeon Anxey Tes (SCAT) and he Spor Self -Confdene nvenory (SSC) all of whch are wdely used measures n spor psychology The ele ahleses also compleed he Bg Fve nvenory (BF) a common personaly es ha assesses fve unversal dmensons of personaly Performance ndces for ele ahlees were gahered from acual compeon he followng day and ncluded a classfcaon of each ahlee as placng or no n he ournamen ndvdual wn raos across all maches and aack frequences averaged across maches Male placers had margnally sgnfcan hgher scores on Openness han non-placers and female placers hgher scores on exroverson conscenousness and self-confdence and sgnfcanly lower scores on neurocsm Female placers also had lower anxey scores han non -placers Deparmen of Psycholo1gy San Francsco Sae Unversy 1600 Holloway Avenue San Francsco CA Tel: Fax: E-mal: dm@sfsu;edu (San Francsco Sae Unversy USA) (Dao Bunka Unversy apan) n a subsequen sudy 68 ele and 71 non -ele udo ahlees compleed a baery of psychologcal measures assessng compeon anxey mood sress spor-relaed self-confdence copng sraeges personaly and locus of conrol Pah analyses esng sx causal models ndcaed ha several key varables predced performance Ahlees who experenced more subjecve conrol over he oucome aacked more durng maches and had more nernal locus of conrol performed beer Copng processes nvolvng confronve copng escape/avodance copng socal suppor -based copng and conscenousness predced subjecve conrol Neurocsm predced escape/ avodance copng5) Ele ahlees also had more self-confdence hgher scores on anger-hosly and more subjecve conrol over he oucome of he compeon han non-ele ahlees29) Cumulavely hese sudes ndcae ha compeve success s assocaed wh more self -confdence anger-hosly subjecve conrol over oucomes conscenousness nernal locus of conrol and socal suppor Compeve success s also assocaed wh less anxey neurocsm confronaonal syles of copng and escape/ avodance copng Clearly hese fndngs have helped us o pnpon he psychologcal characerscs of ele judo ahlees mmedaely pror o compeon ha are relevan and mporan o predcng subsequen compeve success Relevan Non-udo Leraure These fndngs are congruen wh he non -11--

3 - - \! :';: j1f 33-(1) judo leraure as well For nsance some sudes ndcae ha successful ahlees coped wh sress more effecvel han non-successful ahlees2l) Ohers have also demonsraed ha anxey mood sress copng and conrol collecvely conrbue o he predcon of performancelolsl9) Equally mporan are he psychologcal facors of he sress and copng paradgm ha predc ranng oucomes and adherence ndeed he ably o ran effecvely no doub has an mpac on performance Prevous research ndcaes ha psychologcal consrucs do ndeed predc ranng oucomes For example changes n anger anxey and self-confdence over he course of 10 week ranng camp for ele udo ahlees predced ranng camp performancel7} Mood and adapve copng behavors predced he amoun of conrol and commmen o ranng regmens for junor hgh school hgh shool and college swmmers5) Locus of conrol predced srengh change scores n college fooball players over a 14 week wegh ranng program3) Sress levels and personaly characerscs have been assocaed wh overranng3) Fnally one sudy used changes n mood o assess wheher Olympc canoers became sale from oo much ranngl> These sudes pon o he relevance of psychologcal facors n he ranng process 2 Translaon o Tranng Whle we know of he mporance of ceran psychologcal characerscs n dealng wh sress and anxey pror o compeon s no clear as o wheher he same psychologcal models can accoun for ranng effehveness n he days weeks and monhs pror o compeon Compeve performance s heavly nfluenced by he degree and ypes of ranng ahlees engage n for exended perods of me pror o sha As such he psychologcal facors ha conrbue o effehve ranng over hese perods of me are crucal o compeve success or falure The psychologcal models we have creaed unl now may no be drecly applcable o ranng Whle momenary psychologcal conrol over oucomes copng and sae self-confdence are mporan n dealng wh pre-compeon sress he same psychologcal varables may no be mporan n dealng wh he sress of ranng or predcve of compeve performance when assessed much pror o compeon Gven he mporance of ranng n any spor s necessary o examne he degree o whch our psychologcal models are relevan o predcng ranng performance and subsequen compeon when he compeon s no mmedae 3 Saemen of he Problem and Overew of he Sudy Ths sudy exends our prevous work by exarnng he role of psychologcal characerscs n predcng ranng as well as compeve oucomes Senor and junor ele judo ahlees compleed a comprehensve baery of psychologcal ess hao ncluded all of he measures used n our prevous research as well as one addonal one Daa wre colleced durng ranng camps ha were held several monhs before compeon The coaches a he ranng camps raed ranng performance for each ndvdual ahlee Compeon performance was assessed by placemen a he laer compeon Mehods 1 Subjecs Daa were colleced a wo ranng camps conduced a he US Olympc Tranng Cener One was for senor ele ahlees held n February of 1997 (n=54 28 males 26 female; mean age= 2102; mean rank = ndan; mean number of years n udo= 1129); he oher was for junor eles held n Aprl (n=40 24 males 16 females; mean age= 1744 years; mean rank=shoudan; mean number of years n udo=785) Alhough some

4 ll MATSUMOTO: Psychologcal Correlaes of Tranng and Performanec n Senor and unor Ele udo Ahlees f ; ; f ' j f ' #1 j f!\ s ' ahlees parcpaed n boh camps and daa collecons only her daa from a sngle sennon was used 2 Measures Psychologcal varables A comprehensve baery of psychologcal ess was used ncludng sx measures used n our prevous research: () The Bg Fve nvenory (BF) s a 54-em es ha scores fve personaly dmensons: Openness Neurocsm Conscenousness Exraverson and Agreeableness has been used wdely n he psychologcal leraure and shown o be boh relable and vald78} (2) The Locus orconrol (LaC) es s a 29-jem es ha measures he degree o whch a person arbues courol of evens o nernal (sel f) or exernal (envronmenal) facors and has also been used wdely boh relably and valdly2o) Ths es s essesally one of arbuonal syle whch s he ypcal way n whch ndvduals nerpre he underlyng causes of evens or suaons n whch hey engage A person wh a hgh nernal locus of conrol s more lkely o arbue causes of evens o facors ha are nernal o hm or herself such as effor ably apude and he lke A person wh a hgh exernal locus of conrol s more lkely o arbue causes of evens o facors ha are exenal o he self such as fae luck coachng suaonal deermnans and he lke (3) The Bref Copng nvenory (BC) s a 24 -em es ha scores 8 ypes of psychologcal processes ndvduals use o cope wh sressful evens: Confronve Copng Dsancng Self -Conrol Seekng Socal Suppor Accepng Responsbly Escape/Avodance Planful Problem Solvng and Posve Reapprasal Good relably and valdy sascs have been repored for hs measure4) (4) The Compeve Sae Anxey nvenory (CSA) s a 27-em 'es ha measures wo ypes of compeve anxey: cognve and somac has been wdely used n he spor psychology leraure boh relably and valdlyl2) (5) The Profle of Mood Saes (POMS) s a 65 -em es ha measures sx dfferen moods: T enson- Anxey Depresson-foolowng Dejecon Anger-Hosly Vgor-Acvy Fague -nera and Confuson-Bewldermen Ths measure han also been demonsraed o have hgh relably and valdyl1} (6) The Sae Spor Self-Confdence nvenory (SSC) s a 13-em es ha measures sae self -confdence The CSA descrbed above also ncludes a Self-Confdence scale ha was scored Fnally ahlees made a sngle-em rang on a 4-pon scale of how much confdence hey fel hey had n beng capable of dong wha was necessary o aler he oucome of he compeon The SSC has been wdely used n he spors psychology leraure and shown o be boh relable and vald23) n addon we ncluded he Arbuonal Syle Quesonnare (ASQ)Z2) The ASQ s a 48 -em quesonnare brefly descrbng suaons and evens wh posve or negave oucomes For each subjecs selec one of wo presumed causes each of whch operaonalzes a dfferen face of opmsm Opmsm s an arbuonal syle characerzed by a endency o nerpre evens people and suaons posvely Pessmsm on he oher hand s he endency o make negave nerpreaons Opmsc people are beer able o overlook negave evens sress and duress n he hope of obanng posve oucomes n he fuure Opmsc arbuonal syles herefore may be mporan n dealng wh and engagng n ough ranng regmens day n and day ou n he hopes of posve compeon oucomes Whle opmsc people are lkely o engage n effecve ranng for hs reason pessmsc people are lkely o fnd such engagemen dffcul -13-

5 _ -!! Vf 33-(1) 2000 Scores on en scales of arbuonal syles relaed o opmsm or pessmsm are derved from he varous ems ncludng Permanen Bad and Good (he degree o whch people beleve he causes o bad evens are permanen) Pervasve Bad and Good (he degree o whch people beleve he causes o had evens are unversal or specfc) Personalzaon Bad and Good (referrng o he degree o whch people use nernal v exernal explanaory syles for bad evens) Hope (for ease of nerpreaon were reverse coded) Toal Bad and Toal Good hese scores Overall Opmsm n congruence wh our prevous research he ahlees also provded four rangs on her subjecve level of sress hey fel durng he me of he asessmens mporance of he evens how much subjecve conrol hey fel hey had over oucomes and how much confdence hey had Each of hese rangs was made on 4-pon scales The ahlees also provded some basc bodaa and a bref descrpon of her ranng schedule ncludng nformaon relaed o her udo ranng srengh and condonng ranng cross-ranng oher ranng ads and supplemenal ranng Tranng performance rangs A four-em rang scale compleed ndepesdenly by all coaches a he camps measured each ahlee's performance The four ems ncluded rangs of echcal randor supplemenal ranng and oher ranng sessons All rangs were compleed usng a fve-pon scale rangng from 1 poor o 5 excellen FOllr coaches made rangs a boh camps and he rangs were averaged across coaches on each em for each ahlee producng four compose ranng camp performance rangs Averagjng across he four composes also produced an overall ranng performance rang Compeon performance daa Compeve performance for each ahlee was measured by acual compeon performance a he US Senor Naonal udo Champonshps ha occurred durng he frs weekend of May of 1997 All ahlees fnshng 1s 2nd or 3rd were classfed as "placers" all ohers were classfed as "non -placers " 3 Procedures The daa were colleced n wo separae sessons wh he BF LOC and ASQ compleed n he frs sesson and all oher psychologcal varables compleed n he second Performance rangs by he coaches were compleed a he end of he camps a he fnal coaches' meengs Resuls Daa were analyzed separaely for each sesso and across boh sessons and separaely for senors and junors All fndngs repored here were relable across all ses of analyses conduced; hus for parsmony we repor only a sngle se of fndngs from he aggregaed daa se 1 Dd he Psychologcal Characerscs Predc Performance Durng Tranng? Pearson produc momen correlaons were compued beween each of he psychologcal varables and he compose coaches' rangs averaged frs whn each coach and hen across all four of he coaches We consdered as sgnfcan only hose effecs ha were sascally sgnfcan usng he overall compose coach rangs and a leas wo of he oher whn-coach averages ASQ scale Pervasve Good was sgnfcanly and posvely correlaed wh all fve ranng performance ndces r(92)= 3066 p < 05; 3848 p<o; 4316 p<05; 3449 p<05; and 4480 p < 05 respecvely Ahlees who were pervasvely opmsc n her arbuonal syle performed beer a he ranng camps han ahlees wh less opmsc arbujonal syles z 1-14-

6 - ) f! r ' «"! g " MATSUMOTO: Psychologcal Correlaes of Tranng and Performanec n Senor and unor Ele udo Ahlees POMS Vgor subscale was sgnfcanly and acual place n he ournamen There were no posvely wh overall coaches' rangs and wo dfferences n hese fndngs) specfc coaches rangs r(92)=5081 p< 01 ; 3 Pos-Hoc Analyses r(92)=3831 p<05; r(92)=4597 p<o Ahlees wh more vgor valy srengh and energy dfferences n he non-psychologcal daa we To examne he possbly of performance performed beer a he ranng camps performed -ess on hese varables usn place/ Ahlees' subjecve rangs of how much conrol hey fel hey had over he oucomes of he repored more sprn workous per week han non non-place as he ndependen varable Placers ranng camp also posvely correlaed wh -placers (65)=218 p<05 and a greaer coaches' rangs r(92)=5351 p<o: r(92)= amoun of me n newaza drlls (84) = 171 P < 4825 p<o; r(92) =4953 p<o; r(92)= 05 All oher effecs however were no sgnfcan 3665 p < 05; and r(92) = 2570 p < 10 for he We also creaed a new "super ele" caegory overall and four coaches' rangs respecvely denfyng hose ahlees who were he op raed Ahlees wh had more subjecve conrol performed beer a he ranng camps ed hese ahlees agans all oher ele ahlees on ahlee n her wegh caegory We hen compar- Fnally CSA Self-confdence was posvely he non-psychologcal daa; none of he effecs correlaed wh ranng performance rangs excep age was sgnfcan (super ele ahlees were r(92)=5915 p<o: r(92)=5677 p<o; younger) Also oher han age and years dong r(92)=5901 p<o ; r(92) =3702 p<o ; and judo only wo non-psychologcal varables r(92) =3404 p < 05 for he overall and four dfferenaed junor eles from senor eles; coaches' rangs respecvely Confden ahlees junor ele ahlees dd more dsance runs per performed beer durng he ranng week and more cross-ranng (78)=313 p< 2 Dd he Psychologcal Characerscs Predc Performance n Subsequen Compe- Because he ASQ was newly nroduced n hs 01; and (35)=264 p<o respecvely on? sudy we compued produc momen correlaons T -ess were compued on all psychologcal beween all scales of he ASQ and he oher varables usng he place/non-place personaly psychologcal varables There was a subsanal scale Agreealeness (93)=202 p<05 on he number of sascally sgnfcan fndngs especally wh he fve personaly scales of he BF Hope subscale of he ASQ (89) = 162 P < 05 and on he Dsancng subscale of he BC ( 48) = and he LaC (Table ) n shor ahlees wh [81 P < 05 Placers also had lower scores on he opmsc arbuonal syles ended o have Anger-Hosly subscale ( 47) = 153 P < 06 and hgher scores on Agreeableness Conscenousness and Openness and lower scores on Neur- he Confuson-Bewldermen subscale of he POMS (48)= \27 p<o; and he Cogsve ocsm and ended o have more nernal locus Anxey subscale of he CSA ( 48) = 196 p < 05 conrol No oher effecs were sgnfcan (Because of hgh mssng values n some of hese analyses hese ess V Dscusson were recompued by replacng mssng values wh Ahlee who were more opmsc experenced more vgor and srengh experenced more ndvdual and group means and by usng produc momen correlaons recodng he place/non subjecve conrol over oucomes and had greaer -place daa no an nerval varable accordng o self-confdence were unformly raed hgher n -15-

7 ll f 33-(1) 2000 Table 1 Produc Momen Correlaons Beween BF and LaC wh ASQ Scales (decmals omed) Permanen Permanen Pervasve Pervasve Personalza Personalza Overall Hope Toal Bad Toal Good Bad Good Bad Good on Bad on Good Opmsm Exraverson Agreeableness ' " ' ' Conscenousness -2436' 2497' -2299' 2812' ' ' 2792' Neurocsm 3182" " 2356' ' openness -2289' \ ' ' -183\ Locusof Conrol \ ' " \ ' ' her ranng performance durng he camps n addon ahlees scorng hgher on Agreebleness hope and dsfncng-ype copng and lower on anger confuson and anxey durng he ranng camps performed beer n laer compeon These relaonshps are que dfferen han hose denfed n our prevous research ha predced compeve performance and sugges ha dfferen psychologcal mechansms ha predc compeon performance are nvolved n ranng han mmedaely before compeon f rue rases quesons concernng exacly wha hose mechansms durng ranng may be and how hey ranslae over me o he pre-compeon mechansms observed n our prevous research Ths noon suggess a que complex model of he psychologcal facors necessary for ranng and compeon for judo ahlees wh one model operang durng ranng monhs pror o compeon and a dfferen model operang mmedaely before compeon A hs me we have no speculaon abou wha hese models make look lke One lmaon of he curren sudy concerns he relably of he fndngs Wh he excepon of he fndngs on he opmsm scale (ASQ) he number of sgnfcan fndngs nvolv ng he oher psychologcal varables n relaon o he oal number oa sgnfcance ess compued rases concerns abou Type error Alhough he oal proporon of sgnfcan resuls s above 05 s no ha subsanally greaer One mplcaon j 1 & a herefore s he need o replcae he fndngs of hs sudy The fndngs repored from our prevous research were replcaed n wo sudes ha nvolved mulple daa collecons wh mulple samples The curren fndngs need o be replcaed pror o furher conclusons abou he naure of he psychologcal mechansms mporan o predcng ranng and performance oucomes Anoher lmaon of he curren daa concerns he valdy of he coaches' rangs Thea he coaches' rangs dd no predc subsequen performasce quesons he valdy of he naure of such ranng camps or he naure of hose rangs f he coaches' rangs durng he ranng camps were relable ha would sugges ha he mporan psychologcal mechansms o explore occur no durng percdc camps bu nsead durng he daly ranng ha occurs n local judo dojos where he eleahlees ran Fuure research may explore hs possbly furher One of he promsng fndngs from hs sudy cenered on opmsm Opmsc ahlees performed beer a he ranng camps and a subsequen compeon There several possble reasons as o why hs occurred Opmsc ahlees may be able o work hrough he sress of nense ranng nerpreng her ranng posvely for fuure oucomes Opmsc ahlees herefore wll connue o work hard seek advce correc msakes and have a posve oulook ha conrbues o her feelngs of psychologcal conrol over laer sha oucomes Pessmsc ahlees how

8 MATSUMOTO: Psychologcal Correlaes of Tranng and Performanec n Senor and unor Ele udo Ahlees! ṭ ever are less able o nerpte her ranng experences posvely and nsead work lessseek less help and are more apahec abou correcng msakes n her judo Ths nerpreaon s bolsered by he commelaon wh locus of conrol Opcsc ahlees had more nernal locus of conrol whle pessmsc ahlees had more exernal locus of conrol nernal locus of conrol s necessary for ahlees o manan a sense of psychologcal conrol over her ranng and subsequen sha oucomes whch s mporan n deermnng compeve success Ahlees wh exernal locus of conrol see evens suaons people and her lves as beng caused by facors ousde of her drec conrol These ahlees would end no o be able o ran well or compee well Tha opmsm was relaed o conscenousness and neurocsm fs well wh our prevous resuls Opmsc ahlees end o be conscenous whch ads n her ably o adhere o src ranng regmens n her daly lves They are also able o beer regulae her emoons whch s a hallmark of neurocsm n conjuncon wh nermal locus of conrol hese ahlees are able o conrol her emoons no allowng hem o ge he beer of hem durng nense ranng Many udo coaches and ahlees know hao some nense emoons durng ough ranng can overwhelm ahlees and nerfere severely wh ranng regmens negavely affecng subsequen sha oucomes sugges ha opmsm may be an mporan facor n predcng agreeableness whch has mplcaons o he ably o seek and ake advce from coaches whch s mporan n oday's fas movng ever changng compeve udo world f he fndngs from hs sudy prove o be relable hey offer us a plaform n conjuncon wh our many fndngs from our prevous research o develop nervenon sraeges o nhrease psychologcal characerscs such as opmsm n our ahlees and o conduc appled research demonsrang he effecveness of such nervenon and s conrbuon o compeve oucomes Gven he large leraure n psychology on he relaonshp beween opmsm on many psychologcal (eg depresson subjecve well beng ec) and appled (healh longer lfe spans beer sales and busness producvy ec) consequences he benefs o our ahlees may be greaer han mere spor compeon References ) Berglund B & Safsrom H: Psychologcal monorng and modulaon of ranng load of world -class canoess Medcne and Scence n Spors and Exercse Vol 26 (8) ) Behl M Masumoo D Takeuch M & Kmura K: Psychologcal dfferences beween ele and non -ele Amercan udo ahlees Paper presened a he Thrd Annual US Naonal udo Coaches Conference Colorado Sprngs Colorado 1996 Sepember 3) Brone R & Reznkoff M: Srengh gans locus u 11 The emergence of he mporance of Agreeableness s also new Whle s no drecly mporan o sha oucomes he correlaon beween agreeableness and opmsm suggess a degree of coachably on he par of he ahlees As many coaches know some ahlees are very dffcul o coach These ahlees end o be on her own and s very dffcul o make adj usmens n preparaon for or durng compeon These fndngs of conrol and self-descrpon of college fooball players Percepual and Moor Sklls Vol 69 (2) ) Folkman S & Lazarus RS: Ways of copng quesonnare: Research edon Palo Alo: Consulng Psychologss Press ) Goss D: Hardness and mood dsurbances n swmmers whle overranng ournal of Spor and Exercse Psychology Vol 16 (2)

9 6) Hollander D B Meyers M C & LeUnes A: Psychologcal facors assocaed wh overranng: mplcaons for youh spor coaches ournal of Spor Behavor Vol 18 () ) ohn O P: The search for basc dmensons of personaly: A revew and crque Advances n Psychologcal Assessmen ) ohn O P Donalhue E M & Kenle R L: The "Bg Fve" nvenory-verson 4a and 54 Techncal Repor (uly 1991) Unversy of Calforna Berkeley: nsue of Personaly Assessmen and Research ) Kmura K Masumoo D BehlM & Takeuch M: Psychologcal dfferences beween male and female Amercan udo ahlees Paper presened a he Thrd Annual usn Naonal udo Coaches Conference Colorado Sprngs Colorado 1996 Sepember 10) Krohne H & Hndle C: Tra anxey sae anxey and copng behavor as predcors of ahlec performance Anxey Research ) McNar D M Lorr M & Droppleman L F: Manual for he Profle of Mood Saes San Dego CA: ndusral Tesng Servce ) Marens R Vealy R & Buron D: Compeve anxey n spor Champagn L: Human Knecs ) Masumoo D Behl & Kmura K: une Compeon anxey self -confdence personaly and compeon performance of Amercan ele and non-ele udo ahlees Paper presened a he 1995 Annual Uned Saes udo nc Naonal udo Coaches Convenon Colorado Sprngs Colorado ) Masumoo D Takeuch M Behl M Kmura K & Nakajma T: Sress and copng n Amercan udo ahlees Budogaku Kenkvu (Research Oll'l1al of Budo) ) Masumoo D Takeuch M Kmura K & Nakajma T: The relaonshp beween sress copng and performance n ele Amercan udo ahees (presened napanese as "Amercajn udo Kyouka Senshu n Ufjj; 33-(1) 2000 okeru suoresu o sono suoresu Tashohou o kyoug Kekka no Kanrense") Paper presened a he 29h Annual Conference of he apanese Academy of Budo (Nppon Budo Gakka Da 29 Ka Budo Gakka) Toka Unversy Kanagawa apan 1996 Sepember 16) Masumoo D Takeuch M & Nakajma T: Psychologcal dfferences beween Amercan and apanese udo Ahlees (presened n apanese as "Nchbe udo Senshu no Shnrekna Sou") Paper presened a he 28h Annual Conference of he apanese Academy of Budo (Nppon Budo Gakka Da 28 Ka Budo Gakka) Osaka Gakun Unversy Osaka apan 1995 Sepember 17) Murphy S M Fleck S Dudley G & Callser : Psychologcal and performance concomans of ncreased volume ranng n ele ahlees ournal of Appled Spor Psychology Vol 2 () ) Po ra Y Luf D & Tenenbaum G: Psychologcal componens conrbue o selec young female gymnass nernaonal ournal of Spor Psychology ) Robnson D & Howe B: Causal arbuon and mood sae relaonshps of soccer players n a spor achevemen seng ournal of Spor Behavor ) Roer B: Generalzed expecances for nernal versus exernal conrol of renforcemen Psychologcal Monographs Vol 80 ( Whole No 609) ) Scanln T Sen G Ravzza K: An n-deph sudy of former ele fgure skaers: Sources of sress ournal of Spor and Exercse Psychology ) Selgman M Nolen-Hoeksema S Thoron N & Thoron K M: Explanaory syle as a mechansm of dsapponng ahlec performance Psychologc!!1 Scence ) Vealey R: Concepualzaon of spor-confdence and compeve orenaon: Prelmnary nvesgaon and nsrumen developmen ournal of Spor Psychology l Ị 1 1 1!1 4 j 1 " $ 4 j

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