Incisional Hernia: Pathogenesis, Presentation and Treatment

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1 This text is a translation from the original German which should be used for referencing. The German version is authoritative. REVIEW ARTICLE Incisional Hernia: Pathogenesis, Presentation and Treatment Volker Schumpelick, Karsten Junge, Uwe Klinge, Joachim Conze SUMMARY Introduction: Incisional hernia is the most frequent postoperative complication following general surgery. The cumulative incidence has remained constant despite several attempts to improve laparotomy closure. As well as surgical closure technique, individual biological and patient dependent risk factors play a key role. Methods: Selective literature review of articles relating to aetiology and treatment, including prospective and retrospective studies, randomized studies and cohort studies. Results: Age and gender as well as other endogenous (e.g. diabetes mellitus) and exogenous (e.g. smoking) risk factors have been identified as associated with primary and recurrent incisional hernia. Complete prevention of incisional hernia development does not seem to be achievable. However, the replacement of simple sutures with mesh has improved long term results and patient comfort. Discussion: The poor quality of available evidence on long term outcome suggests that randomized trials are needed. Dtsch Arztebl 2006; 103(39): A Key words: incisional hernia, herniorrhaphy, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment L aparotomy performed for surgical access usually heals quickly and without complications, leaving a stable scar. Despite continual movement of the abdominal wall, intra-abdominal pressure peaks of up to 180 mm Hg and local suture tensions of up to 16 N/cm 2, the sutured abdominal walls heal within a few weeks to form a solid scar that is comparable in stability to healthy abdominal walls. In bursting experiments, the abdominal wall scars are not sites of selectively increased rupture risk, but are as strong as normal abdominal wall tissue. This is the norm. An exception to this is the rare (< 1%) occurrence of acute separation of the sutured abdominal walls during the postoperative phase known as acute wound dehiscence or burst abdomen and the more frequent (> 20%) occurrence of chronic wound dehiscence with the formation of a hernial sac and canal months to years after surgery. This is known as incisional hernia (1). Incisional hernia is receiving greater attention in the medical community than in previous years, due to the increasing use of ultrasonography as part of follow-up after abdominal surgery, increased long term survival even after oncological surgery, and demographic developments which permit longer follow up. Incisional hernia is now routinely considered as a long-term consequence of abdominal surgery. In the past, the outcomes for incisional hernia repair were consistently unsatisfactory. Conventional surgical techniques utilizing sutures but no prosthetic implant yielded recurrence rates of more than 50% (2, 3). However, significant changes have been emerging in recent years. Nowadays new surgical procedures, innovative implants and standardized treatment protocols allow satisfactory surgical repair of incisional hernia with good long term results with preservation of a good quality of life. Methods The current literature on incisional hernia was evaluated by Medline search. Randomized trials and cohort studies demonstrated significant superiority of treatment using a mesh technique over that using a suture technique (2, 3, 16). No meta-analyses are so far available. It is nowadays seldom necessary to treat incisional hernias using a truss, or to wait until incarceration has occurred and the viscera displac-ed from their position within the abdominal cavity. What used to be a dreaded, postponed surgical operation has become a modern, physiologically and anatomically adapted procedure for abdominal wall repair. Chirurgische Klinik und Poliklinik, Universitätsklinikum Aachen (Prof. Dr. med. Dr. h. c. Schumpelick, Dr. med. Junge, Prof. Dr. med. Klinge, Dr. med. Conze) Dtsch Arztebl 2006; 103(39): A

2 BOX Factors affecting incisional hernia development Surgical technique Type of incision Suture material Suture technique Patient related factors Wound healing Local wound healing impairment Age Gender Concomitant disease Obesity Anemia Underlying malignancy Diabetes mellitus Abdominal aortic aneurysm Exogenous toxins Smoking Certain medicines Hereditary connective tissue disorder Surgical repair of incisional hernia can therefore now be considered gen-erally successful (2, 23, e49,e50). Pathogenesis The development of an incisional hernia is multifactorial. There are two major areas which influence its pathogenesis: surgical technique, and patient-related factors (box). Surgical technique Most retrospective studies looking at surgical technique as a possible influence of incisional hernia risk have focused on the type of incision, type of suture material, and suture technique. Retrospective studies suggest that transverse incisions, Pfannenstiel incisions and other pararectal incisions are associated with reduced incidence of incisional hernia when compared with vertical incisions (e1). However, two controlled studies of elective procedures only consistently found no difference in the incidence of incisional hernias (e2, e3) between horizontal and vertical incisions. There is therefore currently no high quality evidence of an incision-related effect on the incidence of incisional hernia. The increasing use of minimally invasive procedures promise improvements in the incidence of incisional hernia, although incidences of hernia at the trocar site of 1 to 4% are reported (e4). Regarding type of suture materials, several meta-analyses report the lowest incidences of incisional hernia for monofilamentous, nonresorbable or long-term resorbable suture materials (e5, e6, e7). The theoretical advantage of nonresorbable suture material in hernia prevention must, however be balanced against a significantly higher incidence of fistula formation and higher rates of postoperative wound pain, due to permanent mechanical tissue irritation (e7). The idea of minimizing the risk of incisional hernia via specific surgical suture techniques is not new (e8). In his 1976 discussion of the importance of suture technique in fascial healing, Jenkins proposed a "precise surgical suture technique" (4). His proposed suture length to wound length ratio of 4 : 1 has since been investigated in both experimental and clinical studies (5, e9). Meta-analyses support the use of a continuous suture technique (e6, e59) Although the role of surgical technique is undisputed in principle, the delayed latency with which most incisional hernias develop that is, more than one year after initial intervention (e10) the low incidence in children and adolescents, the high recurrence rates Dtsch Arztebl 2006; 103(39): A

3 after primary closure, and the occurrence of relapses even after mesh implantation indicate that other pathogenetic factors need to be considered. Patient related factors A large number of biological factors related to the patient's preexisting disease and its systemic effects have a suspected role in the aetiology of incisional hernia. What they have in common is that they exert a direct or indirect influence on wound healing and thus on satisfactory scar development. Normal wound healing Wound healing is a complex process involving the interaction of several different cell types with the extracellular matrix. The quantity and quality of connective tissue produced is the primary determinant of the degree of normal physiological function and tissue stability achieved during scar formation. The ratio of type I to type III collagen is considered a predictor of connective tissue stability (6, 7). Of the known collagen variants, type I collagen is, due to its tensile properties, particularly responsible for mechanical tissue resistance. By comparison, type III collagen, expressed primarily during the early wound healing phase, is mechanically less stable and is later replaced by type I collagen (7, 8). In patients with incisional hernias, a significant decrease in the collagen type I/III ratio relative to normal fascias is observed, suggesting a dysfunction in collagen metabolism (9, 10). Local disturbances of wound healing The development of wound infection or seroma significantly increases the risk of incisional hernia (e11, e12, e13). Any possible role of individual responses (11) or even overly traumatic surgical technique (1) remains unclear. It is however established that infections and seromas have an impact on local wound healing via an increase in the production of cytokines and proteases, leading in turn to a reduction in fibroblasts and diminished wound stability (e14). Necrosis resulting from excessive suture tension can also disturb wound healing and stable scar formation. Age and gender In an in house retrospective analysis of 2,983 patients undergoing laparotomy, age above 45 years emerged as a significant risk factor for incisional hernia (1). This can be explained by delayed wound healing in older individuals, with changes in fibroblast migration (12) and structural changes with reduced collagen formation (e15, e16) as well as the high prevalence of concomitant disease. While many studies suggest that men were at greater risk than women of developing incisional hernia (1, 13, e17, e18), other studies have not found significant effect of gender (e19). Concomitant disease Many studies identify adiposity as a risk factor for incisional hernia development (e12, e21, e22,e23). On the other hand, poor nutritional status and ill health can also promote incisional hernia formation. Anemia (e24, e25), underlying malignant disorder (1) and diabetes mellitus (e20) were all identified as independent risk factors by single factor analysis. The incidence rate of incisional hernia following abdominal aortic aneurysm surgery is at 28 to 38% (e26, e27, e28) significantly higher than the rate observed after laparotomy performed for other indications. It has more recently been shown that these patients suffer in part from genetically determined type III procollagen disorder (e29) with concomitant impairment of new collagen synthesis. Environmental influences It is well established that smoking promotes both hernia recurrence and hernia formation. For example, smokers have been shown to have not only a significantly increased rate of relapse after inguinal hernia repair, but also a four-fold risk of developing incisional hernia (13, 14). In addition, numerous other drugs such as ACE inhibitors, corticosteroids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory substances and chemotherapeutic agents have an impact on the various stages of wound healing (15, e30). Hereditary connective tissue disorders Connective tissue disorders such as Ehlers- Danlos syndrome, osteogenesis imperfecta, cutis laxa, but also congenital dislocations of the hip are generally associated with an increase in the incidence of hernias or an increase in the relapse rate after primary repair (e31, e32, e33, e34). All these disorders have in common that they are caused by "non-physiologic" connective tissue composition (e35). The association with hernias in these patients can be adequately explained by systemic impairment of connective tissue formation and wound healing, and confirms the biological basis underlying the pathogenesis of hernia formation. Complete prevention of incisional hernia cannot be achieved solely by optimizing the surgical technique for abdominal wall closure. The changes in the extracellular matrix observed in patients with incisional hernia, as well as the observed increased incidence of Dtsch Arztebl 2006; 103(39): A

4 Figure 1: Patients with incisional hernias Dtsch Arztebl 2006; 103(39): A

5 incisional hernias in patients with additional "endogenous" or "exogenous" risk factors, suggest a multifactorial biological basis for the pathogenesis of incisional hernia. The causal mechanisms are still in need of further investigation. Clinical presentation and diagnosis The patient with incisional hernia commonly presents with unremarkable clinical symptoms, in the first instance. Most patients give a history of a lump or bulge that, elicited by physical activity such as exercise or coughing, and disappearing after stopping the activity. The irreducible swelling associated with incarceration is rare. Examination is performed in both the standing and lying position. It involves the assessment of the symmetry of the anterior abdominal wall as well as the search for possible protrusions or retractions during cough or compression (figure 1). As part of palpation, the hernial protrusion is examined in regard to consistency, reducibility, hernial ring size and its anatomical relationship to the anterior abdominal wall. Occasionally, palpation may reveal multiple incisional hernias within a scar with fascial bridg-es in-between (latticed hernia). Sonography is a helpful diagnosic aid, particularly in small or barely palpable hernias, or in obese patients, as it is non-invasive, time and cost-saving, readily repeatable, and practically risk-free. Besides location and size, ultrasonography allows the determination of hernial content, as well as excluding important differential diagnoses such Figure 2: Sonographic image of a fascial defect (arrows) with herniation (outlined) as lymphoma or hematoma. Important sonographic criteria for identifying hernias are: detection of a fascial gap (rectus diastasis as differential diagnosis), visualization of hernial content, and increase in the volume of the hernial content and canal on Valsalva maneuver (figure 2). Computerized tomography or magnetic resonance imaging are methods particularly suited for complicated hernias or large abdominal wall defects and enable the visualization of internal hernial sac structures and the entire abdominal well as well as their relationship to intraabdominal organs. Treatment As for all elective surgery, the abdominal wall should be free of signs of inflammation or infection. Ideally at least six months should have elapsed between the initial intervention that led to incisional hernia or relapse and the planned repair, in order to allow for the recovery of the abdominal wall. However, any further delay should be avoided. There is no clearly defined defect size at which incisional hernia surgery becomes necessary. The synergism of intraabdominal pressure, lateral pull by the lateral abdominal wall musculature and of the fascial defect, which acts as a "location of least resistance," leads inevitably to a size increase and, therefore, further complicates surgical intervention. The surgeon can choose from a number of treatment options, which fall into two principal categories: the conventional suture technique the open or laparoscopic mesh technique. Suture technique Traditional defect repair using continuous or interrupted suture technique, or Mayo-type fascia duplication should now be abandoned. Relapse rates of > 50% are quoted for the suture technique, depending on length of follow-up (2, 16). Results for Mayo fascia duplication are little better. Conventional suture techniques should now be reserved for selected indications such as the presence of significant comorbidity, repairs involving bowel, and small trocar hernias. Dtsch Arztebl 2006; 103(39): A

6 Schematic depiction of the mesh positions within the abdominal wall FIGURE 3 Inlay-Bridging Onlay Sublay LAP-IPOM Mesh technique Mesh material was first used for incisional hernia repair more than 50 years ago (e36). In the first years following its introduction it was used primarily for defect bridging. The possibility of using mesh for abdominal wall reinforcement was first described in the 1970s by French surgeons such as Chevrel, Rives, and Stoppa. According to the positioning of the mesh prosthesis, epifascial mesh reinforcement is known as the onlay technique and retromuscular mesh reinforcement as the sublay technique (figure 3). An advantage of abdominal wall reinforcement is that it permits the reconstruction of the abdominal wall as an anatomical functional unit. From a surgical viewpoint, the inlay technique, whereby mesh is sewn into the fascial defect, is the simplest form of repair. In this case, the suture between the mesh prosthesis and the mesh corresponds to conventional suture repair, since no broad mesh contact between the fascia and the material is established. Accordingly, the inlay technique suffers from high relapse rates (e37, e38, e39). The onlay technique reinforces the fascial suture by placing a mesh over the fascia. This requires extensive epifascial preparation to ensure sufficient blanketing of the fascial suture. The onlay technique is problematic in particular for incisional hernias in which the fascial defect extends to bony structures such as the xiphoid process or the symphysis pubis. Relapse rates of between 6 and 17% have been reported in the literature for this technique (e40-e43). Today the sublay technique has moved to the forefront (e44). Here, the mesh is positioned in the retromuscular space posterior to the rectus abdominis muscle. This technique yields relapse rates of between 2 and 12% and is presently the "gold standard" for incisional hernia surgery, although very few evidence-based comparative studies have been undertaken so far (17, 18). In an in-house study with a patient population of over 250 patients with incisional hernia undergoing retromuscular mesh plasty, follow-up to date shows a relapse rate of 8.9% based on an average follow-up of 48 months. As surgical technique has been optimized over the last few years, the relapse rate has been reduced even further (19, 20). In laparoscopic incisional hernia repair (Lap-IPOM) the mesh prosthesis is placed after adequate preparation from the inside onto the fascial defect. The mesh is used for defect bridging. Since the majority of the tension rests on the fixation points of the mesh, local pain is frequently reported especially in the early postoperative phase. A final analysis of the future importance of laparoscopic incisional hernia repair is still not yet possible (table). Dtsch Arztebl 2006; 103(39): A

7 TABLE Results of incisional hernia repair, classified by mesh position (inlay, onlay, sublay and laparoscopic IPOM)* Author Year n Technique Material Follow-up Relapse (months) (%) Ambrosiani et al. (e37) Inlay eptee > Oussoultzoglou et al. (e46) Inlay PP/Pol Anthony et al. (e47) Inlay PP de Vries Reilingh et al. (e39) Inlay PP Vestweber et al. (e43) Onlay PP Rios et al. (e41) Onlay PP San Pio et al.(e42) Onlay PP McLanahan et al. (e48) Sublay PP Schumpelick et al. (23) Sublay PP Ladurner et al. (e49) Sublay PP Wright et al.(e50) Sublay PP Bencini et al.(e51) Sublay PP Conze et al.* (17) Sublay PP od. Pol Toy et al. (e52) Lap-IPOM eptfe Heniford et al. (e53) Lap-IPOM eptfe Aura et al. (e54) Lap-IPOM eptfe Berger et al. (e55) Lap-IPOM eptfe Bageacu et al. (e56) Lap-IPOM eptfe/pp Carbajo et al.(e57) Lap-IPOM PP Rosen et al. (e58) Lap-IPOM eptfe/pp *prospective, randomized study; IPOM, intraperitoneal onlay mesh; PP, polypropylene; PTFE, polytetrafluoroethylene; Pol, polyester Selecting the appropriate mesh prosthesis is of great importance. The mesh material used for incisional hernia repair consists almost always of synthetic, nonresorbable biological materials. These may vary depending on the polymer used, the fiber construction and pore size, which in turn have an impact on textile properties such as surface weight and elasticity. Mesh prostheses are manufactured from polypropylene, polyester, eptfe or PVDF. By adapting the mesh material to the physiologic conditions of the abdominal wall, a completely new generation of light-weight mesh materials was developed, which by providing thinner, partially absorbable fiber material and by enlarging pore diameter were optimized in regard to their biological compatibility. This development was prompted by the experience of a shrinking and hardening of mesh material after their early introduction which led in part to a "stiff abdomen" and other complications (21-25). Conflict of Interest Statement The authors declare that no conflict of interest exists according to the Guidelines of the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. Manuscript received on 4 April 2006, final version accepted on 6 July Translated from the original German by Dr. Sandra Goldbeck-Wood. REFERENCES For e-references please refer to the additional references listed below. 1. Hoer J, Lawong G, Klinge U, Schumpelick V: Factors influencing the development of incisional hernia. A retrospective study of 2,983 laparotomy patients over a period of 10 years. Chirurg 2002; 73: Schumpelick V, Conze J, Klinge U: Preperitoneal mesh-plasty in incisional hernia repair. A comparative retrospective study of 272 operated incisional hernias. Chirurg 1996; 67: Flum DR, Horvath K, Koepsell T: Have outcomes of incisional hernia repair improved with time? A population-based analysis. Ann Surg 2003; 237: Dtsch Arztebl 2006; 103(39): A

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