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1 University of Huddersfield Repository Amaratunga, Dilanthi, Haigh, Richard, Shanmugam, M., Lee, A. J. and Elvitigala, Gayani Construction industry and women: a review of the barriers Original Citation Amaratunga, Dilanthi, Haigh, Richard, Shanmugam, M., Lee, A. J. and Elvitigala, Gayani (2006) Construction industry and women: a review of the barriers. In: 3rd International SCRI Research Symposium, 3-4th April 2006, Delft University, Netherlands. (Unpublished) This version is available at The University Repository is a digital collection of the research output of the University, available on Open Access. Copyright and Moral Rights for the items on this site are retained by the individual author and/or other copyright owners. Users may access full items free of charge; copies of full text items generally can be reproduced, displayed or performed and given to third parties in any format or medium for personal research or study, educational or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge, provided: The authors, title and full bibliographic details is credited in any copy; A hyperlink and/or URL is included for the original metadata page; and The content is not changed in any way. For more information, including our policy and submission procedure, please contact the Repository Team at: E.mailbox@hud.ac.uk.

2 CON STRUCTI ON I N DUSTRY AND W OMEN: A REVI EW OF THE BARRI ERS D. Am aratunga, R. Haigh, A. Lee, M. Shanm ugam, G. Elvit igala Research I nstitute for the Built and Hum an Environm ent, The University of Salford, Salford, M5 4WT E- m ail: R.D.G.Am aratunga@salford.ac.uk ABSTRACT: The UK construction industry has a particularly low participation rate for wom en. Currently there are over 11 m illion wom en em ployed in the UK, accounting for almost 50% of the work force. However, despite increases in the num ber of wom en em ployed in the construction over the past decade, they still constitute only 9% of the work force. This m eans that the construction industry will continue to be m ale dom inated. I t is found that wom en are confronted by a significant num ber of barriers, beginning with difficulties in joining the field of construction through to capturing the m ost senior position in the organisation s hierarchy. In this context, this paper presents a review of the literature on the current status of wom en in the construction; in particular, it discusses the barriers which prevent wom en s entry and retention in the construction industry. Key w ords: Barriers, Construction, Wom en 1. I NTRODUCTI ON The construction industry is typically a m ale dom inated industry and presents a m ajor challenge for equal opportunities for wom en. The UK construction sector has a particularly low participation rate for wom en, both in industry and academ ia. Currently there are over 11 m illion wom en em ployed in the UK, accounting for alm ost 50% of the work force (Fielden et al, 2000). The gender com position of the workforce throughout the UK has changed dram atically in the last 20 years; the UK m ale labour force has increased by 3 per cent, whereas the fem ale workforce has risen by over 40 per cent (Cartwright and Cooper, 1994). Whilst wom en m ay be entering the workforce in increasing num bers, fem ale workers rem ain concentrated in certain occupational sectors such as education, health and service sectors, notably banking, insurance and the retail trade (Departm ent of Em ploym ent, 1989). I n contrast, wom en have continued to be underrepresented in construction industry sector which have been regarded traditionally as stereotypically m ale occupations. According to the Construction I ndustry Training Board (2003) wom en only account for 9% of the construction work force. This m eans construction continue to be a m ost m ale dom inated industry. I t is found that wom en are confronted by a significant num ber of barriers, beginning with difficulties in joining the field of construction and as far as to capturing the m ost senior position in the organisation s hierarchy. Although wom en now constitute just over half the British workforce and the num ber of wom en in construction 559

3 education is increasing overall, they continue to be underrepresented in the construction industry (Gale, 1994a). I n this context this paper presents a review of the literature on the current status of the wom en in construction, in particular, it discusses the barriers faced by wom en in term s of entry, developm ent and retention. The im age of construction, career knowledge am ongst children and adults, m ale dom inated culture and the work environm ent, m ale dom inated courses, recruitm ent practice and procedures, fam ily com m itm ents will be discussed as the m ajor barriers for wom en entering, working and developing in construction which lead to discussions on the need to identify appropriate recom m endations and good practice guidelines to aid the recruitm ent and retention of wom en in construction. 2. THE STATUS OF THE W OMEN I N THE CONSTRUCTI ON I NDUSTRY The construction industry is one of the UK s chief em ployers, em ploying over 2 m illion people, that is m ore than 1 in 14 of the total UK workforce (CI TB skills forecast Report, 2003). The role of the wom en in em ploym ent is changing radically in m ost societies and as m entioned earlier, in Britain wom en constitute just over half of the total work force. However as per the CI TB report (2003) it was revealed that wom en still constitute only 9% in construction sector. The true position of wom en in construction could be seen only when this figure is further broken down. Accordingly, 84% of wom en in construction hold secretarial posts, whereas only 10% are em ployed in a professional capacity and the rem aining 6% are craft and trade level em ployees. Court and Moralee (1995) noted that the under-representation of wom en in construction only becam e an issue in the 1980s. I n 1988, less than 7% of the full tim e construction industry workforce in Britain were wom en. The Equal Opportunities Com m ission (EOC, 1995) stated in its annual publication that wom en continue to be significantly under represented in the prim ary sector (agriculture and energy and water), in m ost m anufacturing, in transport and com m unications and, in particular, in the construction industry. Since then, there have been num ber of studies carried out by various researchers on the under-representation within the construction industry. (Gale, 1994a; Fielden et al, 2000). Thus the lack of wom en in construction has been a concern for m any years now. The studies in these areas have been invaluable in pinpointing the factors m ilitating against the participation of m ore wom en in the construction work place, and in particular, the recruitm ent into the construction professions (Agapiou, 2002). The UK construction industry is busier now than it has ever been for a decade and is suffering from skill shortage in both craft and m anual trades such as bricklaying, plum bing and painting, and at the professional level, in engineering, quantity surveying and estim ating (Whittock, 2002). The issue regarding the lack of wom en in construction has been m ade m ore prom inent recently, 560

4 attracting governm ent and industry wide attention, due to the potential skill shortage facing the industry. Therefore, the UK governm ent is exam ining the ways to encourage wom en into traditionally m ale dom inated jobs. Since then a num ber of initiatives have been introduced in order to im prove the current situation and raise awareness such as wom en working in construction com m ittees and wom en as role m odels. Though researchers have focussed on how to im prove the participation of wom en in the construction workplace the objective seem s to be to solve the labour resources crisis and skill shortages than to im prove equal opportunities for wom en (Agapiou, 2002). Despite the num ber of recent recruitm ent initiatives, the industry has failed to m ake significant progress in recruiting m ore wom en. I t can be seen from Figure1 below where the num ber of wom en working in the construction industry has rem ained constantly low. Fig. 1: Em ployee Jobs in the UK Construction I ndustry 1984 to 2004.Source : Office of National Statistics From Figure 1, it is apparent that wom en s participation rate is low in the construction industry. The rhetorical question rem ains: what could be the reason behind this? One m ajor reason is the barriers faced by the wom en working within the construction industry. The following section discusses the various barriers that prevent or reduce wom en entry and retention in the construction sector. 3. THE BARRI ERS Within the num ber of studies detailing the position of wom en in construction, the problem s faced by wom en to enter and retain in the construction industry are considered as im portant. I t is prim arily the barriers which lead to a lower participation rate of wom en in construction. Therefore, it is vital to look into the problem s faced by wom en entering into construction. There are several barriers on wom en entering and working in the construction industry. From the literature survey the m ajor barriers have been identified as the im age of the industry (Gale,1994a; Fielden et a1, 2000; Fielden et al, 2001; Bennett et al, 1999), career 561

5 knowledge (Gale, 1994a; Agaipou, 2002, Harris, 1989; Fielden et al, 2000), culture and working environm ent (Dainty et al, 2000; Fielden et al, 2000, Bennett et al, 1999), fam ily com m itm ents (Lingard and Francis, 2002, Fielden et al 2000, Lingard and Lin, 2004, Greckol, 1987, Agapiou, 2002), m ale dom inated training courses, and recruitm ent practices (Fielden et al, 2000, Fielden et al, 2001). These barriers are discussed below in detail. 3.1 I m age of the I ndustry The im age of the construction industry is typically portrayed as prom oting adversarial business relationships, poor working practices, environm ental insensitivity and a reputation for under perform ance (Construction I ndustry Board, 1996). The construction industry has an industry wide problem with im age which m akes both m en and wom en reluctant or uninterested in the industry (Bennett et al, 1999; Fielden et al, 2000). The literature identifies the industry s im age was found to m ilitate against the entry of wom en. The predom inant im age of construction is that of a m ale-dom inated industry requiring brute strength and a good tolerance for outdoor conditions, inclem ent weather and bad language (Agapiou, 2002). I t is principally this im age that m akes the wom en uninterested in the industry. Gale (1994a) has found through his research that m ale school students are five tim es m ore likely than their fem ale counterparts to consider a career in the construction industry. Also fem ales consider the equal opportunities record of the construction industry to be worse than m ales. The Construction I ndustry Training Board also found that 63% of young wom en interviewed felt that it would be practically im possible for wom en to get jobs in the construction industry and only 17% thought that it would be a suitable career for them. According to action research undertaken by Fielden et al (2001), the participants com plained that the construction industry has a m ale-dom inated, m acho im age sym bolised by the builders bum or Stratford sm ile. Therefore the im age of the construction industry m ay be an im portant factor in the career selection process of young m en and wom en (Gale, 1994a). Dainty et al (2000) found that wom en m ay not rem ain in the industry after education due to the incorrect picture of the industry portrayed by recent recruitm ent initiatives. Their research found that wom en are m ore likely to be attracted to the industry by such targeted recruitm ent cam paigns, and they noted that wom en who had entered the industry due to such initiatives have a poor initial understanding of the culture of the industry and the inherent difficulties of working in such a m ale dom inated environm ent. 562

6 3.2 Career Know ledge The im age problem discussed above, which m akes both m en and wom en uninterested in the industry, is com pounded by a general lack of knowledge and inform ation about the industry, the career opportunities it can offer and the qualifications that are required (Fielden et al, 2000). The CI TB (2003) found that parents, teachers and school children believe that the jobs in construction industry were lim ited to bricklaying, joinery, and painting and decorating. I t is also found that teachers, parents, career advisors and school students have only a vague, superficial knowledge of the industry. Careers teachers and careers advisors were perceived by school students, undergraduates and graduates to provide inaccurate and inadequate inform ation on the construction industry. Owing to the variety of courses and diversity of career paths even professionals careers advisers find the subject of careers advice for construction confusing (Gale, 1994a). Although a greater awareness has been found am ong A level students and undergraduates, with regard to professional activities such as engineering and architecture, the status of the industry as a career opportunity does not com pare favourably with other options (Harris, 1989). This is m ainly because the girls career choices, and in particular their encouragem ent to enter non-traditional occupations, is strongly influenced by their fam ily, friends and teachers (Agapiou, 2002). The decision of selecting a career in the construction industry should be taken well in advance at schools level particularly by those who intend to be a construction professional in the future. The m ore that schools students of both sexes know about the construction industry the m ore likely that both sexes are to select a career in the construction industry. Knowledge of the nature of construction industry professional occupations, higher education routes to professional status and career opportunities in construction were seen as extrem ely im portant by school students considering a degree in construction. Therefore careers about an industry m ust be transm itted to school students (Gale, 1994a). 3.3 Culture and Environm ent The construction industry displays a m acho culture where relationships are characterized by argum ent, conflict and crisis (Gale, 1994b cited in Bagilhole et al., 2000). As a result, em ployees (m ale and fem ale) find that they are exposed to an extrem ely hostile environm ent. Wom en who are attracted to the construction industry face the sam e stereotypical barriers as wom en in other sectors. I n this m ale dom inated profession there are added stereotypes regarding the nature of the profession and the professional them selves (Langford et al, 1994). Wom en who do enter the construction industry in professional positions tend to fill technical specialist positions rather than general m anagerial posts (Bennett et al, 1999). 563

7 Bagilhole et al., (2000) noted that the construction workplace has been described as am ongst the m ost chauvinistic in the UK, with an extrem ely m acho culture which is hostile and discrim inatory towards wom en. This results in gender differentiated career opportunities which have an inevitable consequence of high staff turnover of wom en in construction com panies (Davidson & Cooper, 1992; Brett & Stroh, 1994). Dainty et al., (2000) found that younger wom en becam e disillusioned with their career choice m ore rapidly than m en, and sought to leave the industry early on in their careers. This m acho environm ent, which is also expressed in m ore disturbing term s and sexual harassm ent within the construction industry, is a real concern with alm ost all reports on wom en in the industry acknowledging this problem (CI B, 1996a). According to professor Michael Rom ans, a past president on the Chartered I nstitute of Building, the construction industry is characterised by a boy s own culture which is overtly fostered through language and behaviour. Davey et al (1999) highlighted that in the construction industry, m ale values are the norm such as long working hours, com petition, independence, full-tim e working and that rewards and the expectations for career achievem ent are param ount. Davidson (1996) and Davidson & Cooper (1992) indicated that wom en who seek entry into m ale dom inated cultures either have to act like m en in order to be successful, leave if they are not adaptable to the culture, or they can rem ain in the industry without behaving like m en but m aintaining unim portant positions. However, faced with this organisational barrier, som e wom en still seem able to gain a higher degree of career satisfaction and optim ism than their m ale counterparts, as they continue to enter form er m ale roles (Nicholson and West, 1988). Therefore, the m ale dom inated culture can be especially destructive for wom en entry, career developm ent and retention in the construction industry. 3.4 Fam ily Com m itm ents Work-fam ily conflict is defined as a form of inter-role conflict whereby job and fam ily dem ands cannot be m et sim ultaneously and is an on-going problem for wom en with career aspirations (Wentling, 1996). The conflict between work and fam ily obligations, that m any construction professional experiences, is m ore acute for wom en than for m en. Recent research suggests that job dem ands borne by construction professionals are dam aging to their personal relationship (Lingard and Francis, 2002). While m en and wom en both need to balance the dem ands of work and hom e life, wom en still bear the prim ary responsibility for dom estic duties in m ost households (Higgins et al, 2000). Site based em ployees, both professional and m anual workers, are usually subject to changing work locations. This can involve travelling substantial distances and/ or long periods away from hom e, a situation which can present serious difficulties in term s of transport and child-care (Greckol, 1987). The construction 564

8 industry fails to appreciate som e of the issues associated with com bining work and fam ily com m itm ents, and organisations tend to treat fam ily and work as com pletely separate (Fielden et al, 2000). Through a study done by Lingard and Lin (2004) it was suggested that wom en in construction adopt an either or approach to career and fam ily. Also it is possible that wom en s perception of the need to m ake a choice between work and fam ily m eans that wom en who choose to have a fam ily, develop lower expectations of the work experience and, consequently, the work-fam ily conflict does not negatively im pact upon their organisational com m itm ents. However, wom en who expect to balance both fam ily and career success in the construction industry m ay experience significant difficulties. (Lingard and Lin, 2004). 3.5 Male Dom inated Training Courses The m ainstream courses and training provided by colleges, training organisations and em ployers create a whole host of problem s for wom en arising from the m ale-dom inated environm ent m asculine culture (Gale, 1994a). Peacock and Eaton (1987) found that over half of the young wom en who returned their questionnaire reported during their training period of encountering a general disbelief am ong m ale instructors and colleagues that wom en could be technically com petent. Access to highprofile developm ent opportunities (such as to enquiries and working groups) is often gained through inform al networks and m entors. Research shows that wom en tend to lack access to inform al networks that provide inform ation about such opportunities. They are also less likely to have a m entor who will signal their potential and provide them with the support needed to ensure success (Townley, 1989). I n spite of the consistent association of on-the-job developm ent and prom otion, research indicates that wom en are offered fewer developm ental experiences than m en (Wernick, 1994). Wom en are also m ore likely to be found in staff (personnel, HR, com m unications etc) rather than line (service delivery/ production) functions. Thus, they can lack the kind of work experience that leads to prom otion (Econom ist, 1998). An individual s prospects for advancem ent can be affected by the num ber of opportunities they have to accum ulate and dem onstrate their m erit (Burton, 1998; Wernick, 1994). Although increasing num bers of wom en have appropriate educational qualifications, Wernick (1994) found that there is still a perception that there is lack of suitably qualified wom en for senior m anagem ent positions. She attributes this to the fact that wom en have lim ited access to the wide range of developm ental experiences and activities that build the credibility needed to advance. Wernick (1994) also found that, as is the case for initial selection, m ethods for selecting people for developm ent tends to be haphazard and inefficient and leads to inequitable access. Again, the procedures tend to be inform al and are bound by stereotypes, biases and questionable 565

9 qualifications. This, in turn, m eans that com panies can pass over individuals with education, interest and potential, especially for m anagerial and executive responsibility. Moreover, she found that few com panies have form al succession or executive developm ent plans, relying instead on inform al practices and procedures that often use lim ited inform ation to m ake decisions. The m ost valuable training for m anagers is provided through a variety of credential building exercises, especially on-the-job opportunities, and opportunities to work on highprofile projects which enhance visibility and build credibility (Wernick, 1994; Rusaw, 1994). I n addition, tim e in certain functional areas such as line m anagem ent is seen to provide the kind of developm ent which prepares people for m ore senior appointm ents and on-the-job experience is also seen to be of greater benefit than form al education and training. Agapiou (1998) argues that it is industry s fragm ented structure and its volatility which m ake it difficult to m eet changing training needs. However, Gann and Senker (1998) suggested that it is due to the continued reluctance on the part of the construction com panies to recognise wom en as an im portant source of new workers, rather than a lack of access to appropriate training. 3.6 Recruitm ent Practices The recruitm ent process in the construction industry is said to be of biasness towards fem ale workers. The term s and conditions within the construction industry were generally poor irrespective of any particular gender. Through the study undertaken by Fielden et al (2001) it was reported that the industry fails to provide decent wages, pensions and other staff benefits especially at craft level. Dainty et al (2000) found out that m ale m anagers use discrim inatory recruitm ent practices which put m any wom en off applying for new positions with contracting organisations. The changeable nature of the construction industry was also felt to be responsible for high levels of unem ploym ent. I t is m ainly the term s and conditions of em ploym ent that m ake wom en uninterested in the industry. I t was also pointed out that construction workers have to work outside during the cold winter m onths, often in dirty conditions, which in their opinion m ade the industry unattractive particularly to wom en (Fielden et al, 2001). I t has also been reported that the culture of construction organisations perm its inform al recruitm ent practices; these can include advertisem ents and brochures depicting m ale values and interests, unstructured interviews, discrim inatory selection criteria and sexist attitudes (Fielden et al, 2000). Many em ployers still consider wom en unsuitable for som e traditionally m ale dom inated jobs, for instance in the m anual trades workers need a reasonable level of strength and fitness, with som e job requiring above average upper body strength for lifting and heavy operations (Greckol, 1987) 566

10 4. DI SCUSSI ON Wom en who choose careers in non-traditional occupations such as the construction industry have to face m any challenges in order to enter and retain in the industry. The forgoing section discusses the m ajor barriers faced by construction wom en in term s of entry, career developm ent and retention. Mainly the m ale dom inated im age and culture of the construction industry strongly deter wom en from entering it. Fielden et al (2000) identified with this, citing the industry s poor im age as a reason why so m any people, regardless of gender, are uninterested in a career in construction. Research by Turrell et al (2003) found that little had changed in the industry with regards to the perceived im age; a third of both fem ale and m ale college students had a negative view of the industry, considering it to be no place for wom en : wom en and girls feel that m en in the sector m ay have hostility towards them and that they would be entering a m an s world. Regarding the poor standards prevail within the industry it was com m ented by Zara Lam ont, Chief Executive of the Confederation of Construction Clients, at the 2002 Wom en in Construction Conference we need to raise standards right across the industry m aking construction a career of choice for everyone including wom en. Not only that, m any construction com panies have also been criticised for using discrim inatory recruitm ent procedures that deter wom en entering into organisations. Due to the wom en under representation and the discrim ination and exclusionary culture of the industry, tend not to have the contacts to be able to find employment in this m anner and as such, Dainty et al (2001) found that where they continually experience difficulties in finding em ploym ent, they are m ore likely to seek work in other, m ore accepting sub sectors. Further, it is also noted that m any wom en are leaving the industry as they feel they have been hired because of their gender rather than their abilities. For wom en to be successful recruited and retained in construction, they need to be supported, coached, and encouraged. The industry needs to ensure that they are sending out the right m essage, that wom en can, and do, succeed in a career in a construction, and they are not just there to fill the current shortage of present. Because of the initial lack of knowledge about the industry, when wom en enter the industry and their understanding of what the career and the industry entails increases, wom en can becom e less com m itted to their careers, which can lead to them seeking alternative positions outside of the industry. Nowadays, construction organisations are keen to portray them selves as equal opportunities em ployers and because of this, they have been criticised for recruiting token fem ales solely for this purpose, such behaviour could also be known as positive discrim ination. When carried out correctly, these actions, accurately known as affirm ation policies, aim to increase the num ber of wom en in construction, especially in m ore senior positions where fem ales are severely underrepresented. I n addition to these points, it would be illogical not to include m oney as a reason for wom en leaving 567

11 the industry. I n general wom en earn less than m en do. I n other words, wom en s lifetim e earnings are below than those of an equivalently skilled and educated m an. Finally, the over em phasis on m ale values of the industry which include long working hours, working away from hom e and geographical instability, and a highly com petitive culture; alternative working arrangem ents such as part tim e working, career breaks, and job sharing are considered as fem inine and unfeasible in the industry. 5. CONCLUSI ON This paper reviewed the literature relating to the barriers faced by wom en in construction. I t is found through the literature review that im age of the industry, career knowledge, culture and working environm ent, fam ily com m itm ents, m ale dom inated training course and recruitm ent practices are the m ajor barriers to wom en in construction. Each of these barriers have been elaborated, and the possible difficulties that the wom en face due to such barriers in entering and retaining in construction have been discussed. Considering these barriers, it is felt that the reduction or elim ination of m ost of such barriers is an im portant step which leads to recruit and to retain m ore wom en into construction industry. The construction industry itself has not, until recently, form ally acknowledged that the under-representation of wom en is an im portant issue or prom oted any initiatives or research into this area (Fielden et al, 2000). I n 1996, a report was produced by CI B Working Group 8 (CI B, 1996b) that provided constructive guidelines on equal opportunities for construction com panies. At a European level a New Opportunities for Wom en training and exchange project, funded by the EC, shows the possibility for future successful collaborations between wom en and trades across Europe (Wall, 1997). A study by Willkinson (1996) revealed that on the occasion when the industry is short of labour, it becom es particularly im portant not to waste the labour of construction graduates. It also suggested that while, on the whole, altering the pattern of benefits would have little differential effect on recruitm ent by sex, there is the exception of child-care. I n attem pting to recruit m ore wom en, em ployers should perhaps t hink m ore seriously about providing som e form of childcare benefit. Thus it is vital to identify appropriate recom m endations and good practice guidelines to aid the recruitm ent and retention of wom en in construction. 6. REFEREN CES Agapiou, A. (1998) A review of recent developments in construction operative training in the UK, Construction Managem ent and Econom ics, 16, Pp

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