University School of Physical Education in Wrocław University School of Physical Education in Kraków

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1 University School of Physical Education in Wrocław University School of Physical Education in Kraków vol. 14, number 1 (March), 2013

2 University School of Physical Education in Wrocław (Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego we Wrocławiu) University School of Physical Education in Kraków (Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego im. Bronisława Czecha w Krakowie) Human Movement quarterly vol. 14, number 1 (March), 2013, pp Editor-in-Chief Associate Editor Alicja Rutkowska-Kucharska University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Edward Mleczko University School of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland Editorial Board Physical activity, fitness and health Wiesław Osiński University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland Applied sport sciences Zbigniew Trzaskoma Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education, Warszawa, Poland Biomechanics and motor control Tadeusz Bober University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Kornelia Kulig University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA Physiological aspects of sports Zbigniew Szyguła University School of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland Psychological diagnostics of sport and exercise Andrzej Szmajke Opole University, Opole, Poland Advisory Board Wojtek J. Chodzko-Zajko University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA Gudrun Doll-Tepper Free University, Berlin, Germany Józef Drabik University School of Physical Education and Sport, Gdańsk, Poland Kenneth Hardman University of Worcester, Worcester, United Kingdom Andrew Hills Queensland University of Technology, Queensland, Australia Zofia Ignasiak University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Slobodan Jaric University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA Toivo Jurimae University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia Han C.G. Kemper Vrije University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Wojciech Lipoński University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland Gabriel Łasiński University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Robert M. Malina University of Texas, Austin, Texas, USA Melinda M. Manore Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA Philip E. Martin Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA Joachim Mester German Sport University, Cologne, Germany Toshio Moritani Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan Andrzej Pawłucki University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland John S. Raglin Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA Roland Renson Catholic University, Leuven, Belgium Tadeusz Rychlewski University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland James F. Sallis San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USA James S. Skinner Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA Jerry R. Thomas University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA Karl Weber German Sport University, Cologne, Germany Peter Weinberg Hamburg University, Hamburg, Germany Marek Woźniewski University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Guang Yue Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USA Wladimir M. Zatsiorsky Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA Jerzy Żołądź University School of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland Translation: Michael Antkowiak, Tomasz Skirecki Design: Agnieszka Nyklasz Copy editor: Beata Irzykowska Statistical editor: Anna Koziatek Proofreading: Michael Antkowiak, Anna Miecznikowska, Agnieszka Piasecka Indexed in: SPORTDiscus, Index Copernicus, Altis, Sponet, Scopus, CAB Abstracts, Global Health 8 pkt wg rankingu Ministerstwa Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego Copyright 2013 by Wydawnictwo AWF we Wrocławiu ISSN Editorial Office Secretary: Dominika Niedźwiedź Wrocław, al. Ignacego Jana Paderewskiego 35, Poland, tel , hum_mov@awf.wroc.pl This is to certify the conformity with PN-EN-ISO 9001:2009

3 2013, vol. 14 (1) contents physical activity, fitness and health Stanisław Sterkowicz, Janusz Jaworski Participation in computer games vs. coordination motor abilities and body composition in boys from rural areas of Poland...4 Marcin Ściślak, Andrzej Rokita, Marek Popowczak Secondary school students interest in various forms of physical activity...11 Cláudio M.F. Leite, Herbert Ugrinowitsch, Maria Flávia S.P. Carvalho, Rodolfo N. Benda Distribution of practice effects on older and younger adults motor-skill learning ability...20 Robert Szeklicki, Wiesław Osiński, Janusz Maciaszek, Rafał Stemplewski, Artur Salamon Correlations between habitual physical activity and self-perceived functional fitness, self-sufficiency fitness and health among men over 60 years old...27 applied sport sciences Ryszard Zarzeczny, Mariusz Kuberski, Agnieszka Deska, Dorota Zarzeczna, Katarzyna Rydz The evaluation of critical swimming speed in 12-year-old boys...35 Władysław Machnacz, Andrzej Dudkowski, Andrzej Rokita Dependecies between the methods used in identifying player talent in the game of handball...41 Tomasz Seweryniak, Dariusz Mroczek, Łukasz Łukasik Analysis and evaluation of defensive team strategies in women's beach volleyball an efficiency-based approach...48 biomechanics and motor control Márcio J. Santos, Gláucia C.D. Soldado, Nádia F. Marconi, Almeida L. Gil Muscular activation patterns in swimmers with asymptomatic shoulder joint instability...56 Jonathan Sinclair, Andrew Greenhalgh, Paul J. Taylor, Christopher James Edmundson, Darrell Brooks, Sarah Jane Hobbs Differences in tibiocalcaneal kinematics measured with skin- and shoe-mounted markers Joanna Milewska, Sebastian Jaroszczuk, Alicja Rutkowska-Kucharska Step aerobics and rhythm of movement of the upper and lower limbs...70 physiological aspects of sports Marcin Maciejczyk, Agnieszka Feć Evaluation of aerobic capacity and energy expenditure in folk dancers...76 Daniel J. Keefer Effects of body movement on the reliability of a portable gas analysis system...82 Publishing guidelines Regulamin publikowania prac

4 2013, vol. 14 (1), 4 10 PARTICIPATION IN COMPUTER GAMES VS. COORDINATION MOTOR ABILITIES AND BODY COMPOSITION IN BOYS FROM RURAL AREAS OF POLAND doi: /v STANISŁAW STERKOWICZ *, JANUSZ JAWORSKI University School of Physical Education, Kraków, Poland Abstract Purpose. The present study attempted to determine the effect of the number of hours spent playing computer games per week on somatic characteristics and the performance of selected coordination motor abilities. Methods. Ninety-seven prepubertal boys from rural areas of southern Poland were recruited. Selected coordination motor abilities were assessed by use of computer tests and a questionnaire was administered to determine the amount of time spent playing computer games. Basic somatic characteristics such as body height, body mass, body fat percentage (%PF), fat mass (FM), fat-free mass (FFM), and body mass index (BMI) were measured. Descriptive statistics were calculated mean and standard deviation (, sd) for the studied coordination abilities and somatic characteristics. One-way ANOVA for independent samples was employed to determine the differentiation between the results of the studied variables depending on the mean numbers of hours spent playing computer games per week. Results. Analysis revealed statistically significant differences between the results and the number of hours spent playing games, specifically for kinesthetic differentiation, spatial orientation, and the speed, accuracy, and precision of movements (in the number of committed errors). The lowest somatic characteristics including BMI was observed in the group of boys who spent the least amount of time playing computer games. Conclusions. It was found playing computer games 8 to 11 hours a week positively affected coordination motor ability, although individuals who played more than this amount of computer games had a higher incidence to be overweight or obese. Key words: computer games, coordination, body build, rural population Introduction * Corresponding author. Many countries have seen a boom in the popularity of computer games. The availability of computer equipment and even wider gaming possibilities brought on by the Internet (online gaming) finds children ever more eager to play computer games, especially when left unsupervised. This state of affairs may pose a serious threat to children s physical and psychological development. Spending more and more time playing computer games may also lead to becoming addicted, which can cause problems such as labile mood, personality disorders, difficulties in concentration, and learning difficulties at school as well as an increased incidence of aggressive behavior. This may be due in part to the violent content of many games, where violence is not penalized and instead rewarded in the form of more points and level advancement. However, analysis of the literature [1, 2] reveals that there is no indisputable evidence linking violent computer games and a rise in violence among teenagers. Nonetheless, others forms of gaming that have become popularized in part by the Internet are online gambling games, which have emerged as significant problem in recent years. Survey results found that individuals felt elated during gameplay but then experienced a drop in mood upon finishing, and led to players having a need to play again as soon as possible in order to improve mood, which, in consequence, can lead to addiction [3, 4]. Spending too much time playing computer games has also been cited as having an adverse effect on physical development. As early as 1998, the World Health Organization [5] warned of a global obesity epidemic. The nature of playing computer games considerably intensifies a sedentary lifestyle and thereby poses an increased risk of obesity. However, this phenomenon is incredibly complex and cannot be explained by single factors such as a lack of physical activity compounded with too much TV and computer games [6 8]; it includes such facets as increased consumption of caloric foods and beverages. Nonetheless, playing computer games has been claimed to have a number of positive effects. Literature on the subject emphasizes its educational (improving writing and counting skills, learning foreign languages, etc.) and therapeutic role [9]. Some computer games (racing and action games) are credited with stimulating both the development of visual motor coordination and the thinking and decision-making processes. Computers themselves can also play an important role in health education, rehabilitation, and coping with stress [10 13]. A new generation of video games (e.g., Dance Dance Revolution, Sony Eyetoy Kinetic, Nintendo Wii) can also have an effect on overall fitness, movement control, a reduction in body mass [14 16], and contribute to the prevention of falls among the elderly [17]. In 4

5 S. Sterkowicz, J. Jaworski, Participation in computer games light of the abovementioned observations, the aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between the amount of time spent playing computer games and performance in selected coordination motor abilities and basic somatic characteristics in a group of prepubertal boys. Material and methods The study involved 97 boys (aged ± 0.27 years) living in rural areas near Kraków, Poland. The study was carried out according to the ethical standards stipulated by Polish law. The research procedures were approved by the Bioethics Commission at the Regional Medical Chamber in Kraków, Poland (approval No. 51/KBL/ OIL/2010) and the boys parents supplied their informed consent after being told about the aim and the scope of the study. A questionnaire was administered to the boys in order to determine the number of hours they spent playing computer games. It was assumed that the number of hours might differ depending on the day (weekday or weekend) and also due to random events (illness, trip). Therefore, the questionnaire asked about how a typical day appeared in the preceding month, excluding random events, with questions such as: Do you play computer games every day? How many hours do you spend playing computer games on a weekday? How many hours do you spend playing computer games during the weekend? Average gameplay (activity) amounted to 9.80 ± 5.28, median = 9.0, lower quartile = 6.0, upper quartile = 14.0 h per week. Based on their answers, the respondents were divided into three groups based on the amount of time spent playing computer games: L < ½ sd, A = ± ½ sd and H > + ½ sd. Group L spent the least amount of time playing computer games (n = 34, 4.38 ± 2.63, median = 5.25, lower quartile = 2.5, upper quartile = 7.0 h per week), Group A spent an average amount of time (n = 31, 9.65 ± 1.63, median = 9.0, lower quartile = 9.0, upper quartile = 11.0 h per week), and group H was composed of individuals who spent the most amount of time playing (n = 32, ± 2.94, median = 16, lower quartile = 14.0, upper quartile = 18.0 h per week). Their ages were similar: L (10.35 ± 0.25, median = 10.33, lower quartile = 10.16, upper quartile = years), A (10.25 ± 0.27, median = 10.33, lower quartile = 9.92, upper quartile = years), H (10.32 ± 0.30, median = 10.33, lower quartile = 10.0, upper quartile = years). Testing participants coordination motor abilities (CMA) Tests measuring the participants coordination motor abilities were performed over a period of a few days always from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m., maintaining the same procedures and conditions for each trial (a room which ensured peace and quiet, regulated chair height, the same order of tests for each subject). A tablet computer with a touch screen (Satellite R15, Toshiba, Japan) was used for the tests, which were based on a recent classification of CMA (for more information see [18]). The CMA measured and the adopted procedure can be briefly described as follows: kinesthetic differentiation: participants predicted the time necessary to fill in a rectangle, the result of the test was the mean absolute deviation from the pattern expressed in pixels, frequency of movements: within a timeframe of 15 s, the participants touched two squares alternately with the tablet s stylus; the result was expressed in the number of touches, reaction time to visual or auditory stimuli: after a stimulus was presented, the participants were supposed to click the left button of the mouse as quickly as possible; the result was expressed in milliseconds, selective reaction time: depending on the stimulus (auditory or visual), the participant clicked the respective button of the mouse as quickly as possible, the result was expressed in milliseconds, movement speed, accuracy, and precision: the participants were to drag a square with the tablet s stylus through a special maze as quickly as possible and with lowest possible number of mistakes; the result of the test was expressed in seconds, rhythmization: the object was to memorize a rhythm presented by the computer and then reproduce it; the result was expressed in milliseconds, spatial orientation: participants were shown a coordinate plane with two red squares along the x and y axes, the task was to use the tablet s stylus to plot as quickly as possible the point on the grid where the two red squares would intersect; the result was expressed in seconds, eye hand coordination: the participants used the tablet s stylus to touch a square which was flashed on the screen as quickly as possible; the result was expressed in seconds. Each test was performed twice (test retest), with the coefficients of reliability later calculated to be between 0.6 and 0.9, respectively [19]. The tests met the expected reliability requirements measured by an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) according to the criteria set forth by Domholdt [20], and were similar to the values found in a similar study by Juras et al. [21], whose ICC coefficients for a maximum deflection test (functional balance) were approximately The basic somatic parameters that were measured included body height, body mass, body fat percentage (%PF), fat mass (FM) fat-free mass (FFM), and body mass index (BMI). Body height was measured using Martin s method. Body fat percentage (PF%) was estimated with a TBF-551 (Tanita, USA) body fat scale that 5

6 S. Sterkowicz, J. Jaworski, Participation in computer games uses bioelectrical impedance analysis. Additionally, the components of BM were also calculated, i.e., the fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM). The interna tional cut-off points for BM for overweight and obese boys were adopted [22]. Descriptive statistics were calculated (, sd) for the coordination abilities and somatic traits of the groups according to the number of hours spent playing computer games (Group L least amount, Group A average amount, Group H highest amount). One-way ANOVA was employed for the independent samples in order to determine the variance of the studied parameters among the boys groups. Tukey s post-hoc test for various n values was also used. In addition, the frequencies of the BMI categories were compared using the Chi-squared test. The size, scope and direction of differentiation of the studied traits between the three groups were determined by the value of the normalized intergroup differences. Normalization was carried out for the mean values and standard deviation of the group which reported spending the lowest amount of time playing games. Significance level was set at alpha = All statistical analysis was performed using Statistica ver. 6.0 PL for Windows (IBM, Poland). Results The basic statistical characteristics of the analyzed CMA for the three groups of boys versus the weekly time spent playing are presented in Table 1. The table also provides information on the significance differences of the calculated means based on one-way ANOVA for independent samples. Analysis revealed that statistically significant differences between the group means did exist for kinesthetic differentiation, spatial orientation, and the speed, accuracy and precision of movements (number of errors). Table 2 presents the results when comparing the participants somatic parameters. For all the analyzed traits, differences in the arithmetic means among the three groups turned out to be statistically insignificant. However, it should be noted that the lowest somatic characteristics and BMI were found in the group of boys who spent the least amount of time playing computer games. It can also be observed that the boys categorized as playing for only an average amount of time were found to present average somatic characteristics. Table 3 presents the count, or frequency, of normal, overweight, and obese boys among the L, A, and H groups (BMI age criterion adopted as in Cole et al. [22]). The lowest frequency of boys who were overweight or obese was observed in group L, an average amount in group A, and the highest in group H. Table 1. Level of coordination abilities vs. time spent on computer games Group L Group A Group H Variable (measured unit) F p ± sd p L A ± sd p A H ± sd p L H Kinesthetic differentiation (pixels) ± Movement frequency (n) ± 6.18 Reaction time to visual stimulus (ms) ± Reaction time to auditory stimulus (ms) ± Complex reaction time (ms) ± Complex reaction time (n errors) ± 1.81 Speed, accuracy and precision of movements (s) ± Speed, accuracy and precision of movements (no. of errors) ± Rhythmization (ms) ± Visual motor coordination (s) ± Spatial orientation (s) ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± Results in bold denote significant differences between averages on the significance level alfa = ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

7 S. Sterkowicz, J. Jaworski, Participation in computer games Table 2. Height, body mass, and body composition for the boys playing computer games Variable (measured unit) F p ± sd Group L Group A Group H p L A ± sd p A H ± sd p L H Body height (cm) Body mass (kg) % PF FM (kg) FFM (kg) BMI (kg m 2 ) %PF % fat mass; FM fat mass; FFM fat-free mass L A H Table 3. The count or frequency of normal, overweight and obese boys by L, A, H groups (BMI age-criterion by Cole et al. [22]) Total Normal % % % % Chi 2 = 4.481; df = 2; p = Overweight and obese % % % % Total % % % % Figure 1 presents the profiles of intergroup differentiation in performing the coordination motor abilities. The boys who spent the longest amount of time playing computer games were found to feature better results in almost all of the studied CMAs when compared with their less frequently playing peers (z 1 ). Only the number of errors in the test of speed, accuracy, and movement ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± precision in group L was better, although insignificantly, than for group H. Among all of the coordination abilities, the largest difference in favor of the boys from group H was obtained for kinesthetic differentiation. Considering the normalized differences between group A and L (z 2 ), it can be seen that the best results of the CMAs are found in the boys from group A, those who spend more time playing games, when compared with group L. However, the normalized differences are largely insignificant and oscillate for most of the traits within sdgrl except for kinesthetic differentiation, reaction time to visual stimulus, and spatial orientation (z 2 = 0.59 sdgrl). Figure 1 also presents the normalized intergroup differences for the somatic characteristics. Normalized differences between the extreme groups (z 1 ) are slightly larger than for coordination abilities. They point to the fact that group H demonstrates higher body mass, body fat percentage, fat mass, and BMI compared with their peers from group L. The normalized differences for these traits were sdgrl. Such unfavorable tendencies are even more noticeable in the relationship between groups A and L (z 2 ). For the analyzed somatic z Value z z1 0,8 z2 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 Trait -0,2 BH BM %PF FM FFM BMI KD MF RTVS RTAS CRTt CRTe SAPt SAPe R VMC SO -0,4-0,6-0,8 BH body height; BM body mass; %PF %fat mass; FM fat mass; FFM fat-free mass; BMI body mass index; KD kinaesthetic differentiation, MF movement frequency; RTVS reaction time to visual stimulus; RTAS reaction time to auditory stimulus; CRTt complex reaction time (time); CRTe complex reaction time (errors); SAPt speed, accuracy and precision of movements (time); SAPe speed, accuracy and precision of movements (errors); R rhythmization; VMC visual motor coordination; SO spatial orientation; z 1 = ( GrH GrL)/sd GrL; z 2 = ( GrA GrL)/sd GrL Figure 1. Normalized differences in measurement CMA, body build, and body composition 7

8 S. Sterkowicz, J. Jaworski, Participation in computer games parameters, the normalized intergroup differences ranged higher ( sdgrl). Discussion Surveys show that computer games have become a very popular form of entertainment among prepubertal Polish boys, who spend on average nearly 10 hours a week playing computer games, with nearly 10% of boys playing upwards of 20 hours a week. However, boys who play for so long may exhibit the beginning phases of addiction, especially when they become older. It has been confirmed by a study on Australian children that the amount of time spent on computer games rises together with age [23]. American children aged 8 to 18 years were found to spend as much as 6 hours and 47 minutes a day watching TV [24]. Although television remains the major factor in promoting a sedentary lifestyle, participation in computer games is quickly rising with a typical child now playing about 2 hours per day [24]. The results of the present study are congruent with the results of Wack and Tantleff-Dunn [13], who reported that young Americans spend nearly 9.73 hours a week playing games. One especially worrying aspect these researchers mentioned was that almost 10% of the sample of American youth played almost 35 hours a week. None of the participants of the present study reported spending as much time playing computer games. Nonetheless, one study does point to a number of potential benefits of computer and computer game use [25], which were cited to improve youth s knowledge, skills, attitudes and behavior in terms of health and physical activity. Moreover, new physically interactive electronic games are likely to have a positive effect on young individuals physical fitness, motor abilities, and their motivation to exercise. However, as of yet there is not enough empirical evidence to support the widespread use of educational electronic games, as current findings provide rather vague examples of their positive effects. There are relatively few studies investigating the effects of computer games on CMA; the few available focus mainly on eye hand coordination and reaction time. Such studies evaluated the differences in reaction time in a group of children who regularly played computer games and a non-playing control group and found that the practical experience gained from playing games may have led to improvement of the above-mentioned CMAs [26 28]. Additionally, Dye et al. [29] showed that video games shortened reaction time without a loss in accuracy. These findings were also confirmed by the authors of the present study when investigating the effects of video games on simple and complex reaction time to an auditory stimulus. Boys who spent more time playing computer games had shorter reaction times and made fewer errors compared with their peers who were less involved in gaming. Griffith et al. [30] also demonstrated that computer and video game players showed enhanced eye hand coordination when compared with their non-playing peers. However, none of these investigations found a statistically significant relationship between visual motor coordination and the time spent playing computer games. This might point to the fact that individuals with proficient visual motor coordination are already inclined to choose forms of entertainment that utilize this kind of CMA. Nonetheless, one study further expounded this theory, finding that action games improve visuospatial attention throughout the visual field [31], while another stated that experience gained from playing video games may have led to improved spatial visual perception [11] as well as having a positive effect on learning and benefit some forms of visual perception such as spatial rotation [32]. Dye et al. [33] demonstrated that action video games improved multitasking, which allowed gamers to perform better in tasks with temporal and spatial differentiation. The cited study also showed that computer games had a positive impact on coordination abilities. Similar observations were noted in the present study. Computer games can combine several factors, which, when used together, can provide a number of opportunities in improving visual, kinesthetic, and perceptual functions. Despite these positives, heavy computer usage nonetheless poses serious risks. Such a sedentary lifestyle may contribute to obesity and lead to less physical activity [34]. A higher incidence of overweight and obese youth in individuals who played computer games for larger periods of time during the weekend was also confirmed by Vicente-Rodríguez et al. [35]. They found that increasing the time spent playing games during the weekend by one hour corresponded to an increased risk of obesity by more than 20%. A literature review [6] did stress caution when drawing overreaching conclusions from rather isolated activities such as watching TV or playing video or computer games. The results of the present study do seem to confirm this observation, as even though boys who spent more time playing computer games demonstrated higher body mass, BMI, and percent body fat, the differences between the groups were found to be statistically insignificant for all somatic traits. This points to the presence of additional factors that need to be taken under consideration in future studies. Conclusions The number of hours spent playing computer games per week had a positive correlation with the results of various tested coordination motor abilities. The results found that playing about 8 to 11 hours of computer games a week had a positive effect in the performance of various coordination abilities. This positive feedback effect is postulated to work on the development of CMA and on the better use of CMA when solving various visuospatial tasks. However, the study found that individuals who spent additional time playing games 8

9 S. Sterkowicz, J. Jaworski, Participation in computer games did not feature a considerable improvement in coordination abilities and, instead, could be more at risk for featuring negative mood swings and becoming addicted as well as at risk for a higher incidence of being overweight or obese. Acknowledgements This research was supported by a grant approved by the Senate Commission for Research at the University School of Physical Education in Kraków (No. 173/KA/2007). References 1. Grüsser S.M., Thalemann R., Griffiths M.D., Excessive Computer Game Playing: Evidence for Addiction and Aggression? Cyberpsychol Behav, 2007, 10 (2), , doi: /cpb Mitrofan O., Paul M., Spencer N., Is aggression in children with behavioural and emotional difficulties associated with television viewing and video game playing? A systematic review. Child Care Health Dev, 2009, 35 (1), 5 15, doi: /j x. 3. 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10 S. Sterkowicz, J. Jaworski, Participation in computer games 30. Griffith J.L., Voloschin P., Gibb G.D., Bailey J.R., Differences in eye-hand motor coordination of video-game users and non-users. Percept Motor Skill, 1983, 57, , doi: /pms Green C.S., Bavelier D., Effect of action video games on the spatial distribution of visuospatial attention. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform, 2006, 32 (6), , doi: / Barlett C.P., Anderson C.A., Swing E.L., Video Game Effects Confirmed, Suspected, and Speculative: A Review of the Evidence. Simulat Gaming, 2009, 40 (3), , doi: / Dye M.W.G., Green C.S., Bavelier D., The Development of Attention Skills in Action Video Game Players. Neuropsychologia, 2009, 47 (8 9), , doi: /j. neuropsychologia Carandente F., Roveda E., Montaruli A., Pizzini G., Nutrition, activity behavior and body constitution in primary school children. Biol Sport, 2009, 26 (4), Vicente-Rodríguez G., Rey-López J. P., Martín-Matillas M., Moreno L.A., Wärnberg J., Redondo C. et al., Television watching, videogames, and excess of body fat in Spanish adolescents: The AVENA study. Nutrition, 2008, 24 (7 8), , doi: /j.nut Paper received by the Editors: February 27, 2012 Paper accepted for publication: November 14, 2012 Correspondence address Stanisław Sterkowicz Instytut Sportu Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego al. Jana Pawła II Kraków, Poland wtsterko@cyf-kr.edu.pl 10

11 2013, vol. 14 (1), SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS INTEREST IN VARIOUS FORMS of PHYSICAL ACTIVITY doi: /v MARCIN ŚCIŚLAK *, ANDRZEJ ROKITA, MAREK POPOWCZAK University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Abstract Purpose. Students interest in various forms of physical activity (individual and team sports) is known to differ depending on sex, place of residence, age, the time of year, and many other factors. The aim of the present study was to further analyze this issue on a group of secondary school students and to search for relationships between interest in different sports and sex, age and the school they attend. Methods. A standardized diagnostic questionnaire was administered to 475 first-, second-, and thirdyear students attending two randomly chosen secondary schools in Wrocław, Poland. Results. Significant differences in the interests of the analyzed group were found in regards to sex, age, and school. Girls were more interested in dancing, swimming, downhill skiing and hiking. Boys preferred team sports, swimming, downhill skiing, and martial arts. Conclusions. It seems advisable to identify and implement which physical activities secondary school students find most interesting in existing physical education curriculum so as to help develop positive attitude towards physical culture in later life. Key words: interest, physical activity, secondary school student Introduction Secondary school is a time when students biological development becomes quite advanced, when students have mastered basic motor skills, formed their own interests, hobbies, and value systems, and, in the case of girls, even show symptoms of motor aging. Therefore, it seems necessary for schools to create additional exercise opportunities outside standard physical education (PE) curriculum so as to take into consideration not just students health, physical fitness, and skill levels but also factors such as body build or individual preferences towards playing certain types of sports [1]. Many researchers have emphasized that physical education should focus on helping young adolescents view their own physical form and function positively by providing them with an environment that can foster healthy attitudes and behaviors [2]. Such a philosophy would undoubtedly require an entirely different sort of physical education teacher, one that has the ability to foresee a student s potential and future and not, as is so common today, have their work based entirely on short-sighted perceptions on meeting national physical education requirements. This would require a physical education teacher to rise above his/her current role and take into consideration other aspects than his/her students physical training [3]. In modern terms, the essence of physical education, as an integral part of modern educational systems, is to shape students personalities in terms of their axiological (in regards to their emotional-volitional sphere) and * Corresponding author. technological competence (in regards to their intellectual-performance sphere). The goal is to prepare a student to take care of their body throughout their whole life by participating in physical culture [4]. Physical education should, at each of its stage, ingrain students with treating physical activity (PA) as a part of their daily lives and help them build a positive self-image of themselves by expanding their interests and attitudes. Most importantly, whether the physical activity they choose to do is done recreationally, by hiking, by playing competitive team sports, or by dancing, is immaterial. It is for this reason that schools need to offer a physical education curriculum that can fulfill the needs and interests of its students in the broadest sense possible [5]. Some authors believe that physical education classes, beginning from the fourth grade of elementary school and continuing through middle and secondary school, ought to be conducted as special-interest groups, where students choose the activity that best suits their interests and abilities [5]. The main goal of such a strategy would be to meet the physical education expectations of students by deepening their knowledge and skills in areas that are of interest as well as being accessible in terms of their physical fitness and skills [5]. This would require schools to analyze their students interest in various forms of physical activity, decide how to meet their expectations and then provide them with PE that can help develop the habit of regularly practicing their chosen form of physical activity [6 8]. Studies on students interest in PA have already been carried out as early as by Strzyżewski and Górna [9], who surveyed 3,639 Polish male and female students (attending primary and secondary schools) by an anonymous questionnaire containing 36 questions 11

12 M. Ściślak, A. Rokita, M. Popowczak, Students interest in physical activity on various aspects of physical education (opinions on PE, sports, and their PE teacher). Their results found that: 70 75% of students would like to have physical education classes that use a ball, students attitudes towards physical education classes deteriorated with age (from the fifth grade until graduation), a relatively high percentage of students did not understand the purpose of exercise and why it is important in life. Another study of interest was conducted in 1994 by Rokita [10] on a group of 768 pupils attending the 1 st grade in a middle school in Lower Silesia, Poland. Interest in playing team sports (soccer, basketball, volleyball, or handball) was reported by 91% of the respondents, where 28% expressed a willingness to play at least one of the sports, 37% chose two of these sports; 19% chose three, and 7% chose all four [11]. Later, between , Rokita [10] studied the opinions of 1,963 students attending their first year of secondary school with the same questionnaire as before. During this seven-year period, female students expressed the most interest in playing volleyball (from 64% to 74%). Basketball was also quite popular, with over 50% of the respondents expressing interest in this sport throughout the analyzed period (from 56% to 66%), while the least popular were soccer (14% to 29%) and handball (16% to 31%). Among boys basketball was the most popular sport during this time period (from 66% to 84%), with soccer holding over a 60% interest (from 63% to 73%). The least popularly played sport was reported by the students to be tennis (from 26% to 35%) and handball (from 9% do 37%). Although numerous studies on which forms of physical activity are popular among children and young adolescents have been conducted by many Polish [6 16] and European researchers [17 19], there nevertheless exists little current data on the interests of contemporary secondary school students. Furthermore, analysis of the available literature found significant variation in what forms of PA were popular depending on the students sex, location, age, the time of year, and many other factors [6 19]. For example, the Supreme Audit Office in Poland carried out an assessment between on 18,661 students attending PE [20]. The study found that students became more critical of how their PE classes were conducted over the years. The number of students who felt that their PE class was uninteresting rose from one in five students in primary school to one-quarter by middle school and finally to one-third of all students in secondary school. Furthermore, a study by Dobosz and Trzcińska in 1999 showed an increasing trend in student non-participation in PE primarily by using longterm medical excuses (averaged for all ages to be 10.6% for girls and 8.4% for boys). Some of the reasons for such high levels of dissatisfaction with PE classes were uncovered by Malska-Śmiałowska and Kołodziej [22], where boys were primarily upset with the small number of team sports and generally poor conditions, while girls stated that they preferred different forms of PA. Rokita [10], when studying what forms of physical activity students considered interesting, concluded that PE classes in secondary schools ought to consist of those activities that were the most popular, with the best option being the creation of special groups focused on a particular set of interests and open to all grades. Thorndike [23], in developing his theory of learning, found that if a response produces a feeling of satisfaction, it becomes associated with that activity and more likely to occur again if that situation should repeat itself in the future. As a result, there is a general belief that interest in an activity can grow if the teaching process and material is made attractive [24]. A study on a group of more than four hundred Israeli children found interesting results when observing playground behavior. It was found that children prefer to play in groups and rarely exhibited individual behavioral tendencies. Furthermore, children playing in groups of more than five increased from 12% to 16% between 5 and 6 years of age. The size of the groups was found to continue to increase when school was in session in a sample of 9- to 12-year-olds and especially so for boys, which could explain the popularity of team sports such as soccer with this group. The nature of the groups was found to change when reaching the age of puberty [25]. Carlson [26] also showed that students feelings during PE classes have a significant impact on creating positive or negative attitudes towards physical culture. This may be one of the reasons why certain boys and girls take part in extracurricular forms of physical activity and others do not [27]. Rokita [6] concluded that creating an objective (by taking into account students interests) PE curriculum in middle and secondary schools is of urgent necessity, where there still remains a chance by satisfying students interest in physical activity to instill a positive (or change a negative) attitude towards physical culture. There exists a high probability that if students were to participate in PE classes that cater to their personal interests, then they would be more likely to regularly participate in additional physical exercise after school and in later life [10]. Taking into account the results of the Supreme Audit Office s survey [20], the aim of this study was to determine what forms of physical activity are considered the most interesting among today s secondary school students. The objective aim of the study was to then use the results and modify and reorganize existing PE classes in the schools selected for analysis [28]. It was hypothesized that secondary school students interest in various forms of physical activity would depend on sex, age, and the school they attended. In order to verify this hypothesis, a number of research questions were adopted: 12

13 M. Ściślak, A. Rokita, M. Popowczak, Students interest in physical activity 1. Which forms of physical activity are secondary school students interested in? 2. Which forms of physical activity are boys and girls interested in and how do they differ? 3. Which forms of physical activity are students interested in and do they differ in terms of age (year of school)? 4. Which forms of physical activity are students interested and do they differ in terms of which school they attend? 5. Does sex, age, or the school determine which forms of physical education secondary school students find interesting? Material and methods Two secondary schools from the city of Wrocław, Poland were randomly selected (Secondary School No. V and Secondary School No. XVII) from a pool of schools that initially provided their consent (from parents and the school director) as well as were available during the period when the study was to be conducted. All students without a semester or year-long medical excuse were recruited, which amounted to 475 students (262 girls and 213 boys) (Tab. 1) attending what are known as the first, second, and third years of secondary school. The study was conducted at the end of the first semester (January/February) in 2011 during the students PE classes. The primary method for data collection was a standardized diagnostic survey, named Interests in physical activity, that had been previously used to determine what forms of physical activity adolescents found interesting [12, 17]. Due to the scope of the study, only the answers from the questionnaire s fourth section were considered for analysis (consisting of questions on Sports and Team Sports ). The students were familiarized with the questionnaire and provided either their own (if of legal age) or their parents informed consent. The students were asked to provide their sex, age, grade and then rank which five individual sports they like to do out of a list of seventeen, as well as rank their five favorite team sports out of eleven. For both the individual and team sports sections the students were provided with an open-ended option and could indicate other forms of physical activity they found interesting [12, 17]. Sex Table 1. Number of analyzed students Secondary School No. V School Secondary School No. XVII I II III I II III Total Girls Boys Total Pearson s chi-square test, at a significance level of p < 0.05, was used to verify the original hypothesis by finding the relationship between the various forms of physical activity chosen by the students in terms of their sex, age, or school. Results Interest in various forms of physical activity among secondary school students Altogether, the students were most interested in swimming (29.3%), team sports (27.1%), dancing (22.7%), downhill skiing (22.3%), while the least interest was expressed in cross-country skiing (2%), foot orienteering (3%), rhythmic gymnastics (3.4%), and artistic gymnastics (3.8%) Among girls, the most popular sports were dancing (19.9%) and swimming (15.6%). The least preference was given to foot orienteering (1.1%), bodybuilding (1.5%), cross-country skiing (1.5%) and artistic gymnastics (1.5%) (Fig. 1). Among boys, the greatest interest was in team sports (20.7%), swimming (13.6%) and downhill skiing (13.1%) (Fig. 1). Using Pearson s chi-square test at a significance level of p < 0.05, the original hypothesis was verified if interest in various forms of physical activity was influenced by age, sex, and school. The results found that sex had an impact on students choosing ten forms of physical activity (girls preferring to do aerobics, rhythmic gymnastics, hiking, dancing, figure and roller skating; boys preferring martial arts, motorsports, bodybuilding, and team sports). Based on the divergence of these results, further analysis was performed separately for the boys and girls. Pearson s chi-square test found that age had a statistically significant relationship in choosing three forms of physical activity (motorsports, aerobics, and dancing). Hence, further analysis also took into account the age of the students (i.e. which year they were attending school). Furthermore, which school the students attended also had an impact on five forms of physical activity (downhill skiing, bodybuilding, martial arts, sailing and windsurfing, and hiking), analysis was also broken down separately for both schools. Interest in various forms of physical activity among students from Secondary School No. V In this school, first-year girls rated swimming as the most popular (23.6%), followed by dancing (16.4%), and downhill skiing (16.4%). None of the respondents declared any interest in motorsports, kayaking and rowing, or foot orienteering (Fig. 2). Among first-year boys, the most popularly ranked were downhill skiing (25.8%) and swimming (19.3%). None of the boys expressed any interest in motorsports, 13

14 M. Ściślak, A. Rokita, M. Popowczak, Students interest in physical activity % % % Track and field Figure 1. Interest in various forms of physical activity among students from Secondary Schools No. V and No. XVII Track and field Track and field Motorsports Motorsports Motorsports Kayaking and rowing Kayaking and rowing Kayaking and rowing Bodybuilding Bodybuilding Bodybuilding Cross-country skiing Cross-country skiing Cross-country skiing Downhill skiing Downhill skiing Downhill skiing Artistic gymnastics Artistic gymnastics Artistic gymnastics Foot orienteering Foot orienteering Foot orienteering Swimming Swimming Swimming Aerobics Aerobics First-year Second-year Third-year Figure 2. Interest in various forms of physical activity (girls from Secondary School No. V) Rhythmic gymnastics Rhythmic gymnastics Team sports Team sports Dancing Dancing Hiking Hiking Martial arts Martial arts Figure and roller skating Figure and roller skating Sailing and windsurfing Sailing and windsurfing others First-year Second-year Third-year Figure 3. Interest in various forms of physical activity (boys from Secondary School No. V) Aerobics Rhythmic gymnastics Team sports Dancing Hiking Martial arts Girls Figure and roller skating Boys Sailing and windsurfing others others % kayaking and rowing, bodybuilding, rhythmic gymnastics, or foot orienteering (Fig. 3). Girls in their second year of secondary school were the most interested in swimming (18.5%) and dancing (18.5%). None of them chose track and field, kayaking and rowing, foot orienteering, artistic gymnastics, team sports, or martial arts (Fig. 2). Boys in the same age group declared they were mostly interested in track and field (33.3%) and downhill skiing (33.3%). Surprisingly, none of them declared any interest in kayaking and rowing, bodybuilding, crosscountry skiing, rhythmic gymnastics, foot orienteering, swimming, aerobics, team sports, dancing, hiking, martial arts, figure and roller skating, or sailing and windsurfing (Fig. 3). Girls in their third and final year of secondary school were interested in team sports (14.8%) and dancing (14.8%); none showed any interest in bodybuilding, cross-country skiing, rhythmic gymnastics, martial arts, or sailing and windsurfing (Fig. 2). Boys in their third year showed the most interest in downhill skiing (25%) and team sports (20.8%). None of them expressed any interest in track and field, kayaking and rowing, bodybuilding, cross-country skiing, rhythmic gymnastics, foot orienteering, aerobics, artistic gymnastics, hiking, martial arts, or figure and roller skating (Fig. 3). In this school (Secondary School No. V), it was found that girls expressed the most interest in dancing and swimming regardless of age, while the least popular were kayaking and rowing, bodybuilding, rhythmic and artistic gymnastics, and foot orienteering (Fig. 2). Among the boys attending this school, regardless of age, the most popular sport was downhill skiing. None of the boys expressed interest in kayaking and rowing, bodybuilding, rhythmic gymnastics, or foot orienteering (Fig. 3). Interest in various forms of physical activity among students from Secondary School No. XVII The results of girls in their first year of secondary school are not presented as only one participant agreed to participate in the study. Boys in this age group were the most interested in swimming (17.1%), figure and roller skating (14.6%), and martial arts (12.2%). None of the boys considered participating in track and field, cross-country skiing, foot orienteering, aerobics, or hiking (Fig. 5). Among the girls attending their second year of secondary school, the most popular was swimming (16.3%) and dancing (16.3%) (Fig. 4). The least interest was expressed in rhythmic gymnastics (1.2%), foot orien- Track and field First-year Motorsports Kayaking and rowing Second-year Bodybuilding Cross-country skiing Downhill skiing Artistic gymnastics Foot orienteering Swimming Figure 4. Interest in various forms of physical activity (girls from Secondary School No. XVII) Aerobics Rhythmic gymnastics Team sports Dancing Hiking Martial arts Figure and roller skating Sailing and windsurfing others 14

15 M. Ściślak, A. Rokita, M. Popowczak, Students interest in physical activity First-year Second-year Third-year NO. V NO. XVII % % Track and field Motorsports Kayaking and rowing Bodybuilding Cross-country skiing Downhill skiing Artistic gymnastics Foot orienteering Swimming Aerobics Rhythmic gymnastics Team sports Dancing Hiking Martial arts Figure and roller skating Sailing and windsurfing others Track and field Motorsports Kayaking and rowing Bodybuilding Cross-country skiing Downhill skiing Artistic gymnastics Foot orienteering Swimming Aerobics Rhythmic gymnastics Team sports Dancing Hiking Martial arts Figure and roller skating Sailing and windsurfing others Figure 5. Interest in various forms of physical activity (boys from Secondary School No. XVII) teering (1.2%), and sailing and windsurfing (1.2%). None of the girls expressed any interest in bodybuilding (Fig. 4). Their male peers, on the other hand, were interested the most in team sports (27.3%) and swimming (16%) (Fig. 5), although none were interested in kayaking, crosscountry skiing, aerobics, artistic gymnastics, hiking, figure and roller skating, or sailing and windsurfing (Fig. 5). Third-year girls were the most interested in dancing (28.8%), although some considered hiking (13.6%) and swimming (10.6%). None of the girls were interested in motorsports and cross-country skiing (Fig. 4). Boys attending their third year of secondary school were interested in team sports (23.5%) and martial arts (19.1%). On the other hand, none showed any interest in cross-country skiing, aerobics, hiking, or sailing and windsurfing (Fig. 5). Among all the girls attending this school, the most interest was expressed in dancing, swimming, and hiking (Fig. 4). Among their male peers, regardless of age, the most popular were team sports and swimming. None of the boys wanted to attend PE classes focusing on cross-country skiing, aerobics, or hiking (Fig. 5). Pearson s chi-square test was used again to verify the original hypothesis if interest in the various forms of physical activity depended on the school the students attended. It was found that the school the students attended had a statistically significant relationship in choosing three forms of physical activity (downhill skiing in Secondary School No. V and bodybuilding and martial arts in No. XVII) among boys and two forms of sports (sailing and windsurfing in No. V and hiking in No. XVII) among girls. On the basis of these results, additional analysis was performed on the students interests from both schools by taking into consideration both sex and age. Interest in various forms of physical activity among second-year girls No analysis was performed on what interests girls in their first year of secondary school had, as only one Figure 6. Interest in various forms of physical activity (second-year girls from Secondary Schools No. V and No. XVII) % Track and field No. V Motorsports Kayaking and rowing No. XVII Bodybuilding Cross-country skiing Downhill skiing Artistic gymnastics Foot orienteering Figure 7. Interest in various forms of physical activity (third-year girls from Secondary Schools No. V and No. XVII) girl from Secondary School No. XVII participated in the study. Girls from both schools in their second year were the most interested in swimming and dancing (Fig. 6). Interest in various forms of physical activity among third-year girls Among third-year girls in No. V, the most interest was declared in playing team sports and dancing. Their peers from No. XVII preferred only dancing. However, they did express considerable interest in hiking and swimming (Fig. 7). Regardless of which school the girls attended, the most popular activity was swimming and dancing (Fig. 6, 7). Interest in various forms of physical activity among first-year boys Swimming Boys in their first year at No. V expressed the most interest in downhill skiing, swimming, and dancing. Their peers from No. XVII also chose swimming but also included figure and roller skating and martial arts (Fig. 8). Aerobics Rhythmic gymnastics Team sports Dancing Hiking Martial arts Figure and roller skating Sailing and windsurfing others 15

16 M. Ściślak, A. Rokita, M. Popowczak, Students interest in physical activity 20 % 15 % % Track and field Figure 8. Interest in various forms of physical activity (first-year boys from Secondary Schools No. V and No. XVII) Track and field Track and field Motorsports Motorsports Motorsports Kayaking and rowing Kayaking and rowing Figure 9. Interest in various forms of physical activity (second-year boys from Secondary Schools No. V and No. XVII) Kayaking and rowing Bodybuilding Bodybuilding Bodybuilding Cross-country skiing Cross-country skiing Cross-country skiing Downhill skiing Downhill skiing Downhill skiing Artistic gymnastics Artistic gymnastics Artistic gymnastics Foot orienteering Foot orienteering Foot orienteering Swimming Swimming Swimming Aerobics Aerobics Aerobics Rhythmic gymnastics Rhythmic gymnastics Rhythmic gymnastics Team sports Team sports Team sports Dancing Dancing Dancing Hiking Hiking Hiking No. V Martial arts No. V Martial arts No. V Martial arts Figure and roller skating Figure and roller skating Figure and roller skating No. XVII Sailing and windsurfing Sailing and windsurfing No. XVII Sailing and windsurfing others No. XVII Figure 10. Interest in various forms of physical activity (third-year boys from Secondary Schools No. V and No. XVII) others others First-year Second-year Third-year Interest in various forms of physical activity among second-year boys Boys from Secondary School No. V expressed the most interest in track and field and downhill skiing. Their peers from Secondary School No. XVII expressed more interest in team sports and swimming (Fig. 9). Interest in various forms of physical activity among third-year boys The boys in the last year at Secondary School No. V were the most interested in downhill skiing and team sports. Boys from No. XVII preferred team sports and martial arts (Fig. 10). The group of analyzed boys, regardless of which school they attended, expressed the most interest in downhill skiing, team sports, and swimming (Fig. 8 10). As playing team sports garnered a considerable amount of interest among the analyzed students, further analysis was conducted on which team sports were the most popular. Interest in team sports among all of the analyzed secondary school students Pearson s chi-square test was used again to verify if interest in team sports differed by sex, age, and the school the students attended. It was found that sex had a statistically significant influence in choosing six team sports (badminton, handball, soccer, volleyball, tennis, and water polo), but had no effect on the remaining five choices. Based on the divergence of these results, further analysis was performed separately for boys and girls. The results of Pearson s chi-square test also showed that age had a statistically significant relationship on three of the sports among girls (volleyball, tennis, and baseball and softball) and also on three of the sports among boys (soccer, basketball, and table tennis). The school the children attended had an impact on choosing two of the team sports (tennis and volleyball) among girls and had no effect when selecting a team sport among the group of boys. Interest in team sports among girls from Secondary School No. V % Badminton Handball Soccer Basketball Ice hockey Netball Figure 11. Interest in team sports among girls from Secondary School No. V Volleyball Softball and baseball Table tennis Tennis Water polo Others Pearson s chi-square test was used to verify the relationship between interest in team sports and the sex of students attending Secondary School No. V. Here, it was found that sex demonstrated a significant relationship with playing four team sports (badminton, soccer, volleyball, and table tennis). Among girls in their first, second, and third years in this school, the largest interest was expressed in volleyball (from 40.7% to 51.8%) (Fig. 11). However, none of the girls expressed any interest in netball, softball, or baseball. 16

17 M. Ściślak, A. Rokita, M. Popowczak, Students interest in physical activity % % Badminton Badminton Handball Handball Soccer Soccer Basketball Basketball Ice hockey Ice hockey Netball Figure 12. Interest in team sports among boys from Secondary School No. V Netball Volleyball Softball and baseball Second-year Figure 13. Interest in team sports among girls from Secondary School No. XVII Table tennis Tennis Third-year Girls in their first year of secondary school were the most interested in tennis (12.7%) and handball (10.9%). Those in their second year chose badminton (14.8%), ice hockey (11.1%) and tennis (11.1%) while those in their third year declared badminton (14.8%) to be the most interesting (Fig. 8). Regardless of what year they were in, the most interesting team sports for girls from Secondary School No. V were volleyball, badminton, and tennis. Interest in team sports among boys from Secondary School No. V Volleyball First-year Second-year Third-year Softball and baseball Table tennis Tennis Water polo Water polo Others Others The most interest by boys in their first, second, and third years of secondary school was in playing soccer (from 32.3% to 66.7%) (Fig. 12). No interest was expressed in playing netball or water polo. First-year boys were the most interested in basketball (22.6%) and handball (16.1%). None were interested in playing badminton, netball, softball and baseball, or water polo (Fig. 12). Second-year boys chose soccer, badminton (16.7%), basketball (16.7%), and ice hockey (16.7%). No one expressed any interest in playing handball, netball, volleyball, baseball, table tennis, tennis, or water polo (Fig. 12). Boys in their third year were the most interested in basketball (12.5%); no interest was expressed in handball, netball, ice hockey, table tennis, or water polo (Fig. 12). Altogether, regardless of age, the most interesting team sport for boys from Secondary School No. V was soccer, although basketball was also of interest. No one rated having any interest in playing netball or water polo. Interest in team sports among girls from Secondary School No. XVII Pearson s chi-square test was used to verify the relationship between interest in team sports and the sex of students attending Secondary School No. XVII. Age was found to have a statistically significant correlation on three of the team sports chosen by the students (badminton, soccer, and water polo). Among first-, second-, and third-year girls, the most interest was expressed in playing volleyball (from 19.8% to 33.3%) and badminton (from 18.2% to 21%) (Fig. 13). The least interesting for the girls was netball, ice hockey, and water polo. Based upon the entire sample of girls attending Secondary School No. XVII, it was found that the most interest was expressed in volleyball and badminton. The least interesting was netball and water polo. Interest in team sports among boys from Secondary School No. XVII The most interesting team sport for first-, secondand third-year boys in this school was soccer (from 17.1% to 47.7%). No one was interested in playing netball or softball and baseball (Fig. 14). First-year boys were the most interested in volleyball (22%) and, as was mentioned, soccer (17.1%). However, second-year boys expressed more interest in playing soccer (47.7%). Third-year boys expressed greater interest in playing soccer (33.8%) and basketball (19.1%) than the other sports (Fig. 14). Altogether, regardless of which year the boy was in school, the most interesting for all boys attending Secondary School No. XVII was soccer, with volleyball and basketball next in popularity % Badminton Handball Soccer Basketball Ice hockey Netball First-year Second-year Third-year Figure 14. Interest in team sports among boys from Secondary School No. XVII Volleyball Softball and baseball Table tennis Tennis Water polo Others 17

18 M. Ściślak, A. Rokita, M. Popowczak, Students interest in physical activity Discussion The results of the present study revealed significant differences among the interests of secondary school students. Their preference in which physical activity they would prefer to play the most was found to be influenced by their sex, age, and the school they attended. Overall, girls expressed the most interest in dancing, swimming, downhill skiing, and hiking. Boys, on the other hand, preferred playing team sports and doing swimming, downhill skiing, and martial arts. Among first-year students, the most popular were downhill skiing, swimming, dancing, figure and roller skating, and martial arts. Their one-year-older peers preferred swimming, dancing, team sports, and track and field. Third-year students ranked downhill skiing, dancing, team sports, and martial arts as the most interesting. The boys and girls attending Secondary School No. V were the most interested in downhill skiing, dancing, team sports, and swimming. Their peers from Secondary School No. XVII were more interested in swimming, dancing, team sports, and martial arts. Similar results were obtained by Bartoszewicz and Frömel [16]. In their study, they found girls expressed the most interest in swimming, dancing, and team sports. However, among boys, the most popular were team sports, then swimming, and then motorsports. Frömel et al. found slightly different results [17]. In their 1995 study, girls were more interested in team sports than swimming and figure and roller skating, while boys were the more interested in bodybuilding, swimming, and downhill skiing. One possible reason why girls are so interested in dancing and swimming may stem from these activities utilitarian values. Interest in dancing may have also risen in recent years due to its popularity in media (e.g. programs such as Dancing with the Stars, You Can Dance, I ve Got Talent!) and the increase in the number of dance schools that allow individuals to learn different styles of dance regardless of their skill level. For team sports, the results of the present study found that the girls expressed the most interest in playing volleyball and badminton, while boys preferred soccer and basketball. Górna [13] found somewhat similar results, with volleyball being the most popular team sport among girls. Boys, on the other hand, were far more interested in playing basketball, soccer, and volleyball. It appears that the large amount of interest in playing team sports (especially volleyball and soccer) may also be due to its popularity in media (especially with tournaments such as the World League, Champions League, and Europa League) and the success of local sports teams (in this case the local volleyball and soccer teams in Wrocław). The children may have also been influenced by the hosting of various sporting events within their city, which could have contributed to the growing popularity of these sports. However, Górna s study [13] found that gymnastics was the third most popular form of physical activity among girls. Bartoszewicz and Frömel [16] also showed congruent results in terms of the least popular sports among girls, stating that bodybuilding and cross-country skiing were of no interest. For boys, these were crosscountry skiing, rhythmic gymnastics, and aerobics. However, the results of Frömela et al. [17] showed that the least preferred sports among girls were motorsports, kayaking and rowing, and foot orienteering, while boys showed the least interest in aerobics and rhythmic and artistic gymnastics. It is believed that the lack of interest in gymnastics and foot orienteering may be the result of students being entirely unfamiliar in what is involved in these forms of physical activity. A lack of knowledge on the techniques and rules used in these sports may have had a decisive impact on the rather marginal popularity of these sports among the analyzed secondary school students. One of the reasons for the slight discrepancies in the results of this study and those of Bartoszewicz and Frömel [16], Frömel et al. [17] and Górna [13] could be due to where and when research was conducted. Rokita [7] believed that the time of year has a significant impact on the selection of various forms of physical activity (soccer and tennis among girls; basketball, volleyball, handball, and table tennis among boys). However, they stated this was not the case with swimming, its popularity was confirmed regardless of the study environment or time of year. Conclusions It is evident that secondary schools need to consider what forms of physical activity their students find interesting and do their utmost to further develop and foster these interests by creating, at the minimum, activity-specific PE classes open to all grade levels. This could hopefully reduce the amount of falsified medical absences excusing students from taking part in any form of physical activity during school as well as encourage them to take up exercise after school. It is felt that if physical education classes are able to meet their students interests, then it may be highly likely that they will maintain a positive attitude towards physical culture in later life. References 1. Bukowiec M., Physical education in transformations of the contemporary school [in Polish]. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Zdrowotne, 1992, 2, Osiński W., Theory of physical education [in Polish]. AWF, Poznań Grabowski H., Theory of physical education [in Polish]. WSiP, Warszawa

19 M. Ściślak, A. Rokita, M. Popowczak, Students interest in physical activity 4. Pawłucki A., A person in w pedagogical body: law of Olympic piece [in Polish]. Olsztyńska Szkoła Wyższa im. Rusieckiego, Gdańsk Olsztyn Cendrowski Z., Czerska E., Frołowicz T., Madejski E., Pośpiech J., Przybylski W. et al., Commentary to the program basis of the school subject of physical education, Program basis with commentaries [in Polish]. In: Physical education and culture for safety in the primary and secondary school [in Polish]. MEN, Warszawa Rokita A., Planning the hours budget of physical education classes and satisfying interests of students in physical activity [in Polish]. In: Ślężyński J. (ed.), Effects of education in physical culture. PTNKF, Katowice 1998, Rokita A., The interest in sport activity among first year secondary school students in the years Kinesiology, 2005, 37 (1), Rokita A., Developing a timetable of physical education (PE) activities as an experiment to stimulate interest in movement activity among high school students. In: Parisi P. (ed.), Proceedings of the 4 th Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science. University Institute of Motor Science, Rome 1999, Strzyżewski S., Górna K., Physical lessons in students opinions [in Polish]. AWF, Katowice Rokita A., Interests in physical activity with the ball of grade one secondary school students in the years [in Polish]. Hum Mov, 2001, 1 (3), Rokita A., Interests in team sports games of secondary school students [in Polish]. In: Naglak Z., Panfil R. (ed.), Team sports games in physical education and sport. AWF, Wrocław 1995, Bartoszewicz R., Physical activity of lower secondary school students from south-west of Poland against the background of selected European centres [in Polish]. Studia i Monografie AWF we Wrocławiu, 2011, Górna K., Interests of secondary school students in forms of sports and recreation activity [in Polish]. Kultura i Edukacja,1997, 3 4, Rokita A., Interests in physical activity of secondary school students & planning and implementation of physical education didactic classes [in Polish]. In: Ślężyński J. (ed.), Effects of education in physical culture. AWF, Katowice 1996, Rokita A., Interests in forms of physical activity and attitudes towards physical culture of secondary school students [in Polish]. Doctoral Thesis, AWF, Wrocław Bartoszewicz R., Frömel K., Motor activity of junior high school students in the period of socio-economic transformations in Poland and the Czech Republic. Hum Mov, 2006, 7 (1), Frömel K., Ludva P., Formankova S., Bartoszewicz R., Bebcakova V., Burdova I. et al., Structure of sporting interests and motor activities of young people. Telesna Kultura, 1995, 26, Frömel K., Bartoszewicz R., Aspect of organization in the structure of sporting interests and motor activity in children in the regions of Olomouc and Wroclaw. In: Pavlović M. (ed.), Sport Mladih. III Mednarodni Simpozij. Zbornik. Fakulteta za sport, Ljubljana 1998, Frömel K., Skalik K., Sigmund E., Vasendova J., Neuls F., Wirdheim E., Analysis of physical activity in 16 and 18 year-old grammar school students within international context. J Hum Kinet, 2000, 3, Buczyński G., NIK about physical education in schools [in Polish]. Available from: [Accessed: ]. 21. Dobosz J., Trzcińska D., Who and why is exempted from physical education classes [in Polish]. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Zdrowotne, 2000, 2/3, Malska-Śmiałowska A., Kołodziej A., Reasons of absence during physical education classes of primary school students [in Polish]. In: Bartoszewicz R., Koszczyc T., Nowak A. (ed.), Didactics of physical education in the light of contemporary educational needs. AWF, Wrocław 2005, Joncich G., A Biography of Edward L. Thorndike. Wesleyan University Press, Middletown Gurycka A., Development and formation of interests [in Polish]. PWN, Warszawa Bryant P.E., Colman A.M. (ed.), Developmental psychology [in Polish]. Zysk i S-ka, Poznań Carlson T.B., We hate gym: student alienation from physical education. J Teach Phys Educ, 1995, 14 (4), Frołowicz T., Assessment of effectiveness of physical education processes in the primary school [in Polish]. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Zdrowotne, 1993, 3, Hall K., Ordinance of Minister of National Education [in Polish]. Dziennik Ustaw z dnia 15 stycznia 2009, nr 4, poz. 17. Paper received by the Editors: November 15, 2011 Paper accepted for publication: December 20, 2012 Correspondence address Marcin Ściślak Katedra Zespołowych Gier Sportowych Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego ul. Mickiewicza Wrocław, Poland marcin.scislak@awf.wroc.pl 19

20 2013, vol. 14 (1), Distribution of practice effects on older and younger adults motor-skill learning ability doi: /v Cláudio M.F. Leite 1 *, Herbert Ugrinowitsch 2 Maria Flávia S.P. Carvalho 2, Rodolfo N. Benda 2 1 Federal University of São João del-rei (UFSJ), São João del-rei, Brazil 2 Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil Abstract Purpose. In this study, we investigated the effects of the distribution of practice (distributed vs. massed) on the learning of a coincident timing task by young and older adults. Methods. Sixteen young adults and sixteen older adults were subdivided into distributed and massed practice groups. The participants completed a coincident timing task that consisted in touching five sensors in sequence under a time constraint in two learning phases: acquisition and transfer. Results. There were no performance differences between the groups in the acquisition phase. However, older adults in the massed practice group featured the poorest performance in the transfer test. No differences were found among the other groups. Conclusions. Older adults are more receptive to distribution practice as massed practice was found to lead to poorer learning. Comparisons of learning effectiveness between young and older adults are dependent on the adopted intra-session intervals. In addition, the conflicting results on distribution of practice may be related to subject task interactions. Key words: massed practice, distributed practice, spaced practice, motor learning, timing task Introduction The distribution of practice refers to the relationship between the time effectively spent on performing a task (i.e. all trials of the task) and the time spent resting, either within a single practice session or between several practice sessions [1 3]. A single practice session may be classified as either massed or distributed based on the rest intervals observed among the trials within the entire session (i.e. inter-trial intervals) [3 5]. Mass practice is when the total time spent executing the task is superior to the total inter-trial interval and, reversely, distributed practice if the sum of all the intertrial intervals is larger to the total time spent executing the task [4]. The distribution of practice was extensively studied in the 1950s and 1960s (see [3] for review), a period in which motor behavior studies focused on the effects of practice upon learning and performance. Nevertheless, a number of aspects surrounding this topic still remain unanswered; although studies have indicated some effects of distribution, many of the results are conflicting [1, 6 9]. One of these aspects relate to the effects of distribution of practice on older adults, since almost all studies have been conducted with only young adults. Older adults generally present poorer performance than younger adults [10, 11], and many biological changes such as the functional deregulation of the motor cortex [12], a breakdown of myelin sheaths and a reduction * Corresponding author. in neurotransmission [13] may account for reduced sensory-motor capacity and degraded performance. As a result of these changes, one could infer that aging could lead to impairment of not only performance but motor learning as well. However, it has been found that, despite the decrement in performance, older adults maintain learning capacity [14, 15], although controversy still exists on how well it is preserved. It has been shown that older adults may present either deteriorated [16] or similar learning results [17] compared with young adults. Bock & Schneider [14] posit that this controversy may be caused by the absence of controlled or standardized rest intervals. In fact, only Buch et al. [16] mention the use of rest intervals, although no precise definition was provided: brief rest periods were allowed as needed [16, p. 61]. The significance of inter-trial intervals is that they are used for information processing [4, 18], suggesting that the longer the interval the better the possibility to process information. If it is considered that aging reduces information processing speed [12, 19], one could expect that a practice schedule with longer intervals would enable a better learning response from older adults by facilitating information about each trial of the task processed after every execution [4, 18]. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the effects of inter-trial distribution upon the learning of a complex serial coincident timing task by both young and older adults. Timing tasks are characterized by coinciding spatial and temporal elements of task execution to an external event, such as when a tennis player prepares to use a forehand stroke as well as suitably positions the body, i.e. the tasks, in order to successfully 20