Chinese government documents on teacher education since the 1980s

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1 Journal of Education for Teaching ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: Chinese government documents on teacher education since the 1980s Jun Zhou & Lynda Reed To cite this article: Jun Zhou & Lynda Reed (2005) Chinese government documents on teacher education since the 1980s, Journal of Education for Teaching, 31:3, To link to this article: Published online: 22 Jan Submit your article to this journal Article views: 267 View related articles Citing articles: 8 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at Download by: [ ] Date: 08 January 2016, At: 00:30

2 Journal of Education for Teaching Vol. 31, No. 3, August 2005, pp Chinese government documents on teacher education since the 1980s Jun Zhou *a and Lynda Reed b a Beijing Normal University, China; b University of Vermont, USA Since the 1980s, dozens of Chinese government documents on teacher education reform have been published. These documents have influenced the direction of teacher education change in China and will continue to do so in the years ahead. The first wave of documents focused on recovering the teacher education system. A second wave centered on building a mechanism of quality assurance for teaching as a profession. A third wave concentrated on raising the quality of teacher education. This paper summarizes the implementation of these documents and comments on the benefits and challenges of the major components of the three waves of reform as they relate to teacher education. Background Education in China, including teacher education, was severely damaged during the Great Leap Forward movement in 1958 and the 10-year Cultural Revolution from 1966 to In October 1976, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CCCPC) defeated the Gang of Four and stopped the 10-year Cultural Revolution. The CCCPC then made the decision to focus on national economic development. In 1984 the State Council held the Third National Conference on Education. The State Council and the CCCPC issued the Decision on the Reform of Economic System, which made science, technology and education a focal point of national development, bringing China into a new era of reform. This began the publication of a continual series of government documents on teacher education. The first wave of documents focused on recovering the teacher education system. A second wave centered on building a mechanism of quality assurance for teaching as a profession. A third wave concentrated on raising the quality of teacher education. This paper will summarize the major components of the three waves of reform as they relate to teacher education and comment on their benefits and challenges. *Corresponding author. School of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China. zhouj@bnu.edu.cn ISSN (print)/issn (online)/05/ # 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd DOI: /

3 202 J. Zhou and L. Reed The first wave The first wave of educational reform centered around three documents, The Decision on the Reform of Education, CCCPC and State Council, 1985; The Compulsory Education Act, the National People s Congress, 1986; and the Suggestion on Strengthening and Developing Teacher Education, State Education Commission, Decision on the Reform of Education In the Decision on the Reform of Education the CCCPC and State Council analyzed the three major problems in the educational system. The first problem related to the relationship between the central government, the local governments, and the educational institutions. Basically the government was too powerful and ineffective which limited the development of the schools and universities. One such limitation is the inability of teachers and principals to select textbooks they felt would best meet the needs of their students since all schools were required to use only the nationally approved texts. The second problem related to the inappropriate structure of the education system. For example, there were not enough elementary and secondary schools or teachers available for the children. There was the shortage of teaching equipment and financial support at all levels creating poor quality schools. In short, the basic foundations of the education system were very weak. The third concern was in regard to basic education curriculum and teaching method. The curriculum was outdated and that limited connections to real life. Teaching method focused on memorization rather than problem solving and critical thinking. CCCPC and the State Council realized that educational system reform was imperative and suggested the following: (a) the government should transfer some authority to schools and universities; (b) the structure of education should be adjusted; and (c) teaching methods and curricula needed to be improved. The Decision talked about implementing nine-year compulsory education for the whole country and regarded it as the key step of the reform. In order to support compulsory education, the government proposed building up an adequate, qualified, and stable teaching force. Development would be fostered by: improving pre-service teacher education, providing in-service training for experienced teachers through radio and TV lectures and correspondence schools, and by encouraging teachers to learn from each other and from their teaching experience. In addition, the government decided to improve teachers living conditions, enhance their social status, and encouraged them to engage in lifelong teaching. To support this initiative, the government decided to increase support to all levels of teacher preparation institutions. These institutions were required to provide teacher training for basic education and assign their graduates to schools. Other university graduates

4 Chinese government documents 203 were also encouraged to teach in schools. The government s aim was to have the majority teachers trained and qualified to teach in approximately five years. The Compulsory Education Act Although 90% of school-aged children could go to school in early 1980s, some students dropped out of middle school to find jobs and many children in remote rural regions were unable to attend elementary schools. This was especially true for girls since traditionally when women get married, they move into their parent-inlaw s house and live with them. In the rural regions, parents think that they would not get help from their educated daughters because once they are educated they will move out. Therefore they do not spend money to send their girls to schools. These realities caused a continuing increase in the illiteracy and semi-illiteracy rates in the country. Another factor that contributed to the poor illiteracy and semi-illiteracy rates was that many teachers had no formal training and were unqualified. It was imperative to regulate and develop the basic education by law. The Compulsory Education Act developed by the National People s Congress in 1986 defined the nature of a nine-year compulsory education system nation-wide. Implementation varied based on local economic situations. The act prescribed the State Council and the local governments were responsible for supporting the compulsory education. Supporting the Compulsory Education Act required the nation to develop teacher education and expedite the training of the teaching force. The Act set goals for teacher training. The goals stated that elementary teachers would be trained in twoyear normal schools, and middle school teachers in three-year professional teacher colleges. The graduates from normal schools and teacher colleges were then required to work in schools and educational administration units. The Act also focused on in-service training for current teachers and required that teachers demonstrate higher standards such as: love and care for their students, engaging in teaching, lifelong learning and improving teaching competence. The Act required the government to set up a teacher evaluation system and issue teacher certification to all qualified teachers. Finally, the Act required the government to improve teachers social status and living conditions, and reward teachers who demonstrated excellence. 2 Suggestion on Strengthening and Developing Teacher Education In 1986 the State Education Commission published the document Suggestion on Strengthening and Developing Teacher Education. This document prescribed a mission for all levels of teacher education institutions. The mission outlined the specific aim of each level. The aim of two-year normal schools is to train elementary and preschool teachers, professional teacher colleges will train junior high school teachers, normal universities will train secondary and vocational school teachers, and major normal universities will serve as training centers for faculties of higher education institutions.

5 204 J. Zhou and L. Reed The document also provided alternative training approaches for junior high school teachers. Junior high school teachers could become certified by attending a professional teacher college or attending a two-year teacher education program designed for junior high school teachers at a normal university or take the Adult Selfstudy Exam. The Adult Self-study Exam System designs individualized courses on teacher education. Those passing the exam on the courses can be assigned teaching positions in junior high schools. The document called for reform of the admission requirements and the graduate assignment system in order to recruit more students into teacher education programs. Normal schools and professional teacher colleges would keep the location-oriented admission requirements and the graduate assignment system, in order to provide basic education teachers within their local area. The document also required the government to provide students in teacher education programs with living allowance, free housing, and free tuition. The government is then responsible for assigning teaching positions for those graduates. Further suggestions were made in the document calling for revision of teacher education programs and the curriculum, reforming teaching methodology, textbooks, student field experience, and educational research. 3 Response The State Council responded to the three big problems in education by instituting specific actions. In order to improve teachers social and political status, make teaching an admired and respected profession, and build up a social custom of respecting knowledge and teachers, the State Council approved that every 10 September is Teacher s Day. In response to Suggestion on Strengthening and Developing Teacher Education, every Provincial Department of Education began to reform the curriculum and teaching plans. For example, the higher education teacher institutions in Jiangsu Province instituted the following reforms: 1. They adopted a credit system in some of the universities. 2. Curriculums focus shifted to include both theoretical knowledge and basic skills. 3. Selective courses were offered to broaden students knowledge. 4. The curriculums were redesigned to prepare prospective teachers to teach basic education courses. 5. The duration of student teaching was extended to place emphasis on preparing the student teachers practical abilities. 6. Evaluations were conducted to improve the teaching quality. 4 The State Council began to recover and rebuild the higher education teacher institutions which were identified as fundamental in developing the instruction of basic education. The number of higher education teacher institutions climbed from 157 in 1978 to 260 in In 1987, the number of new education students

6 Chinese government documents 205 recruited was 189,454, and the total number of students in higher education teacher institutions reached 507,963, the highest number of education students since the beginning of formal teacher education to According to 1985 statistics, 2.4 million teachers did not meet basic standards and needed in-service training. Thereafter, in-service teacher training was conducted at all levels of teacher training institutions. The training models included self-study, school-based training, short-term training on textbooks and methodology, seminars, lectures, long-term training on advanced courses, correspondence education, and television education. According to the Book of major educational events (1993), 582,000 secondary school teachers and 1,930 primary school teachers were trained between 1983 and Commentary In the 1980s, education in China was at the beginning of a dramatic reform movement. Teacher education was put in a very important position in this movement, and was identified as the machine-tool of education. Teacher education played a strategic role in the central government s new policies and laws. Among the positive effects, the reform of the 1980s closed the teacher education system allowing only teacher education institutions to prepare teachers. Those who graduated from teacher institutions were to be appointed teaching or educational administration positions. This policy dealt directly with the shortage of teachers in 1980 ensuring an adequate supply of teachers to schools assisting in the recovery of the teacher education system. However, this policy had some negative effects. Many high school graduates did not want to be teachers, so they went to other universities instead of the normal universities and teacher colleges. The primary reason for the lack of interest in teaching as a career was the low social status and living conditions of teachers. Thus normal universities and teacher colleges were unable to recruit the excellent students. Male students in particular did not choose teacher education as a career path. In response the central government initiated a living allowance to the students registered in teacher education programs. Another issue that arose from the initiatives was the large concentration of teacher education students coming from low income families, especially from the poorer remote regions. As a result of the first wave, teacher education reform resulted in a quantitative increase in teachers; however, the quality of those teachers and perspective teachers became a big problem. The second wave The second wave in the 1990s centered on building a mechanism for quality assurance in the teaching profession. Nationally, the 1990s was an important period focused on modernization and national development, on establishing a socialist market economic system, on developing the national productivity, and on improving

7 206 J. Zhou and L. Reed the state comprehensive power to a new level. Each of these mandates placed new challenges on the educational system. Education Reform and Development in China The Education Reform and Development in China (1993) document framed the mission of education into the year 2000 and identified education development as a primary strategic role. The document focused one chapter on building up the teaching force. It required all levels of government to assign more funds to support teacher education and to carry on teachers in-service training. New requirements for teachers were established including: the demonstration of a professional ethic, subject-matter knowledge and teaching competence, engaging in teaching as a career, in participation in educational reform, and placing standards on teachers education credentials. The document stated that by 2000, 95% of primary teachers should graduate from normal schools, 80% of junior high school teachers should be prepared in professional teacher colleges, 70% of senior high school teachers should graduate from four-year normal universities, and developed coastal areas should improve teachers education degrees gradually. In order to build a highly qualified teaching force, the document required the schools and local government to set rigid assessment systems for teachers and reward teachers demonstrating excellence. The document called for improving teachers salaries and teacher living conditions and postponement of teachers salary is prohibited. 7 Teacher 8 Act In 1993 the National People s Congress passed the Teacher Act, which identified teaching as a profession. This was the first time in the history of Chinese education that teaching was regarded with this status. The teacher certification system was approved in this Act, stipulating teacher qualifications which required teachers to comply with the Chinese constitution and law, and demonstrate a strong moral character as well as a love of teaching. The Act also required teachers to hold the required educational credential, pass the national teacher certification exam, and demonstrate teaching competence. The educational credentials for teachers of all levels requires that teachers graduate from the respective teacher education institution. The Act also set an educational credential for faculty in higher education and the vocational education systems. Additionally, the Act specified that graduates from normal schools, professional teacher colleges and normal universities should find jobs in schools and educational institutions and encouraged graduates from other colleges and universities to teach in elementary and secondary schools. The Act paid more attention to teachers economic status by addressing teacher salaries and benefits. It stated that an average teacher salary would not be under or over the average salary of government officials. Allowances were to be paid by the government to elementary and secondary school teachers, with special allowances provided to teachers in minority and poor remote regions schools. The Act requires

8 Chinese government documents 207 the government to set preferential policies for teachers in cities to rent or buy apartments and assist teachers in rural areas to solve housing problems. Finally the Act stated that teachers would share the same medical insurance as government officials. 9 Education Act In 1995 the National People s Congress passed the Education Act focused on different aspects of the educational system. It focused on schools, teachers, and students at all levels, as well as the relationship between education and society, education investment and insurance, and the international exchange of education. In reference to teachers, the Educational Act required the government to implement a teacher certification system, and develop recruitment and professional status systems. This Act required the government to improve teachers working and living conditions, as well as their social status. The Education Act highlighted increasing the qualified teaching force through preparation, in-service training, review and certification, and reward systems. 10 Regulations of Teacher Certification Based on the Teachers Act passed by the National People s Congress, Regulations of Teacher Certification were set by the State Council in The regulations stated that the basic qualification for teaching in schools was the possession of a teacher certification issued by the government. The qualifications and procedure for teacher certification outlined in this document were the same as those outlined in the Teacher Act. Commentary With the development of teacher education, the shrinking of primary school-age population and a teacher surplus at the primary level, the quality of teachers rather than the number of teachers became the main problem. 11 Hence teacher professional development was highlighted in the 1990s. With the identification of teaching as a profession by the Teachers Act in 1993 teacher professional development was juristically assured. The implementation of the Teacher Certification System served as academic assurance for entering the teaching profession. Regulations of Teacher Certification, however, did not prescribe the detailed standards of certification. On the one hand, it is flexible for county and municipal governments to issue certifications to experienced teachers; on the other hand, the lack of rigid certification standards was not helpful in building a highly qualified teaching force. Actually this teacher certification is a minimum governmental requirement, a form of teacher licensure. Currently, Chinese scholars call for the creation of an advanced teacher certification, which would be issued by an academic authority rather than the government.

9 208 J. Zhou and L. Reed The outline of Education Reform and Development in China was aimed at teachers education credentials. The statistics shows the task has been reached: in 1999, 96% elementary teachers, 86% junior high teachers, and 66% senior high teacher are qualified in education credentials; 12% of elementary teachers received diplomas of professional teacher colleges, and 16% of junior high teachers received Bachelor degrees. 12 However, among these credential qualified teachers are teachers with diplomas and degrees in areas unrelated to their teaching disciplines. Many hold degrees in Chinese and educational administration which are considered relatively easy majors and some credentialed teachers hold diplomas in tourism and cooking. The goals and requirements of the Acts and documents called for building teaching as a profession and building a qualified teaching force; some gains have been made toward these ends but more time is needed to truly reach the goals. The third wave In the twenty-first century the nation s economic and global power is based on education, science and technology. China s education, however, cannot yet meet the new challenges. Greater concentration on raising the quality of teacher education is needed. The Action Plan to Revitalize Education in the Twenty-first Century In 1999 the State Council submitted an Action Plan to the Ministry of Education, setting five new goals for education. The first goal set stated that by the year 2000 the entire country would implement nine-year compulsory education, plus high school education would be implemented in cities and expanded to rural regions by The second goal focused on improving vocational and continuing education to increase the training level of the general labor force establishing a lifelong learning system by Higher education admission rates were the focus of the third goal setting an 11% increase by the year 2000, and 15% by Additionally, several universities and disciplines would reach or approach the first world level by In general all higher education institutions would pay more attention to fostering students creative abilities. Goal four stressed that higher education research contribute to the country s economic development. Finally, goal five stated that a new framework for education be built that adapts to social and economic development. The Action Plan outlines three specific projects, one of which focused on teacher education, entitled Project Gardener Crossing the New Century. This Project focused on improving the quality of the entire teaching force. This improvement was to be accomplished by providing in-service training for all teachers within the following three years. The Action Plan allotted 100 million RMB yuan (approximately $12,000,000 USD) to train the 10,000 backbone teachers from 2000 to The backbone teachers were identified as the most experienced and effective teachers in their schools and regarded as leaders of the teaching force.

10 Chinese government documents 209 The Gardner Project also proposed to improve teachers education credentials. The project proposed that by 2010, primary school teacher would receive diplomas from professional teacher colleges, junior high school teachers would receive degrees from the four-year normal universities, and a certain proportion of high school teachers and headmasters in some developed regions would possess a Masters degree. Additionally the Project implements an engagement system for teachers employment. This engagement system meant teachers would sign contracts, breaking the iron bowl system that required teaching to be a permanent job. The contracts were meant to encourage teachers to stay well and improve their teaching quality. As with earlier Acts the Gardner Project also stressed teacher evaluation. 13 Decisions on Deepening the Educational Reform and Improve Quality-Oriented Education in an All-Round Way In 1999 the Fifth National Conference on Education was held, in which the State Council released the Decisions on Deepening the Educational Reform and Improve Quality-Oriented Education in an All-Round Way document. The Decision called for the implementation of quality-oriented education at all educational institution levels. The quality-oriented education was defined as integration of moral education, intellectual education, physical education, and aesthetic education, focused on forming a coherent whole. The quality-oriented education aimed at fostering students creative and practical abilities, facilitating students holistic development and health, and improving citizens quality. To insure quality-oriented education, the Decision emphasized the necessity for increasing a highly qualified teaching force. This Decision, like others, called for reforming the teacher education system, and encouraged comprehensive universities to set up schools of education and teacher education programs. Teacher in-service training was stressed, with particular emphasis on computer training. The Decision insisted on implementing a Teacher Certification System. 14 Suggestion on Restructuring the Teacher Education Institutions The document Suggestion on Restructuring the Teacher Education Institutions presented by the Ministry of Education in 1999 advocated integration of teacher education resources and a restructuring of the institutions in order to improve the quality and effectiveness of teacher education. The goal of the restructuring was to reorganize the old three-level teacher institution system of normal school, professional teacher college, and normal university to a two-level system of professional teacher colleges and teacher colleges or normal universities. The principle of the restructuring was to expand the number of higher education teacher institutions, and to reduce the number of normal schools and education schools. The document recommended that normal schools merge with professional teacher colleges, grow into professional teacher colleges, or change to secondary schools.

11 210 J. Zhou and L. Reed Recommendation was also given for some professional teacher colleges, normal schools, and education schools to merge into four-year teacher colleges. However, normal schools in minority and rural areas were required to be maintained. The document proposed that all new elementary and secondary school teachers would be prepared in the professional teacher colleges and normal universities by Suggestions on Teacher Education Reform and Development In 2002 the Ministry of Education published the Suggestions on Teacher Education Reform and Development outlining the 10th Five-Year Plan ( ). The document summarized the achievements of the ninth Five-Year Plan on teacher education, highlighted the problems and challenges still faced and called for continued teacher education reform. Further restructuring of teacher education institutions was stressed in this document. Major normal universities were called upon to conduct more research. Professional teacher colleges should be strengthened to provide their students with the knowledge and skills required to teach basic and preschool education. As outlined by the Ministry of Education s 1999 document Suggestion on Restructuring the Teacher Education Institutions some good professional teacher colleges were permitted to evolve into normal universities and normal schools could either grow into professional teacher colleges or merge into normal universities for elementary education training, or become secondary schools. However, normal schools in minority and western areas would be maintained. Improvements in higher education institutions were outlined in the 10th Five- Year Plan. The improvements included increasing the number of highly qualified teacher educators. In order to make this increase the Ministry of Education stated that higher education teacher institutions should have a certain proportion of faculty holding PhD degrees and faculty in normal schools should at least hold Bachelor degrees, with a preference towards Masters degrees. Another method for improving teacher education institutions stated in the 10th Five-Year Plan was the establishment of accreditation and evaluation systems as well as the reform of teacher education programs and curriculums, methodology, research, and continuing education. 16 The New Action Plan to Revitalize the Education The New Action Plan of was published by the Ministry of Education on 10 February 2004 and stressed the need for teacher education. The government required the teacher education gradually be implemented in the higher education level. The New Action Plan outlines the drafting of such documents as the Regulation of Teacher Education, Accreditation Standards of Teacher Education Institution, Curriculum Standards of Teacher Education, and Quality Standards of Teacher Education. Along with these documents an in-service training plan for teachers was also scheduled. 17

12 Chinese government documents 211 Commentary The third wave of educational reform has impacted greatly on teacher education in higher education institutions. The opening of the teacher education system has encouraged comprehensive universities and other higher education institutions to participate in teacher preparation. Peking University established a School of Education in October 2000 followed by additional Schools of Education being established at Yangzhou University and Qingdao University. The establishment of these Schools of Education marks the beginning of the new open system of teacher education and the end of closed system that had been in place for 100 years. Additionally, the Teacher Certification System provides all citizens an opportunity to meet the requirements and become certified. Thus the government opens a new avenue for attracting competent individuals to the teaching profession from society as a whole. Development of new numerous teacher preparation models has also been fostered by the third wave of educational reform. For example, Beijing Normal University is currently experimenting with three different kinds of models: 4+0 (Bachelor degree), 4+2 (Masters of Education) and 4+3 (Masters degree). Also, graduates from nonteacher training institutions are encouraged to teach in primary and secondary schools, after receiving one year of training in a teachers college. In this reform the central government has advocated restructuring of teacher education institutions at all levels and prospective teachers are required to be prepared in higher education teacher institutions. However, the majority of teacher preparation in China is still conducted in single-purposed teacher training institutions with only the minority of teachers being trained at comprehensive universities. Universitization of teacher education in China is the future long-term aim. Problems The 1999 Action Plan set a goal of conducting nine-year compulsory education nation-wide by 2000 leaving only one year for adoption. Cities and developed regions had no problem meeting the assigned goal since they had already conducted nine-year compulsory education. Not so the case in the more remote and poorer regions of China statistics show that among the 592 counties identified as the poorest, only 272 conduct nine-year compulsory education. 18 In 2000 there were still 520 counties which had not conducted nine-year compulsory education. 19 In 2003 that number declined to 372 counties. In China, the central government s policies are difficult to implement to the same degree nation-wide due to the huge discrepancies between the cities and counties. Policymakers need to consider the discrepancies between cities and rural areas when establishing policy. The Chinese central government is the most powerful authority in the governance structure of teacher education. Teacher education institutions have less authority and they always implement central government policies passively. The nongovernment academic associations who engage in improving teacher education have not yet joined in the governance of teacher education.

13 212 J. Zhou and L. Reed Project Gardener was responsible for training 10,000 elementary and secondary school backbone teachers. These backbone teachers benefited greatly from the training, and found it extremely helpful for teaching. However, shortly after these teachers returned to their schools, many were promoted to leadership positions in their schools or local educational administration units and some transferred from rural areas to big cities. Both moves impacted negatively on classroom instruction in rural areas. As for the quality-oriented education called by the central government, while school leaders, teachers, students, and parents understand its advantages the current assessment systems for students and teachers have not changed correspondingly. Assessment systems are still memorization exam-oriented, causing confusion over the contradictions between quality-oriented instruction and exam-oriented assessment. This created a system whereby some school leaders and teachers told the public that they practiced quality orientation and would demonstrate it for local leaders and visitors but in fact actually taught exam-oriented education. The nature of the exams set up a dichotomy in practice, making school leaders responsible for declaring that they did quality-oriented education, and teachers responsible for exam-oriented teaching. Conclusion There is much to learn from the past 20 years experience in educational reform. First, teacher education policy should consider the difference between the cities and rural areas. In cities, the universitization of teacher education is in progress; in rural areas, however, due to the costs and training involved, two-year normal schools should be maintained. Second, teacher education is closely related to compulsory education; the policies of teacher education and compulsory education should be compatible. Third, the central government may deliver more authority to schools and higher institutions and non-government organizations. The non-government organizations should play more of a role in improving quality of teacher education, and the governance of teacher education will be in process soon. Finally, the central government must establish research programs on teacher education in order to benefit the future policies. These measures will ensure the development of effective teacher training and practices that will better meet the needs of China s children. Acknowledgements Work on this paper was supported by one of the Key Projects on Humanities and Social Sciences, Ministry of Education, China, The Theory and Practice in the Innovation of Teacher Educational System (02JAZD88005). Notes 1. The Ministry of Education was replaced by the State Education Commission in June 1985, and in March 1998 the Ministry of Education was reset up.

14 Chinese government documents State Education Commission (1992, p. 234). 3. He Dongchang (1998, pp ). 4. Liu Yingjie (1993, pp ). 5. Liu Yingjie (1993, p. 800). 6. Liu Yingjie (1993, pp ). 7. State Education Commission (1996, p. 383). 8. In this Act, teachers include those who teach in preschool, elementary and secondary school, vocational and higher education institutions, and special and adult education institutions. 9. Available at: Available at: Chu Chang and Paine (1992, p. 79). 12. Yearbook of Education Department (2000, p. 237). 13. Zhang Li (1999, pp ). 14. Zhang Li (1999, pp ). 15. Available at: Available at: Available at: Yearbook of Education Department (2000, p. 130). 19. Yearbook of Education Department (2002, p. 134). References Chu Chang, M. & Paine, L. (1992) China, in: H. B. Leavit (Ed.) Issues and problems in teacher education: an international handbook (Westport, Greenwood Press). He, Dongchang (Ed.) (1998) Important education documents of China (Haikou, Hainan Press). Liu, Yingjie (Ed.) (1993) Book of major educational events in China ( ) (Book 1) (Hangzhou, Zhejiang Education Publishing House). State Education Commission (Ed.) (1992) Collection of some important education documents since the 3rd session of the 11th National Congress of CPC (Beijing, Educational Science Publishing House). State Education Commission (Ed.) (1996) Collection of educational acts ( ) (Guangzhou, Guangdong Educational Press). Yearbook of Education Department (Ed.) (2000) Yearbook of education in China: 2000 (Beijing, People s Educational Press). Yearbook of Education Department (Ed.) (2002) Yearbook of education in China: 2002 (Beijing, People s Educational Press). Zhang Li (Ed.) (1999) Guidebook of the Action Plan to Revitalize the Education towards the 21st Century (Beijing, Kaiming Press).