Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES-J)

Transcription

1 Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES-J) AARCHES Journal Volume , pp INFRASTRUCTURAL AND INTERCONNECTIVITY CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE STUDIOS IN NIGERIA: LESSONS FROM LEADING SCHOOLS OF ARCHITECTURE Olu Ola Ogunsote 1 and Bogda Prucnal-Ogunsote 2 1 Department of Architecture, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure 2 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Jos, Jos ABSTRACT The architectural design studio remains central to the training of architects despite recent revolutionary advances in e-learning premised on novel methodologies and technologies. Adapting training methods based on master-trainee relationships and craftsmanship to the rather impersonal e-learning methods is very challenging, and requires appropriate environment and infrastructure. The aim of this paper is conceptualization of a model architectural design studio equipped with the infrastructure required for modern-day training of architects. The paper adopts a case study methodology based on visits to several schools of architecture including the Departments of Architecture at the University of Tokyo, Tokyo; Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo; Kyoto University Katsura and Yoshida Main Campuses, Kyoto; University of Sydney, Sydney; University of California, Los Angeles; Graduate School of Design, Boston; Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago; University of Tennessee, Knoxville; and the Bauhaus, Dessau. The paper examines the challenges faced in the training of CAD literate architects, and identifies critical areas requiring interconnectivity including e-library, 3-D modelling, plotting, rendering and animation. The facilities and resources that require modernisation include wired/ wireless networking, shared printing, digital projection, lighting, ventilation and air-conditioning; power supply to laptops, working surfaces, exhibition spaces, social spaces, professorial laboratories, engineering and environmental science laboratories, workshops and museum. Keywords: Architectural Design Studio, Architecture School, E-learning, Physical Infrastructure. INTRODUCTION The establishment of new universities with lofty goals and the aspiration of existing ones to raise the standard of training to world-class level have encouraged the adoption of modern teaching techniques and placed greater emphasis on provision of faculty and infrastructure. Even when the financial resources are available, establishing the specific infrastructural and interconnectivity requirements in learning environments, and in particular architectural design studios, has however been difficult. This is partly a result of rapidly changing technology, unresolved debates about manual versus digital draughting and design methods, Corresponding author: Olu Ola Ogunsote profogunsote@gmail.com. Tel Published online at: Copyright 2013 AARCHES. All Rights Reserved. ISSN: and on-going refocusing and restructuring of schools that used to serve as role models. Prescription of ideal models requires a multifaceted approach straddling pedagogy and technology, science and craftsmanship, culture and competitiveness. This paper contributes to this debate by sharing observations made during visits to leading architecture schools in the world, and by attempting to synthesize successful solutions for adaptation to the unique Nigerian technological and socioeconomic circumstances. ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN STUDIOS IN NIGERIAN SCHOOLS OF ARCHITECTURE The certification of architects in Nigeria is done in both Polytechnics and Universities, but registration by the Architects Registration Council of Nigeria (ARCON) requires completion of a Master s degree in a university, or a combination of a Bachelor s degree, working experience and additional examinations.

2 52 Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES-J) Volume Holders of diplomas from Polytechnics are required to have even wider experience, and to pass even more examinations. This section briefly describes the facilities and infrastructure available in Universities that award Bachelor s degrees in architecture. The minimum physical facilities required in Nigerian schools of architecture are established by the National Universities Commission (NUC) and ARCON. Provision and Equipment of Laboratory and Studio Spaces According to the National Universities Commission (2004; 2005), spaces used for training must be adequate in size, be well equipped with suitable machinery, tools and equipment; be safe, well maintained and suitably laid out. The tendency is to place emphasis on availability of studio spaces, with one studio for each level or year. The studios are expected to accommodate all students in each level or year with enough space for a standard drawing table per student. While the specific equipment required for laboratories and studios is not specified, studios are currently equipped with little more than drawing boards and stools, often with two or more students sharing a drawing table (plates 1-6). Less emphasis is placed on laboratories and workshops, and the assumption is often that these facilities are available for engineering and building programmes within the same institution and can therefore be accessed when needed. However, several schools have carpentry workshops and access to building and materials workshops (plates 7 and 8). Plate 1. Exhibi on of student projects in a studio at the Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi. Note the design of the drawing tables. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 3. Exhibi on of student projects in a studio at the Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye. Note the design of the locally constructed drawing tables. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate level studio at the Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma. Note the locally constructed drawing tables. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 4. Exhibi on gallery at the University of Jos, Jos. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2008.

3 Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote Infrastructural and Interconnectivity Considerations in the Design of Architecture Studios 53 Provision and Equipment of Classrooms and Lecture Theatres Most schools of architecture use their studios as classrooms and lecture rooms despite the fact that these spaces are not well suited for lectures. The NUC requirement is that there should be separate lecture rooms big enough to hold the largest class. Most lecture rooms are equipped with chairs and maybe writing ledges. Blackboards are being replaced by whiteboards. When projectors are available, they are not permanently installed, but brought into the lecture rooms and placed on a table or stool. Projection screens are practically non-existent, with improvised whiteboards or walls being used instead. ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN STUDIOS IN LEADING SCHOOLS OF ARCHITECTURE The urgency of curriculum review; the need to integrate Computer Aided Design (CAD), Building Information Modelling (BIM) and digital technologies into the curriculum; and the necessity of adopting advanced learning methods are universal. Given the challenges faced in Nigerian schools of architecture, and the on-going debate about if, when and how to migrate from manual draughting to digital technologies, the authors were curious about how leading schools of architecture in the world were responding to the various challenges. Dozens of universities and schools of architecture were visited worldwide, including the ones listed in table 1. Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura Campus, Kyoto The Katsura Campus of the Kyoto University is at the outskirts of the city. The campus is very modern, extensive and was still under construction. The Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering is in the Graduate School of Engineering Zone. The multi-storey building has a lobby with display boards Plate Level studio at the Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 7. Engineering workshop at the Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye. The workshop is shared by all departments in the College. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 6. A lecture room at the Federal University of Technology, Akure. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 8. A workshop at the Imo State University of Technology, Owerri. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2007.

4 54 Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES-J) Volume Table World Ranking of Selected Universi es Visited. University Country Year of visit World Ranking Harvard University, Boston USA University of California, Los Angeles USA University of Tokyo, Tokyo Japan Kyoto University, Kyoto Japan University of Sydney, Sydney Australia University of Queensland, Brisbane Australia Tokyo Ins tute of Technology, Tokyo Japan Illinois Ins tute of Technology at Chicago USA University of Tennessee, Knoxville USA Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2007 NA University of Science and Technology, Kumasi Ghana 2000, 2008 NA Indian Ins tute of Technology, New Delhi India 2011 NA Universi Teknologi Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur Malaysia 2011 NA The Bauhaus, Dessau Germany 2007 NA Source: Adapted from Times Higher Educa on (2012). (plate 9) and a model gallery (plate 59) on the ground floor. Professorial offices (plate 42) and laboratories (plate 41) are spacious and well equipped. Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus, Kyoto Undergraduate architecture students are trained at the Yoshida Main Campus of the Kyoto University. The year 1 studio has simple drawing boards (plate 10) with retractable power points for powering laptops suspended from the ceiling. There are lockers provided and students can regulate the ventilation and air-conditioning systems in each studio. The year 2 and 3 studios are similar, with ample desk space for design and modelling (plates 19, 32-34). Every desk has sockets for power and networking. The provision of writing and display boards in these studios encourages collaboration. There are several lecture rooms (plate 44) and an exhibition gallery for presentations and exhibitions (plate 35). The gallery has a very interesting design with collapsible display boards (partition walls) suspended from the ceiling (plate 36). These boards can be used to demarcate the gallery in numerous configurations. The computer laboratory is very spacious and it has a suspended widescreen LCD monitor and a suspended digital projector for demonstrations (plate 46). Very interestingly, it has a raised floor less than 10 centimetres thick with cabling for Plate 9. Lobby in the Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 10. Year 1 studio in the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2011.

5 Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote Infrastructural and Interconnectivity Considerations in the Design of Architecture Studios 55 power and networking underneath. The printers are at the rear of the laboratory. Department of Architecture and Urban Design, School of Arts and Architecture, University of California, Los Angeles Housed in the popular Perloff Hall, this leading school has well-lit studios, electronic studios, lecture halls, library, exhibition gallery, faculty offices, multipurpose rooms, photographic studio, networked, distributed computing environment, leading edge technology centre for visualization and fabrication and a very serene environment (University of California, Los Angeles, 2012). See plate 11. Plate 11. Typical studio in the Department of Architecture and Urban Design, School of Arts and Architecture, University of California, Los Angeles. Source: Photograph by the authors, Department of Architecture, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, USA Famously known as Crown Hall, this building is considered Mies van der Rohe s masterpiece, and is one of the most architecturally significant buildings of the 20th Century Modernist movement (plate 12). The two level building is configured as a pure rectangular form, enclosing a column free interior space on the upper level sitting above a sunken lower level. The suspended roof, steel frame, and single, open-plan, glass-enclosed architecture studio space characterize this building. Department of Architecture, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo The Department of Architecture and Building is situated in the Graduate School of Science and Engineering, in the Faculty of Engineering. It is a well-lit, externally-braced building with spacious studios (plate 13), study rooms (plate 50) and detached lecture halls (plate 43). Department of Architecture (Wilkinson Building), University of Sydney, Sydney The Wilkinson Building houses studios, offices, workshops, laboratories and library for both undergraduate and postgraduate students on five levels (University of Sydney, 2012). The building has a central courtyard that provides natural lighting and visual connection to the studios and facilities built around it. Most laboratories and workshops are in the basement. The equipment, variety and number of laboratories and workshops are exemplary. See plate 14. Graduate School of Design, Architecture and Urban Planning Boston, USA Housed in the famous Gund Hall, the school has studio and office space for about 500 students and Plate 12. Summer School in the Department of Architecture (Crown Hall), Illinois Ins tute of Technology, Chicago designed by Mies van der Rohe. Source: Google Images. Plate 13: Model of group project, Department of Architecture and Building Engineering, Tokyo Ins tute of Technology. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2011.

6 56 Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES-J) Volume more than 100 faculty and staff. There are also lecture and seminar rooms, workshops, audio-visual centre, cafeteria, project room, auditorium and library. The yard area is used for basketball, volleyball, picnics, exhibition area for class projects and ceremonies (Harvard University Graduate School of Design, 2012). The central studio space extends through five levels under a stepped, clear-span roof that admits natural light and provides views toward the city. See plate 15. centre for printing and digital reproduction needs (University of Tennessee, 2012). Department of Architecture, University of Tokyo, Tokyo The Department of Architecture, University of Tokyo is housed in a brick building abutting an expansive square. The studios are notable for the use of window walls, retractable power points, freestanding College of Architecture and Design, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA The School of architecture offers both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees, with specializations in landscape architecture and interior design (plate 16). The College provides a fully equipped wood technology workshop and state of the art digital technology, including laser cutters, 3-D digital modelling equipment, computer pools (plate 48) and an image Plate 16. College of Architecture and Design, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 14. Department of Architecture, University of Sydney, Sydney showing the central courtyard. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 15. Graduate School of Design, Architecture and Urban Planning (Gund Hall), Harvard University, Boston. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 17: Natural ligh ng of a studio in the Department of Architecture, University of Tokyo. Note the retractable mat-like curtains. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2011.

7 Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote Infrastructural and Interconnectivity Considerations in the Design of Architecture Studios 57 ventilators, and suspended platforms with lighting and networking routers. See plate 17. The Bauhaus, Dessau, Germany Founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar, the Bauhaus, or School of Building combined crafts and the fine arts, and is famous for its approach to design. Although the school was closed in 1933 while under the leadership of Mies van der Rohe, the Bauhaus Dessau Foundation was founded in 1994, and it uses the school buildings as a research centre and museum. See plate 18. The school is now a World Heritage Site. INFRASTRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS IN MODERN ARCHITECTURE STUDIOS The on-going transition from traditional studio techniques to e-learning and the adoption of modern teaching methods requires fundamental changes in the way we design our architecture design studios. Many of the new requirements concern integration of ICT into the building fabric. Others emphasize accepted standards of good functional layout, adequate natural lighting and ventilation, and creation of a generally conducive environment for long hours of creative work. Wired and Wireless Networking The advantages of collaboration make communication between students, teachers and administrators over a network an important requirement in modern studios. The speed and reliability of the network is very significant, and particular attention must be paid to cabling and equipment specifications. Currently, wired networks and equipment used in Local Area Networks must be capable of gigabit speeds (one billion bits per second) using category 6 cabling, or even the upcoming 10 gigabit and 100 gigabit speeds using category 6a or 7 cabling. Modern wireless routers can run at speeds up to 450 megabits per second (Mbps), but speeds around 54 Mbps are more common. See plates 19 and 20. Shared printing and plotting This is a fundamental resource in an architectural design studio. Although practically all architecture students now bring laptops to school, they rarely carry Plate 19. Wired networking of a standard student worksta on in the Year 3 studio in the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 18. Auditorium and lecture room at the Bauhaus, Dessau, Germany. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 20: Wireless access point in the ceiling of a studio in the Department of Architecture, University of Tokyo. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2011.

8 58 Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES-J) Volume their printers along, even when they possess one. These students often own A4 or A3 LaserJet or Colour Inkjet printers, which are mainly used for printing reports. Posters and presentations are usually on A2 paper size or larger, and printing these require large-format printers and special paper, which are not economical for students to own. Students rely on schools or commercial services to provide these printers, and access over the network is the norm. Students pay a small printing fee, usually on a per-page basis. See plates Digital projection The use of digital boards and digital projectors is now common in lecture rooms and computer laboratories. There is need to provide digital projectors permanently suspended from the ceiling and conduits between the computer and the projector. Both the computer and projector should have uninterruptible power supply. Retractable projector screens can be installed above white boards. Short-throw projectors are especially useful with digital boards, and they can be used for non-interactive projection. While large format touchscreen monitors are being replaced by digital boards, suspending wide computer monitors or digital TV screens from the ceiling of computer laboratories is useful for large student populations. See plates Uninterruptible Power Supply Constant power supply is required in any school of architecture. Since this cannot be guaranteed in Nigeria, uninterruptible power supply using inverters should be provided for critical studio equipment such as computers, projectors and networking equipment. Plate 21. Network printers and plo ers in the Department of Architecture and Urban Design, School of Arts and Architecture, University of California, Los Angeles. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 23. Detail digital projec on in the computer laboratory of the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 22: Network plo er in the Department of Architecture and Building Engineering, Tokyo Ins tute of Technology, Tokyo. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 24. Mul func onal space in the Department of Architecture and Urban Design, School of Arts and Architecture, University of California, Los Angeles. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2010.

9 Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote Infrastructural and Interconnectivity Considerations in the Design of Architecture Studios 59 Lighting, ventilation and air-conditioning Although the case studies are in temperate zones and in highly industrialized countries with constant power supply, all the studios have very good natural lighting. Artificial lighting is adjustable, and although the buildings use sealed envelopes, natural ventilation would have been adequate had the windows been openable. Air conditioning in our tropical climate will significantly improve productivity. See plates Power supply to laptops and communication devices One of the greatest challenges faced in making existing studios ICT-compliant is provision of power to individual desks. New designs make provisions in walls, floors and ceilings, but for existing studios, the best solution is using a raised floor. These standardised solutions use a metal framework about 10 cm thick, with removable framed floor tiles. The space provided is sufficient for both power and network cabling, and it is easy to customise and make modifications because the floor tiles, just like suspended ceiling tiles, are removable. This can be combined with retractable power points in the floor. A cheaper but less aesthetically pleasing solution is to drop retractable power and data points from a (suspended) ceiling. See plates Workstations and Working Surfaces The space provided for students in a studio should be defined by the type of work and assignments done. Draughting, sketching, modelling, writing, reading and consulting are basic tasks. Draughting and sketching on a minimum of A1 paper size is a standard requirement. While major modelling can be done in workshops, assembly and paper modelling is done at student workstations. While a separate modelling table can be provided for each student as in Harvard University Graduate School of Design, this can be done in the same space used for drawing, but disposable cutting surfaces need to be provided. Writing and reading Plate 25: Air condi oning and ar ficial ligh ng in the Department of Architecture and Building Engineering, Tokyo Ins tute of Technology. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 27: Retractable power point in the floor of a studio in the Department of Architecture, University of Tokyo. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 26: Controls for ven la on, air condi oning and ar ficial ligh ng in a studio in the Department of Architecture and Building Engineering, Tokyo Ins tute of Technology. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 28. Year 1 studio in the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus. Note the retractable drop-down power points. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2011.

10 60 Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES-J) Volume require comfortable and adjustable chairs, and good artificial and natural lighting. Since this is commonly done on a laptop, space for the laptop beside the drawing surface, power and networking connectivity Plate 29. Detail of retractable drop-down power points in Year 1 studio in the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 32. Year 2 studio in the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 30. Detail of raised floor in the computer laboratory of the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 33. Year 3 studio in the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 31. Typical student workspace, College of Architecture and Design, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 34. Sink and working surface on a central island in the Year 2 studio in the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2011.

11 Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote Infrastructural and Interconnectivity Considerations in the Design of Architecture Studios 61 are required. For consultations and discussions, the workspace should accommodate at least two persons, and provide some level of privacy. Lockable drawers and mini display areas at the workstation or within the studio; and local lighting are common requirements. Blackboards or whiteboards should be provided in studios to encourage sharing of ideas even when lectures are not held in the studio. See plates LABORATORIES, WORKSHOPS AND FACILITIES ANNEXED TO MODERN ARCHITECTURE STUDIOS The design studio in a modern school of architecture requires several laboratories, workshops and facilities in close proximity for it to function optimally. These can be regarded as extensions of the design studio. Exhibition spaces Mastering the art of presentation is important in the training of an architect. Providing spaces and an environment where ideas can be shared and defended is a key requirement in design studios. This display is often in the form of drawings, posters and models, but it can also be in form of digital projections and multimedia displays. Exhibition spaces should be spacious, well lit and reconfigurable. They should be located where there is high pedestrian traffic. Apart from central school exhibition spaces, each studio should have mini areas or surfaces for exhibition. See plates Social spaces The nature of architectural design often requires spending long hours in the studio, especially when submission deadlines are approaching, and it is not uncommon for students to sleep in the studio. Studio design should provide basic sanitary facilities and social spaces, such as a snacks bar, coffee shop, vending machines and even niches where students Plate 35: Exhibi on gallery in the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 37: A so drinks vending machine in the Department of Architecture and Building Engineering, Tokyo Ins tute of Technology. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 36: Detail of collapsible par ons in the exhibi on gallery in the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 38: A student taking a nap in a studio in the Department of Architecture, University of Tokyo. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2011.

12 62 Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES-J) Volume can take a quick nap. The design of the Graduate School of Design, Architecture and Urban Planning (Gund Hall), Harvard University, Boston, USA epitomises this approach with the ground floor featuring a prominent café. The famous Bauhaus in Dessau provides dormitory spaces within the school, with dining hall and coffee shop. See plates Professorial laboratories The establishment of professorial laboratories has contributed significantly to specialization and research in these schools of architecture. These laboratories are headed by associate and full professors, with a full complement of academic and administrative staff as well as research associates and postgraduate students. These laboratories are essentially architecture studios in which research and training is carried out under the guidance of a professor. For example, the Department of Architecture and Building Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology has eighteen laboratories, including those for architectural design, history of architecture, school building, architectural planning, spatial analysis and urban studies, urban research, urban and rural planning, design science and environmental design theories (Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2012). The Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura Campus has over a dozen professorial laboratories including architectural and environmental planning, building environment control, architectural design and theory, environmental acoustics, and earthquake resistant engineering (Kyoto University, Graduate School of Engineering, 2012). See Plates Some Nigerian schools of architecture already have sections, such as undergraduate, postgraduate, and research sections, but there is need to structure our schools along areas of specialization instead. Plate 39. Dining hall, the Bauhaus, Dessau, Germany. Note the minimalist design of the furniture. Photograph by the authors, Plate 41. Typical professorial laboratory in the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Katsura Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 40. Cafeteria, the Bauhaus, Dessau, Germany. Photograph by the authors, Plate 42. A professorial (Yasuda Koichi) architectural design laboratory in the Department of Architecture and Building Engineering, Tokyo Ins tute of Technology. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2011.

13 Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote Infrastructural and Interconnectivity Considerations in the Design of Architecture Studios 63 Lecture Rooms The practice of giving lectures in architectural design studios instead of in standard lecture rooms and halls is problematic because the specifications for lecture rooms vary significantly from those of design studios. Modern lecture rooms and halls should have good lines of sight towards the blackboard, whiteboard, digital board and projection screen. A sloping floor is required to achieve this in larger lecture halls. The digital projector should be suspended from the ceiling, while short-throw projectors for digital boards can be mounted directly above the boards. Seats and writing ledges should be ergonomic, and there should be provision of a power source for each student to power laptops and devices. Networking should be provided using wireless access points. Good acoustics, adequate natural and artificial lighting, good ventilation and air conditioning and high fidelity public address system are required. See plates Computer Laboratories Despite the pervasiveness in laptop use, computer laboratories continue to feature significantly in modern architecture schools. These computer laboratories are however not used for regular design work by students, but for printing, plotting, rendering, animation and for training using networked licensed software. The computers in these laboratories are usually workstations and not desktop computers, and they are therefore optimised for parallel, high-speed processing using multi-core and multi-processor technology. Digital projectors and High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) capable screens suspended from the ceiling and projection screens are often provided when these laboratories are used for training. Networking Plate 43. A lecture hall in the Department of Architecture and Building Engineering, Tokyo Ins tute of Technology. Note the power sockets on the wri ng ledges. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 45. Seminar room in the Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura Campus. Note the use of soundproof glass walls to provide an immersive experience for passers-bye. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 44. Typical lecture room in the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 46. Computer laboratory in the Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus. The laboratory is also used for lecture. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2011.

14 64 Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES-J) Volume is usually wired using high-speed cabling and gigabit routers and switches, with networking and power cabling commonly concealed in raised floors. Very large monitors are common, and these laboratories are usually open 24/7 to accommodate time-consuming processing. It is usually possible to submit jobs over the Internet. See plates Study Rooms Study rooms are designed to accommodate small teams of students, usually less than a dozen, engaged in specific projects. There may be several such teams in a particular year or level, often working on the same problem, or different aspects of a problem. Study rooms may be enclosed rooms, but enclaves may be created in open studios to accommodate groups. This takes the current practice in Nigeria of having modules at Plate 49. A study group in the Department of Architecture, University of Sydney, Sydney. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 47. Network printer and computer laboratory in the Department of Architecture, University of Sydney, Sydney. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 50: A study group in the Department of Architecture and Building Engineering, Tokyo Ins tute of Technology, Tokyo. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 48. Computer laboratory, College of Architecture and Design, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 51. Wood technology workshop in the Department of Architecture, University of Sydney, Sydney. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2010.

15 Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote Infrastructural and Interconnectivity Considerations in the Design of Architecture Studios 65 each level a step further by breaking each module into design and study groups. This encourages teamwork and enhances supervision and the quality of design. Studio design should always arrange workstations in clusters to make creation of design groups easier. See plates Engineering and Environmental Science Laboratories and Workshops Several laboratories and workshops are required to complement design work in architectural design studios. These laboratories and workshops are used for modelling, testing, and general training. They include concrete, elasticity and timber testing, digital fabrication, wood technology, metals and plastics, aerodynamics and wind tunnel, artificial sky and heliodon laboratories and workshops. See plates Digital architecture laboratories Modelling has become very central to architectural design at all levels. Laser cutters, Computer Numerical Control (CNC) routers, and 3-D rapid prototyping systems simplify model making and they are becoming standard equipment in architectural design studios. They employ Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) technology to produce models from CAD models. Laser cutters are used for etching patterns or cutting virtually any 2-dimensional shape from a wide variety of thin materials such as acrylic, chipboard, wood veneer, and thin plywood for model making and prototyping. CNC routers are used in automated production and manufacturing of diverse products, including building components, and they allow extremely accurate and complex shapes to be made in a relatively streamlined manner from 2-D and 3-D shapes drawn Plate 52. Engineering workshop in the Department of Architecture, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 54. Building technology workshop in the Department of Architecture, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 53. Metal and plas cs workshop in the Department of Architecture, University of Sydney, Sydney. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 55. Modelling equipment in the digital architecture laboratory in the Department of Architecture, University of Sydney, Sydney. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2010.

16 66 Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES-J) Volume in digital design environments. 3-D rapid prototyping systems print 3-D models from computer files and they employ ink-jet technology to apply binder to thin layers of gypsum-based powder. See plates Arts and Crafts Workshops Workshops are required for various aspects of architectural design, and the various arts and crafts every student is expected to be familiar with also require workshops. Depending on the size and curriculum of the school, ceramics, sculpture, painting, photography, printmaking, screen-printing, graphic design, web art and design, and mixed media workshops should be provided within the school, and preferably in close proximity of architectural design studios. These workshops are sometimes located in the basement, as in the Department of Architecture, University of Sydney. See plates Museum or Model Gallery Every school should have a museum where selected past student projects, models of indigenous buildings and examples of structural and building details, among others can be kept. Many schools in Nigeria have building laboratories or workshops where samples of building materials are kept, while past projects are kept in data rooms, but artefacts and models are better displayed and managed when kept in a museum or model gallery. See plates INTERCONNECTIVITY CONSIDERATIONS IN MODERN ARCHITECTURE STUDIOS The primary requirement for interconnectivity in modern architecture studios is networking using ICT. This is necessary for assessing educational resources; printing and plotting; and 3-D modelling, rendering and animation. Some schools however also provide Plate 56. Digital Architecture Laboratory in the Department of Architecture, University of Sydney, Sydney. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 58. Pain ng workshop in the Department of Architecture, University of Sydney, Sydney. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 57. Ceramics workshop in the Department of Architecture, University of Sydney, Sydney. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 59. Model gallery in the Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura Campus. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2011.

17 Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote Infrastructural and Interconnectivity Considerations in the Design of Architecture Studios 67 spatial connectivity, making it possible for students in various studios to visually connect with other students for social interaction and mentoring, as in Gund Hall, Harvard University. Intranet and Internet Connectivity An Intranet is required to link ICT resources within the school or university while Internet connectivity is required for connecting to the World Wide Web. In low-technology environments such as Nigeria, emphasising excellent Intranet resources and connectivity is important, since most network traffic is within the Intranet, and even when Internet resources are accessed, the same resources are often repeatedly accessed, making it reasonable to cache or mirror such resources on the Intranet. See plate 61. Educational Resources (Learning Management Systems, E-library) One on the most important reasons why design studios must have network connectivity is to gain access to educational resources. Many schools offer online courses, and submission of assignments and assessment can also be done online. Access to design data and past projects in the school e-library is also very important. 3-D modelling, Rendering and Animation The use of CAM equipment and render farms for network rendering and animation requires a computer network. Although CAM equipment requires supervision, modelling jobs can be submitted online. Render farms are several (sometimes dozens) of networked workstations with multiple fast multicore processors that can share a single job to speed up its processing. See plates Printing and Plotting Printing and plotting to networked printers, plotters and devices require network connectivity. This connectivity is usually wired because of the large volumes of Plate 62. Rendering farm in the server room, Department of Architecture, University of Sydney, Sydney. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 60. Tin Sheds Exhibi on Gallery in the Department of Architecture, University of Sydney, Sydney. Source: Photograph by the authors, Plate 61: Network resources available at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. Source: Harvard University Graduate School of Design (2009). Plate 63. Large format A0 scanner in the server room, Department of Architecture, University of Sydney, Sydney. Source: Photograph by the authors, 2010.

18 68 Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES-J) Volume data transfers required, and thus must be designed into the fabric of the building. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS A comparison of the infrastructure available in the leading sc hools of architecture with those in Nigerian schools of architecture, and a further comparison of the quality of projects produced by students on both sides of the divide, suggests that improving the infrastructure available in Nigerian schools of architecture may lead to enhancement of the quality of training. Integration of Digital Media into the Architecture Curriculum All the schools visited used CAD at all levels, even when new students were required to do manual drafting. The use of models and 3-D model making technology (CAM) was pervasive. Computer laboratories, dedicated large format printers, local area networks and provision of power and data connectivity at every table were observed. Customised Studio and Learning Spaces All the newly designed architecture schools had customised studio spaces that enabled students to draw and model at their own desks. Older schools were adapted to fit the new demands. Storage space for drawings and personal effects was provided. Good natural lighting, good artificial lighting, ventilation and air conditioning (often within suspended ceiling space) were standard. Power for laptops was either designed into the building, or provided via retractable drop-down or pop-up power points, or through raised floors. Wireless networking was pervasive. Professorial Laboratories, Study Rooms and Lecture Halls Laboratories attached to Professors were common in postgraduate schools. Smaller rooms were allocated to groups of students to enhance teamwork. Lecture halls were well furnished, with fixed projectors, often suspended from the ceiling. Integration of Engineering and Architecture The integration of engineering and architecture has made possible the design and construction of more efficient and safer buildings. Training engineers and architects in the same faculty, or even in the same department, has made collaboration more fruitful. Workshops and Laboratories Laboratories and workshops required for architectural education include building materials and carpentry workshops, environmental science laboratory for acoustics, lighting and ventilation studies and model making workshop (Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote, 2008). RECOMMENDATIONS It is recommended that the physical infrastructure and network resources in Nigerian schools of architecture be enhanced to bring them closer to international standards. Recommended Physical Infrastructure 1. Studios should be custom designed and should have adequate furniture and environmental controls. Good ventilation and adequate natural lighting should be provided. 2. Lecture rooms should be provided and they should be equipped with necessary multimedia equipment. 3. Workshops and laboratories should be provided in close proximity of design studios. 4. Uninterruptible power supply using inverters should be provided for critical equipment. Recommended network resources Based on our level of technological advancement and our societal demands the following networked resources are recommended for schools of architecture in Nigeria (Ogunsote, Prucnal-Ogunsote and Umaru, 2007; Ogunsote, Adebayo and Prucnal-Ogunsote, 2007). Internet connectivity, preferably using a Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) or enterprise grade broadband routers. LAN (wired and wireless). The wired LAN should cover all staff offices, studios, lecture rooms and administrative offices while the wireless network should be pervasive. File servers with software, backup and library. The file servers should contain model libraries and be used to backup staff and students files. Installation of licensed software on personal computers should be performed using files resident on this server. Network printers and plotters making it possible to print to any printer or plotter for a minimal fee. Windows versions of licensed software for staff and students usage. The Future Current research into wireless technology for power and data transfer may make power wiring unnecessary. Rapid advances in technology may also result in new devices and new requirements for studio and training spaces. Designs of modern architecture design studios should therefore be flexible, and make provisions for radical changes in layout, pedagogy and technology.

19 Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote Infrastructural and Interconnectivity Considerations in the Design of Architecture Studios 69 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the following for their assistance and hospitality during our visits to the various schools of architecture and universities: Yoshibumi Yanai, Kengo Kuma Laboratory, Department of Architecture, Graduate School of Engineering, University of Tokyo; Assistant Professor Ryo Murata, Department of Architecture and Building Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology; Yoshitsuna Kutsuki, Department of Architecture, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Yoshida Main Campus; Jonathan Hulme of the University of Sydney; Ilona Riske and Helga Kaatz both of the Bauhaus, Dessau; and Prof. Wellington of the University of Science and Technology, Kumasi. REFERENCES Harvard University Graduate School of Design (2009). Networked Resources. Retrieved from: resources/manual/network/images/net05.png. [Accessed August 12, 2009]. Harvard University Graduate School of Design (2012). About Gund Hall. Retrieved from gsd.harvard.edu/index.html#/about/gund-hall. html. Kyoto University, Graduate School of Engineering (2012). Kyoto University Graduate School of Engineering, Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Laboratory and Faculty. Retrieved from National Universities Commission (2004). Procedures Guide and Physical Development Manual for University System in Nigeria. Third Edition. National Universities Commission, Abuja. National Universities Commission (2005). Programme Evaluation Form. National Universities Commission, Abuja. Ogunsote, O. O. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2008). Virtual Infrastructure as a Viable Substitute for Physical Infrastructure in Architectural Education in Nigeria. Proceedings of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES) 2008 Annual General Meeting and Conference. Theme: Challenges of Resources Development for Architectural Education in Nigeria. Main Auditorium, Imo State University, Owerri, November 13 15, Ogunsote, O. O., Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. & Umaru, N. A. (2007). Curricular Anatomy of the CAD Proficient Architecture Graduate in Nigeria. Journal of the Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHESJ), 6(1), AARCHES, Minna. Ogunsote, O. O., Adebayo, E. L. & Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2007). Current Vistas and Realities of elearning in Architectural Education in Nigeria. Proceedings of the Online Educa Berlin th International Conference on Technology Supported Learning and Training. Hotel Intercontinental, Berlin, November 28 30, Times Higher Education (2012). Times Higher Education World University Rankings Retrieved from Tokyo Institute of Technology (2012). Department of Architecture and Building Engineering Laboratories List. Retrieved from titech.ac.jp/english/laboratories/index.html. University of California, Los Angeles (2012). Department of Architecture and Urban Design: Facilities and Resources. Retrieved from aud.ucla.edu/welcome/facilities_and_resources. html. University of Sydney (2012). Faculty of Architecture, Design & Planning: Resources & Facilities. Retrieved from University of Tennessee (2012). College of Architecture + Design: About the College. Retrieved from shtml.