Text for a lecture, Seattle, Jan. 27, Urve Lippus BALTIC-FINNISH TRADITION OF RUNIC SONG. Baltic-Finnish peoples

Transcription

1 Text for a lecture, Seattle, Jan. 27, Urve Lippus BALTIC-FINNISH TRADITION OF RUNIC SONG Baltic-Finnish peoples The tradition of runic song is a common ancient folk song tradition of most of the Baltic-Finnish peoples (Figure 1) living around the Finnish Gulf: the Estonians, the Vots, the Izhorians, the Karelians and the Finns. Runic songs are unknown only among the most eastern Baltic-Finnish people, the Vepses, and among the most southern, the Livs. Besides, Herbert Tampere (1977) has assumed that the Livs could have had a similar song tradition but it possibly disappeared together with the Liv population in Northern Latvia, the extant Liv folk songs have been collected only from the Livs of Kuramaa, a peninsula in Western Latvia. Baltic-Finnish languages belong to the family of Finno-Ugric languages. It is supposed that the area inhabited by the people speaking some Proto-Finno-Ugric dialects was between the middle of the river Volga and the Ural mountains. All the periodization of the demographic and linguistic processes that took place in those areas are extremely vague, but linguists agree that, first, the Ugric branch was separated, then Komi-Permi, and at last some of the Proto-Finnish speaking tribes spread more and more westwards until they lost contact with the Volga-Finnish tribes. The ancestors of Baltic-Finnish people reached the southern banks of the Baltic Sea where they merged with the Baltic tribes inhabiting those areas. The Balts whose languages belong to the Indo-European family had more advanced culture, but they assimilated the Proto-Finnish language. From the southern coast the tribes moved on to the north. Probably, the Lapps (Sabme) lived much more to the south of the present-day Finland, but were driven northwards by the Finnish tribes (see Kuusi, Bosley, Branch 1977; it is supposed that the name Fenni deriving from Tacitus' Germania, the 1st century AD, was originally given to the Lapps). The tradition of runic songs certainly developed before the Baltic-Finnish tribes spread out on a rather vast area and lost close contacts. There have been hypotheses that the form of the runic song derives from the Balts. It is impossible to say anything definite about that. In broad lines similar verse forms are known from several medieval song traditions, but the metric structure of runic verse is so dependent on the principles of Baltic-Finnish prosody that it is hard to imagine its genesis in a completely different prosodic system. Whatever the origin, it can be safely stated that the outlines of the tradition, the forms of the songs, and many of the themes were in existence at the end of the first millennium, before the conquest of the lands and the Christianization of the peoples by different missions divided this area among the Swedish Kings (Finland and a part of Karelia), the German Livonian Order (Estonia and Livonia), and the Russian Princedom of Novgorod (eastern areas). Many of the runic songs collected in the 19th- 20th centuries are certainly much more recent, but the tradition as a whole goes back at least into the times when communication between different Baltic-Finnish tribes was very close, i.e. before the 13th century.

2 In Estonia, though Christianization had its effects on the folk culture, it was limited, not only because of the social and cultural distance between the church and the folk, but even more because of the language barrier. Jüri Kivimäe (1987) describes the cultural influence of the Reformation in Estonia, making clear the difference between the Estonians living in cities, where several Estonian (or undeutsch) congregations were founded during the second half of the 16th century, and the peasant culture of the countryside. The materials of church visitations from the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century (Vahtre 1987) reveal that in many rural congregations people were quite ignorant and confused about the elementary questions of the religion. The first powerful invasion of religious feelings into the Estonian peasant communities, together with active hymn singing took place in the middle of the 18th century. This was the revivalist movement of Herrnhuter from Germany (Pôldmäe 1987; 1988). That was also approximately the time when the new West-European style of folk song and new folk dances started to spread in Estonia. The whole world knows of Kalevala as the Finnish epic, yet the songs collected derive mostly from eastern Finland and Karelia (see Kuusi, Bosley, Branch 1977, Figure 2). In culturally more advanced western and southern Finland the tradition of runic song vanished more quickly than in Estonia, probably, partly due to the lesser distance between the Swedish-speaking higher society, the clergy, and Finnish peasants. In Karelia many archaic elements of folk life survived thanks to the isolated villages among forests and lakes (Virtanen 1968). Also, it is evident (and not only in Baltic-Finnish areas) that the Orthodox church, which dominated those border regions between Finland and Russia has left folk poetry much more untouched than the Protestant church with its organization of education and singing. In addition to that, as in Sweden and elsewhere in Scandinavia, starting from the 18th century various Protestant free-church movements reached Finland, together with their active singing, new repertory, and repressive attitude towards the old folk world view, folk songs, and dancing. The terms runic song, Kalevala song, regilaul The word runic needs some explanation, without which some readers may connect those songs with the old Scandinavian texts written with runes or runic characters. Runes are also old Norse poems, though they have nothing in common with Baltic-Finnish runic songs except that both derive from early middle ages. In Finnish the word runo means just "verses, poetry", e.g. the songs of Kalevala are called runo. In the beginning of this century, when Finnish folklorists became more involved in European academic communication, the term spread together with their works. For example, the first study of the musical characteristics of this particular song tradition was the doctoral dissertation by Armas Launis (1910a) Über Art, Entstehung und Verbreitung der estnisch-finnischen Runenmelodien. Estonian folk-song studies started a little later and, often the word runo and runolaul was used for the older songs to differentiate them from later folk songs (laul). Soon, the word runolaul became a poetic archaism in Estonian. A neutral word in the Estonian philological tradition would be regilaul. In Finnish, Armas Otto Väisänen has used two terms (e.g. runosävelmä and Kalevalansävelmä) synonymously or almost so (Väisänen 1944, 1947, 1949). In a quite recent survey of Finnish folk music (Asplund, Hako 1981) the chapter describing this older layer of

3 songs has the heading Kalevalaiset laulut, but its subdivisions are Runösävelmä and Runolaulajat. I do not want to use the word Kalevala-songs in English (see Kuusi, Bosley, Keith 1977) for that would lead to a false representation of a larger body being a part of a smaller one - in fact, Kalevala-songs are a part of epic songs that, in turn, are a part of a song tradition covering an entire spectrum of themes and functions (ritual songs, work songs, lyric songs, etc.). To connect all this tradition with Lönnrot's Kalevala seems to be even more misleading than possible confusions with the adverb runic. The collections and the present situation of the tradition There is different historical evidence and some incidental transcriptions of runic songs from the 18th century and earlier. Systematic collection started in the middle of the 19th century in Finland (Lönnrot's first version of Kalevala was published in 1835) and in the end of the 19th century in Estonia (Dr.Jakob Hurt organized collecting of song texts, tales, beliefs, etc. by correspondence). At first, it was strongly felt as a part of national movements. Around the turn of the century in Finland an important group of scholars (Julius Krohn, Kaarle Krohn, Antti Aarne, musicologists Ilmari Krohn and Armas Launis) emerged in folkloristic studies. Their work became known as the historical-geographic method, or the "Finnish method". Several Finnish scholars did field work in Estonia (A.Borenius-Lähteenkorva already in the 1870s). Dr.Jakob Hurt, who was a pastor, got some folkloristic guidance from Kaarle Krohn and in his will he appointed Krohn and the Folklore Archives of the Finnish Literary Society to take care of his great collection until, the situation in Estonia would improve. The first Estonian folklorist (or ethnologist), Oskar Kallas, started to organize scholarly collection of folk music in Estonia in There were some music collections earlier, but it was evident that transcribing music needed specific skills and could not be organized by correspondence. He had received his degree from the University of Helsinki (and was married to Aino Krohn-Kallas, later a famous Finnish writer). After 1910 several of the collectors made recordings on wax cylinders. In many Estonian parishes the old peasant culture and runic songs survived in active use into the 19th century. Already in the 1880s and 1890s many of the collectors complained that the tradition of singing runic songs in everyday village life (at weddings, at a fire of St. John's day, etc.) had disappeared or was quickly declining (Pôldmäe 1989:15, 18-24; Tampere 1971). Still, among the generation born between there were a lot of people who had been singers in their youth or knew their grandmothers' songs. They could be recorded in the 1950s and 1960s when field work was already done with portable tape recorders. Besides the limited number of shellac records made during (in the studio of Estonian State Broadcasting) the recordings made from the middle of the 1950s till the beginning of the 1970s form the most valuable part of Estonian runic song sound recordings. At present, it is possible to find runic singing in two remote districts of Estonia (Setumaa, in the South-East, and Kihnu island), but it is more alive as an ethnographic performance than as a true part of the villagers' life. The political life of this century has been difficult for the Finnish peoples living on the eastern coast of the Finnish Gulf. Both the World Wars have brought fierce fighting around St.Petersburg/Leningrad; violent deportations of Finnish-speaking people by the Soviet authorities lasted several decades (especially immediately before and during the Second World

4 War). As a result of the Winter War between Finland and the Soviet Union (one of the preludes to the Second World War), most of Karelia was incorporated into the Soviet Union, and the border between Finnish Karelian villages and the remnants of Karelian population in eastern Karelia was carefully closed. During the wars many people emigrated from this area to the Western provinces of Finland (and to Estonia). Thus, the era of sound recording so successful for collecting Estonian runic songs, arrived a little too late for Karelians, Izhorians and Vots. However, some great singers were still living in the villages of the Soikkola peninsula in the beginning of the 1970s: Oudekki Figurova (a Vot), Jekaterina (Katoi) Aleksandrova (an Izhorian), who have been both filmed and recorded, and a number of others. The researchers of the Institute of Language, Literature and History at Petroskoi have recorded songs in east Karelian villages. In Finland, the number of people originating from those areas is rather large and many of them have been valuable informants. There are many sound recordings of runic songs in the Folklore Archives of the Finnish Literary Society, collected from the refugees after the Second World War. The most important archives in which the collections are deposited have already been mentioned: The Folklore Archives of The Finnish Literary Society (SKS Kansanrunousarkisto) in Helsinki, Fr.R.Kreutzwald Literary Museum of the Estonian Academy of Sciences (ETA Fr.R.Kreutzwaldi nim. Kirjandusmuuseum; its folklore department is the descendent of the Estonian Folklore Archives founded in 1927) in Tartu. After the Second World War a considerable amount of runic songs has been collected by the scholars of the Language, Literature and History Research Institute at Petrozavodsk (Soviet Karelia). The form of runic songs The most distinctive feature of the runic song is its verse structure. All Baltic-Finnish languages are quantitative languages, i.e. the temporal distribution of syllables and speech segments has a crucial function in defining the meaning of words. A normal runic song line consists of eight syllables that usually form four long-short disyllabic feet. The two lines Läksin metsa kôndimaie,/hommikulla hulkumaie (-u-u-u-u/-u-u-u-u) could be representatives of the norm. The traditional description of the runic verse is based on the so called quantity rules that were formulated in the first half of this century (Krohn 1924 and 1926; Anderson 1935). Both Estonian and Finnish folklorists have used the term trochee for describing the metric structure of the runic verses. Pentti Leino (1986: ) describes Kalevala-meter as a trochaic tetrameter with four successive rise and fall positions. The essence of the quantity system of Baltic-Finnish languages is that stressed (mostly wordinitial) syllables are either long or short (in modern Estonian there are three degrees - short, long and overlong) and not always long as in accent-oriented languages. The duration of unstressed syllables is dependent on the quantity of the word-initial stressed syllable (in broad lines), i.e. the second syllable after a short word-initial syllable is longer than the second syllable after a long word-initial syllable. Accordingly, in the metric structure of runic verse a stressed (word-initial) syllable is not always a long syllable and a long syllable is not always a (word-initial) stressed syllable, i.e. the pattern of long-short and stressed-unstressed cannot always coincide. That is the reason why the use of the terms of classical poetry (like trochee) for describing runic verses has been criticized: taken against the tradition of West-European poetic theory it implies that the

5 quantitative and accentual prominence both should be related to the ictus (i.e. a long syllable should always be also a stressed syllable). The quantitative variability of stressed syllables in Baltic-Finnish languages, the contrast between the basic long-short pattern and the varying stress patterns in some lines is very effectively used in the runic songs of all Baltic-Finnish peoples. Another pair of lines Meid on kolmeksi sôsare,/ kateksi ema kanaje would be a very normal example of varying the stress groups in a line (broken verses - Kuusi, Bosley, Branch 1977). The main component of verse structure, i.e. the alternation of long(er) and short(er) syllables is retained, but the distribution of stress groups changes (2+3+3/3+2+3). Such a discrepancy of prosodic features makes it easy to perform the broken verses with either scanning or varying the rhythm (scanning means that all the uneven syllables in a line get stressed, it sounds a bit strange for a native listener but does not distort the meaning of the words). After the so called quantity rules were described they received much criticism (see Lehiste 1973; 1977; Pôldmäe 1978 for the latest) and still have served as the basic schematic representation of the structure of runic verses (see e.g. Laugaste 1977, Kuusi, Bosley, Branch 1977; Leino 1986). In the above paragraph I have already proposed a rather loose reading of the rules that allows to expand the number of "correct" lines (accounting not phonologically long and short syllables but comparatively longer or shorter syllables in a metrical foot). However, there are many lines that we feel to be rather correct as compared to the inner norms arising while listening to long songs, but that do not match the norms in some detail. Further, I would argue that, as this form of song existed mostly for singing, the verse prosody was overridden by musical prosody and in many cases it is possible to point to some musical component as balancing or shadowing the deficient element in the verse (Lippus 1977, 1984, 1990, 1991). The most important structural constituent of a runic song is a single line, just as in the medieval European song. There are no larger formal divisions like strophes in the texts of runic songs. Though groups of lines arise based on contextual relations, and sometimes their boundaries are slightly articulated in singing, they do not transform into formal structures of any stability - either in the melodic development or in the text of the song. The number of lines in such a group can vary in every performance. The traditional manner of performance of runic songs follows the responsory principle well known in many folk traditions, that is, the choir (or another singer) repeats the line sung by the first singer. This line can be repeated with the same melody in case of one-line melodies, but in the case of two-line melodies the choir or the second singer has a new (often slightly closural) melody-line. However, that is the authentic way of performance. Most of the transcriptions and recordings are made of solo performances. While singing two-line melodies alone, the singer often tends to proceed more quickly and does not repeat the text lines. In such a case, the pairs of lines arising while singing a two-line melody are mostly incidental and may change if the singer drops a line or adds something. Still, most singers try to avoid starting a new group of parallel lines or a new contextual passage with the second (more closural) line of a melody. The same tendency is observed in four-line melodies. Four-line melodies are considered to be a later transitional structure in the repertory of runic songs, and they are less compatible with the traditional responsorial manner of performance. Besides, there have always been songs sung only solo or in solitude (some wedding songs, some orphan's songs, lullabies, etc.), singing alone is by no means

6 a new thing in the tradition. Musical Rhythmic Patterns and Verse Prosody For years I have been engaged in writing a survey of the musical characteristics of the runic melodies (Lippus 1984, 1988, 1990, 1991 and in press). The main corpus of melodies for the study (794 Karelian, 750 Izhorian, 74 Votic and 602 Estonian melodies, altogether 2359 melodies of runic songs) derives from the three most extensive published collections of the song tradition: Armas Launis "Inkerin runosävelmät" (Launis 1910b) and "Karjalan runosävelmät" (Launis 1930), and Herbert Tampere "Eesti rahvalaule viisidega" (Tampere ). The number of Votic melodies in the Launis' collection of Ingrian songs was small, but Ingrid Rüütel has published a complete survey of the small amount of music recorded from Votic villages (Rüütel 1977) and the runic melodies from this publication were added to the three main collections. In describing the rhythmic aspect of the Baltic-Finnish runic song with implications towards linear musical thinking in general, the central idea has been that the organization of musical rhythm is based on repeated rhythmic patterns that consist of long and short elements. Those constituents of rhythmic patterns should form two distinct categories of durations within which the exact durations and their proportions may vary to a considerable extent granted that the opposition of the two categories, the long and the short, is sufficiently clear. Thus, it is essentially a quantitative rhythmic system, although on both structural levels, in the schematic structure of the line (the structural constituent level) and in rendering a particular song (the surface level, in every individual realization) the division of the longs and shorts into stress-groups is clearly present. This hypothesis of binary quantitative opposition in rhythmic thinking is the axis of the presented theory about rhythm (Lippus 1990, 1991) and from this point of view I have looked for supporting data in the field of research in music perception, in the history of theories about rhythm, and in the analyses of the melodies. For everyone who is familiar with the problems of transcribing a folk song the question about the reliability of the notation for building up a theory of rhythm should arise. I have treated the transcriptions that form the basic corpus of the study as descriptions or analyses of melodies. As they are mostly made by prominent folklorists, musicologists, musicians and composers from the 1870s until the 1970s (e.g. A.A.Borenius-Lähteenkorva, I.Krohn, A.Launis, A.O.Väisänen from Finland; C.Kreek, M.Saar, P.Süda, K.Leichter, H.Tampere from Estonia; and many others) who were also native speakers of the languages and experts in the tradition we need not question their basic adequacy in transmitting really essential, phonological features of the musical style. At the same time, treating those transcriptions not as original sources, like some composers' scores that should be followed in every detail but as scholarly descriptions (analyses) of music, I feel myself free to interpret them according to my personal listening experiences and, what is even more important, according to the present-day understanding of the scope and limits of musical notation. Both, Armas Launis (1910b and 1930) and Herbert Tampere ( ) have edited their collections of melodies using time-signatures, bar-lines, duplets and triplets, etc. according to the standards of musical notation that were not to be questioned in the first half of this century. Launis has classified the whole repertory of melodies according to the number of syllables and

7 the metrical pattern of the first line of the song (probably having the model of a standard Choralbuch in mind). Tampere is well aware that the rhythmic structure of this musical style is different (see e.g. Tampere 1932, 1937 and 1934), but not being a musicologist he did not challenge the conventions of notated music. Paul Fraisse (1956) has observed that when the subject produces rhythmical patterns he only uses two interval durations. He has formulated two laws about this phenomenon - assimilation or elimination of minor differences, and distinction or sharpening the differences. The existence of two categories of durations in the perception of temporal phenomena and the vagueness of more differentiated distribution is proved by further research (Povel 1981; Povel, Essens 1985; Clarke 1985a and b). Our data of acoustical measurements of the runic song is by no means sufficient. I have measured the durations of syllable vowels in two songs with even syllabic rhythm (Lippus 1977) and the results demonstrated that, in spite of the equal note-values, as notated, the real durations of tones differed from 2-3 up to 6 times depending on the prosodic structure of the corresponding text. Actually, the syllable vowel does not fill up the whole duration of the syllable. In this experiment only vowels between stops were chosen, so that the vowel was the only really sounding segment of the syllable. Recently, Jaan Ross (1989) has measured durations in a swinging song from northern Estonia. The schematic rhythmic pattern in these songs consists of a short (stressed) and a long note on each disyllabic metric foot. In the analyzed recording some of the short notes were embellished, so that in the transcription three different note-values were used (quarter-notes for long durations, eighths for short durations and sixteenths and/or grace-notes for embellishments). However, the results reflected only two distinct groups of durations - the longs and the shorts. Within these groups the durations were dispersed and it was impossible to differentiate the ornamental notes from the short durations of the rhythmic pattern (though they were perceptibly less important in singing and thus seemed shorter to the transcriber). Supporting the presumption of binary opposition as a universal of rhythmic thinking a recent study (Fox, Lehiste 1989) of the discrimination of duration ratios by English and Estonian listeners should be of interest. As mentioned above, modern Estonian language differentiates between three quantity degrees of stressed syllables and there have been disputes for many years, whether this is really a ternary quantity opposition (that did not match with the theory of generative phonology) or a combination of two binary oppositions long/short and +/- tonal accent. In case the third (overlong) quantity degree really occurs to be partly or entirely a tonal phenomenon (Liiv, Remmel 1974; Lippus, Remmel 1976; Eek 1983 and 1987; Lehiste 1988, etc.), then the question is how to model the quantity system and the different functions of intonation in Estonian phonology. Measuring the segment durations in words pronounced by Estonian speakers it is possible to find evidence supporting two contradictory points of view, the presence of only two durational categories of segments, or the presence of even more than three. It was clear (Eek 1983) that neither the absolute durations nor exact proportional relations can be the only clues for recognizing the prosodic structure of the words. Robert Allan Fox and Ilse Lehiste present the results of a series of perception experiments with bisyllabic tokens

8 demonstrating that listeners can distinguish only between short-long and long-short duration ratios on the basis of durational information alone, they seem unable to make more precise discriminations which involve comparing two duration ratios that are both short-long (e.g. 1:2 & 2:3) or long-short (e.g. 3:2 & 2:1) (Fox, Lehiste 1989:174). For the present discussion it is also important that this general principle has been proved to be independent of the prosodic type of the native language of the subject which has been supposed to alter the perception of speech-like stimuli. Now we must discuss the relations of the musical rhythm and that of the corresponding text. Rhythm in vocal music is that aspect of musical composition in which musical phenomena are closely interrelated with the prosodic structure of the verses and thereby with language prosody in general. The rhythmic patterns of the analyzed runic songs are in strict correspondence with the number of syllables and their metrical arrangement in a normal runic verse. The function of rhythmic patterns in the runic song may even be defined as that of a link between the melody and the verses. Runic songs have no individual tunes. In principle, any melody could go with any verse. Actually, there are geographical and functional restrictions that direct the choice of melodies for a text, and vice versa. This description of runic verses may leave one with an impression, that the only rhythmic pattern in melodies should be a regular alternation of long and short note-value, or at least the syllabic rhythm of equal note-values. This, however, is not so. Figure 3 presents all the rhythmic patterns that occurred in my analyzed corpus of melodies. I would present the relationship between the metric structure of verses and the rhythm of music as a coexistence of two autonomous prosodic systems that are interdependent and mutually restrain each other to some extent. Still, they are two different mechanisms, not one as is often presumed. There are some widespread rhythmic patterns in runic songs that have a short note in metrically long and stressed ictus positions and, vice versa, a long note in nonictus position - BLBL, but also BBLL, and some others. It seems to be in conflict with the basic principle of musical rhythm theory according to which, from the Middle Ages through the baroque and classical music up to some very recent theoretical works on musical rhythm (e.g. Cooper and Meyer 1960), it has been described through the analogies with and with the help of the terms of poetic analysis. However, such cases do not contradict the basic principle that the musical rhythm and the metric structure of runic songs really match each other perfectly, only the relation is a bit more complex than simple correspondence of the long syllables to the long durations of musical rhythm pattern, of stressed syllables to high pitches, etc. Music would become very monotonous, if words exercised such a hard dictate upon melodies. I should define the relationship of the verse and the musical rhythm as follows: the structure of the verse limits the choice of rhythmic patterns in the melody; it defines the number of elements and their grouping in the pattern, but it cannot determine the one and only rhythmic pattern possible for singing this particular line. These relations are not those of a higher and lower level in one system, but those of two interacting systems (rhythmically regulated speech and music). For example, two musically equal note-values sung with syllables of different quantity may differ from each other to a considerable extent despite the singer's honest intention to perform them "correctly". It is true that some musical rhythms evoke the lengthening of short

9 stressed syllables in singing which is the most dangerous distortion of language prosody for the Baltic-Finnish languages. However, in the runic song, the dispersion of other means of giving prominence to a syllable in such cases guarantees that the words will not become caricatured as sometimes happens in translated songs or when modern West-European rhythms are carelessly imposed on Estonian songs. Instead of a conclusion In Finnish musicology, analytical or musicological studies of runic songs were extremely popular during the first half of this century (Launis, Väisänen). Later, the center of attention moved towards other genres that were still alive and allowed more different ethnological and folkloristic problems to be discussed. As far as I know, only Ilkka Kolehmainen (1977) has later written a survey of the musical characteristics of the Kalevala-melodies using methodological principles of ethnomusicology. In Estonia, Herbert Tampere ( ; 1965) has dealt with the tradition of runic songs from the folkloristic point of view and his main contribution is the detailed survey and the classification of songs according to their genre and function. Ingrid Rüütel has performed a lot of statistical analyses, mostly following the examples of M.Kolinsky in describing the melodies; she has written a number of papers about defining melody-types. My starting point is between that of a music theorist, historian and psychologist, although dealing with a folk tradition one remains basically within the field of ethnomusicology. My main question has been: what are the principles of musical thinking that has produced such melodies. In (Lippus in press) I have presented the hypothesis of linear musical thinking that is in many ways radically different from western muldidimensional musical thinking to describe some musical phenomena in early monodic vocal styles. Above, I have described the domain of rhythmic thinking, the next part of the work deals with the syntax of melodies and tonal hierarchies. References Anderson, Walter (1935). Studien zur Wortsilbenstatistik der älteren estnischen Volkslieder. ERA Toimetused 2. Tartu. Asplund, Anneli, Mati Hako (1981). Kansanmusiikki. SKS:n toimituksia 366, Helsinki. Clarke, Eric F. (1985a). Some aspects of rhythm and expression in performance of Erik Satie's "Gnossienne No.5". Music Perception 2 (3), Clarke, Eric F. (1985b). Structure and expression in rhythmic performance. Musical Structure and Cognition. Ed by Peter Howell, Ian Cross, Robert West. Academic Press, London, Orlando, Eek, Arvo (1987). Kvantiteet ja rõhk eesti keeles (II). Seisukohavõtt. Keel ja kirjandus nr.3-6, lk , , , Fraisse, Paul (1956). Les Structures Rhythmiques. Louvain. Kivimäe, Jüri (1987). Luterliku reformatsiooni kultuurimõjud Eestis XVI sajandil. Religiooni ja ateismi ajaloost Eesti. Artiklite kogumik III. Ed. J.Kivimäe. Tallinn: Eesti Raamat, Kolehmainen, Ilkka (1977). Kalevalasävelmän musikologista syntaksia. Progradu-tutkielma musiikkitiedessa ja sivulaudaturtyö suomalaisen ja vertailevan kansanrunouden tutkimuksessa. Helsinki. Krohn, Kaarle (1924). Kalevalastudien I. Folklore Fellows Communications 53. Helsinki. Krohn, Kaarle (1926). Eesti rahvalaulude värsimõõdust. Eesti rahvalaulud Dr.Jakob Hurda ja teiste kogudest I. Eesti Kirjanduse Selts, Tartu, XVI-XX. Kuusi, Matti, Keith Bosley, Michael Branch (eds.) (1977). Finnish Folk Poetry. Epic. Helsinki.

10 Laugaste, Eduard (1977). Eesti rahvaluule. Tallinn. Launis, Armas (1910a). Über Art, Entstehung und Verbreitung der estnisch-finnischen Runenmelodien. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne XXXI. Helsingfors. Launis, Armas (1910b). Inkerin runosävelmät. Suomen kansan sävelmiä IV, Runosävelmiä I. Helsinki. Launis, Armas (1930). Karjalan runosävelmät. Suomen kansan sävelmiä IV, Runosävelmiä II. Helsinki. Leino, Pentti (1986), Language and metre. Metrics and the metrical system of Finnish. Trans. by Andrew Chesterman. Studia Fennica 31. SKS: Helsinki. Lehiste, Ilse (1973). The well-formedness of an Estonian folk song line. Baltic Literature and Linguistics, Eds. A.Ziedonis, Jr. et.al., AABS, pp Lehiste, Ilse (1977). Quantity in Estonian language and poetry. Journal of Baltic Studies 8 (2), Lippus, Urve and Mart Remmel (1976). Some contributions to the study of Estonian word intonation. Estonian Papers in Phonetics. Tallinn, Lippus, Urve (1977). The manifestation of some phonetic correlates of stress in the Estonian folk song. Estonian Papers in Phonetics. Tallinn, Lippus, Urve (1984). Estonskiy runitcheskiy napev i metodika yego issledovaniya. Diss. na soiskaniye n.st.kand.isk. Moskva. (Dissertation, Moscow Conservatoire, in Russian). Lippus, Urve (1988). Regiviiside heliread. Muusikalisi lehekülgi 5, Ed. U.Lippus, Eesti Raamat, Tallinn, Lippus, Urve (1990). Rütmireeglid regilaulule ja keskaegne modaalrütmika. ALSAR-1990, Eesti Teaduste Akadeemia, Tallinn Lippus, Urve (1991). Binary opposition in rhythmic thinking. Medieval theory of modal rhythm, its cognitional background and an ethnomusicological implication. 2nd European Conference of Music Analysis. Trento Oct. Lippus, Urve (in press). Linear musical thinking. Studia Musicologica Universitatis Helsingiensis 7, Helsinki. Povel, Dirk-Jan (1981). Internal representation of simple temporal patterns. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 7 (1), Povel, Dirk-Jan & Peter Essens (1985). Perception of temporal patterns. Music Perception 2(4), Põldmäe, Jaak (1978). Eesti värsiõpetus. Tallinn. Põldmäe, Rudolf (1987). Hernhuutlane Christoph Michael Königseer ja tema kohtuprotsess aastal. Religiooni ja ateismi ajaloost Eestis. Artiklite kogumik III. Ed. J.Kivimäe. Tallinn: Eesti Raamat, Põldmäe, Rudolf (1988). Vennastekoguduse tegevusest meie maal. Teater. Muusika. Kino, nr.3, Põldmäe, Rudolf (1989). Materjale J.Hurda vanavara kogumise loost. Paar sammukest eesti kirjanduse uurimise teed XII. Tallinn: Eesti Raamat, Ross, Jaan (1989). A study of timing in an Estonian runic song. JASA, 86 (5), Rüütel, Ingrid (1977). Vadja rahvamuusika tüpoloogia ja stiilid. Soome-ugri rahvaste muusika-pärandist. Tallinn, Tampere, Herbert (1932). Tähelepanekuid rahvaviisidest ja rahvalaulude ettekandmisest lõunapoolses Lääne-Eestis. Kultuuri ja teaduse teilt. Loodus: Tartu, Tampere, Herbert (1934). Mõningaid mõtteid eesti rahvaviisidest ja selle uurimismeetodist. Eesti Muusika Almanak I. Eesti Lauljate Liit: Tallinn, Tampere, Herbert (1937). Eesti vana rahvalaulu rütmiprobleemist. Looming (2), Tampere, Herbert ( ). Eesti rahvalaule viisidega I-V. Tallinn. Tampere, Herbert (1965). Eesti regivärsilise rahvalaulu meloodika stiilitüübid. Etnograafiamuuseumi aastaraamat 20. Tartu, lk Tampere, Herbert (1971). Eesti rahvaviiside süstemaatiline kogumine 20. sajandi alguses. Emakeele Seltsi Aastaraamat 17, Tallinn. Tampere, Herbert (1977). Mõned mõtted liivi rahvalaulust. Soome-ugri rahvaste muusikapärandist. Toim. I.Rüütel, Tallinn. lk Vahtre, Sulev (1987). Kirik, aadel ja talurahvas Eestimaal XVI sajandi lõpul. Religiooni ja ateismi ajaloost Eestis. Artiklite kogumik III. Ed. J.Kivimäe. Tallinn: Eesti Raamat, Virtanen, Leea (1968). Kalevalan laulutapa Karjalassa. (Suomi 113:1). Helsinki: SKS. Väisänen, Armas Otto (1944). Kalevalanmitta ja runosävelmät. Virittäjä 3. (Hiljainen haltioituminen. A.O.Väisäsen tutkielmia kansanmusiikista. Toim. E.Pekkilä. SKSn Toimituksia 527. Helsinki 1990, ).

11 Väisänen, Armas Otto (1947). Kalevalamitallisten runojen esitystavat. Kalevalaseuran vuosikirja 27. (Hiljainen haltioituminen. A.O. Väisäsen tutkielmia kansanmusiikista. Toim. E.Pekkilä. SKSn Toimituksia 527. Helsinki 1990, 58-83). Väisänen, Armas Otto (1949). Kalevalan sävelmä. Vertaileva tutkielma. Kalevalaseuran vuosikirja 29.(Hiljainen haltioituminen. A.O. Väisäsen tutkielmia kansanmusiikista. Toim. E.Pekkilä. SKSn Toimituksia 527. Helsinki 1990, ). Musical examples LP: Vadja ja Isuri rahvalaule (Votic and Izhorian Folk Songs) Ed. Ingrid Rüütel, Melodija M , No.26, Loomislaul (The creation song) - Jekaterina Aleksandrova (izhorian, recorded in 1976) - No.21, Las laulan ligi külada (Let me sing near the village, a lyrical song) - Fenja Filippova (izhorian, singing a Votic tune, recorded in 1975) LP album: The Folk Music of Estonia. Anthology. Compiled by Ingrid Rüütel. Melodija M (2 records), Langude teretus (Open the gate; wedding song, North Estonia) - Karjasehuiked (Shepherd's calls; South-Estonia) - Linakatkumislaul (Harvesting flax; labour song, South Estonia) - Toomalaul (Song of Toomas; epic song, Setu, South-East Estonia) - Kiigelaul (Swinging song, North Estonia)