Running head: SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT 1 THE IMPACT OF ORGANIZATIONAL FEATURES AND STUDENT EXPERIENCES

Transcription

1 Running head: SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT 1 THE IMPACT OF ORGANIZATIONAL FEATURES AND STUDENT EXPERIENCES ON SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE FIRST YEAR OF COLLEGE Eric G. Lovik Director of Institutional Research Clearwater Christian College J. Fredericks Volkwein Emeritus Professor of Higher Education Center for the Study of Higher Education The Pennsylvania State University Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, November 20, 2010, Indianapolis, IN.

2 Spiritual Development 2 Abstract The purpose of this study was to analyze the impact of organizational features and student experiences on spiritual development among first-year students attending four-year institutions in the United States. The researchers used a multi-level model on NSSE 2004 data from more than 7,000 first-year students at nearly 450 postsecondary institutions. Certain denominations exert positive impacts on their students spiritual development. International, Asian, and first generation students report gains in spirituality during their first year. Students who pray, meditate, and worship develop more spiritually than their peers who do not engage in these activities. Participating in service learning and including diverse perspectives in class discussions and assignments relate positively to spiritual development. Students who perceive their relationships with peers to be friendly, supportive and convey a sense of belonging also report that their college experience led to developing a deepened sense of spirituality. Denominational institutions that require students to attend chapel or a similar religious observance, only hire faculty who agree with their statement of faith, or promote their religious and spiritual values in their mission statements make a significant impact on spiritual development. Perceptions of institutional support for social and nonacademic needs relate to spiritual development.

3 Spiritual Development 3 The general finding from college outcomes research is that students pre-college traits what they bring with them to college and what the student does in college are more important than the kind of college or university the student attends (Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh, & Whitt, 2005; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005). However, the growing body of student engagement literature and the recent findings concerning spirituality in higher education suggest the effects of institutional characteristics may be greater than we realize, especially at religious institutions where students spiritual development is central to the institutional mission. Higher education researchers have found that today s incoming first-year students generally expect their college or university to play a role in their emotional and spiritual development (Lindholm, 2007, p. 13). First-year students view their college life as more than an academic process; it is an opportunity to develop their whole person. If first-year students are looking to their colleges and universities to play a role in spiritual development, however, then we need to understand how organizational cultures and individual student experiences influence spirituality. The purpose of this study was to analyze the impact of organizational features and student experiences on spiritual development among first-year students attending four-year institutions in the United States. For our analysis, the terms spirituality and spiritual development are used synonymously. Love and Talbot (1999) define spiritual development as multi-faceted; it is an interrelated process of seeking self-knowledge and centeredness, transcending one s current locus of centricity, being open to and embracing community, recognizing an essence or pervasive power beyond human existence, and having that sense of spirit pervade one s life (p. 367).

4 Spiritual Development 4 Literature Review and Conceptual Framework Results from prior studies on the religiosity and spirituality of American college students have generally found that students at religious institutions participate in religious activities and experience greater gains in spiritual development than their peers at secular institutions (Astin, 1977, 1993; Feldman & Newcomb, 1969; Hartley, 2004; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005). Yet, religiously affiliated colleges and universities vary widely in how well they pass their denominational values to their students and encourage spiritual growth (Gonyea & Kuh, 2006; Kuh & Gonyea, 2005; Railsback, 1994, 2006; Henderson, 2003). Some religious institutions appear to have less of an impact on their students religious commitment and spiritual development, appearing to move toward secularization, while others maintain orthodox qualities (Benne, 2001; Burtchaell, 1998; Marsden, 1994). Yet, undergraduate students at public and nonaffiliated private institutions alike express desires to integrate spirituality into their lives (Bryant, Choi, & Yasuno, 2003; HERI, 2004) even though these institutions may not promote religion or spirituality as denominational institutions do. In general, research has demonstrated a positive connection between participating in religious activities and gains in religious and spiritual development (Bryant, Choi, & Yasuno, 2003; Bryant, 2007; Bryant & Astin, 2008; Gonyea & Kuh, 2006; Hartley, 2004; Kuh & Gonyea, 2005; Lee, 2000, 2002). While spirituality is a separate construct from religiosity, the research literature shows a strong relationship between students attending religiously affiliated institutions or engaging in worship activities and experiencing gains in spiritual growth (Gonyea & Kuh, 2006; Henderson, 2003; Kuh & Gonyea, 2005; Railsback, 1994; 2006). A Venn diagram with two overlapping circles next to each other illustrates the theoretical relationships between religiosity and spirituality (Dalton, Eberhardt, Bracken, & Echols, 2006; Tisdell, 2003). One circle represents

5 Spiritual Development 5 the external, structural components of a person s organized set of shared beliefs, and the other circle represents the internal, personalized elements of one s search for meaning beyond oneself. The religion and spirituality circles intersect when spiritual experiences happen in the context of one s religious life or religious community. Yet spiritual experiences often happen outside the context of a religious tradition (Tisdell, p. 30). Dalton, Eberhardt, Bracken, and Echols use the Venn diagram illustration to represent two forms of spirituality. One form of spirituality occurs within a religious context, and the other form of spirituality happens in nonreligious contexts. College students who are both highly religious and highly spiritual have a substantial overlap between their religious participation and spiritual formation (Bryant et al., 2003). On the other hand, college students might consider themselves to be very spiritual because they pursue meaning and purpose in life without attending religious activities or a denominational institution. This investigation followed the Terenzini and Reason (2005) conceptual framework for understanding the impact of college. Terenzini and Reason expanded upon decades of research pointing to intraindividual, or developmental, theories and interindividual, or environmental, theories of student development. The researchers selected the Terenzini and Reason (2005) model because this framework accounts for the broad array of factors and some of the possible causal mechanisms that influence the kinds of experiences first-year students have on a campus (p. 13). As noted by the literature cited, multiple, diverse influences can impact spiritual development during college, and this conceptual framework serves as a useful guide for understanding these many influences. Second, the framework was created specifically for research on the first year of college, however, as the authors pointed out, it seems adaptable for use in examining college effects over succeeding years of college study (p. 13). Spirituality can change in direction and magnitude over the duration of a student s undergraduate experience,

6 Spiritual Development 6 therefore this conceptual framework would be useful for follow-up studies beyond the first-year experience. Third, this model was designed for studies of multiple institutions. The current study is exactly that; it is an exploration of spiritual outcomes at nearly 450 four-year institutions across the United States. Figure 1 provides a visual diagram of Terenzini and Reason s comprehensive model of influences on student learning and persistence. [Insert Figure 1 about here] The conceptual framework incorporates four general categories of influences on college students that affect outcomes: student precollege characteristics, organizational context, peer environment, and individual student experiences. First, student precollege characteristics and experiences affect students college experience and outcomes. These precollege attributes include sociodemographic traits, academic preparation and performance, and personal and social experiences. The college experience comprises the next three parts of this college impact model. When students enroll in college they enter a unique organizational context. The organizational context of postsecondary institutions presents itself through internal structures, policies, and practices; academic and co-curricular programs, policies, and programs; and faculty culture. Terenzini and Reason (2005) emphasized that the institutional effects are more a function of what institutions do than of what they are (p. 8). Within the college experience is a peer environment. The peer environment reflects the beliefs, values and attitudes throughout the institution s student population. This environment subtly conveys what other students value and of what one s peers expect behaviorally (Terenzini & Reason, 2005, p. 11). Individual student experiences take place within the peer environment during the college experience. Terenzini and Reason (2005) identified three venues

7 Spiritual Development 7 in which individual student experiences occur. Students spend part of their college life in the classroom, and examples of classroom experiences are faculty teaching methods and feedback from instructors. Students also have curricular experiences, which are broader than classroom experiences. Curricular experiences include general education courses, the academic major, and other special learning opportunities. Third, students participate in out-of-class experiences. Various activities and pursuits outside of the college classroom influence students and their attainment of outcomes. Methodology Participants The participants for this sample were part of the 2004 cohort of the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE). NSSE data were used with permission from The Indiana University Center for Postsecondary Research. The survey was coordinated by the Center for Postsecondary Research with assistance from the Center for Survey Research and the National Center for Higher Education Management Systems. During the 2004 administration, NSSE randomly selected over 160,000 first-year and senior students at nearly 500 four-year institutions in the United States and Canada (NSSE, 2004a). For this investigation, we excluded institutions from Canada and Puerto Rico, as well as any for-profit institutions within the United States. The final sample for this study represents 7,172 first-year students at 442 colleges and universities throughout the United States. Dependent Variable The dependent variable for the study is a single, self-reported measure of the impact of the institution on a student s spiritual development. Participants responded to question 11 on the 2004 NSSE survey which asks, To what extent has your experience at this institution

8 Spiritual Development 8 contributed to your knowledge, skills, and personal development in the following areas (NSSE, 2004b). This question then listed sixteen areas of personal and academic development, including one labeled, Developing a deepened sense of spirituality (NSSE, 2004b). Participants responded on a four-point Likert-type scale in which 1 = very little, 2 = some, 3 = quite a bit, and 4 = very much to indicate the extent to which they believed their institution affected their spiritual development. Institution-Level Data Sources There were several primary sources of data on the institutional level. To expand the types of level-2 (institutional) variables in the dataset, we retrieved structural characteristics from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) surveys for the academic year, the same time frame during which the NSSE surveys were administered to these participants. We also collected information from various print and online college guides. Additional data were retrieved from institutional websites. Table 1 displays the descriptive statistics for these level-2 variables. [Insert Table 1 about here] An important element to our study was the grouping of religious institutions into distinct denominational categories. In order to protect the identities of particular institutions, we placed religious institutions into denominational groups having at least five institutions per group. Table 2 lists the nine denominational categories we assigned to the 173 religious institutions based on their IPEDS affiliation. [Insert Table 2 about here]

9 Spiritual Development 9 Level-1 Independent Variables Independent variables were selected based on their connection to the Terenzini and Reason (2005) comprehensive outcomes model of the impact of college on first-year students. Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics for the precollege characteristics and curricular, classroom, and out-of-class experiences. [Insert Table 3 about here] Limitations There are several limitations to this study. First, self-selection bias may account for differences in the findings regarding students spiritual development. It is possible that students who choose to enroll at an institution select their college because it more actively and effectively engages students in the experiences and outcomes related to gains in spiritual development. Perhaps many students at denominational institutions choose to pursue opportunities to cultivate a deepened sense of spirituality and, in turn, the students report a higher level of impact from their college experience. Similarly, we had no data on students religious affiliations, and thus we could not account for the religious diversity or homogeneity of the peer environment or individual precollege religious backgrounds. Second, the NSSE measure of the institutional impact on spirituality is limited to a single survey question. NSSE asks no questions regarding students denominational affiliation or any other measure of pre-college spiritual traits. As discussed in the literature review, the concept of spirituality is subjective, and therefore spirituality is difficult to measure. The notion of a deepened sense of spirituality in the NSSE survey is vague because spirituality has different connotations for different people. NSSE s use of a four-point scale is uni-directional. That is, the scale forces respondents to select among four degrees of positive impact, thus eliminating the

10 Spiritual Development 10 possibility that for some students, their experiences at the institution yielded no perceived effect on their spirituality, or had a negative effect. There is no way for students to respond that their spirituality was either unchanged or declined. Moreover, the wording of the four NSSE responses includes vague descriptions that might be interpreted differently among the survey respondents. Respondents might have difficulty distinguishing between "a little" and "some" on the one hand, and "quite a bit" and "very much" on the other. A more refined measure of spiritual growth would be appropriate, perhaps even multiple criterion measures to reflect and examine the multidimensionality of spirituality during college. Third, the influences on spirituality are complex and not easily compartmentalized. Like other domains of human development, a wide range of experiences may interact to impact students spiritual formation. This study explores only a limited number of quantifiable measures of the campus conditions and individual experiences related to spirituality among postsecondary students. Last, the data set represents a cross-sectional snapshot taken during a single point in time. A preferred approach to assessing the impact of college on students spiritual development is to take measurements at numerous points in time, beginning with the first semester and at least a second time during the senior year as a pre-test/post-test design. The current study provides only a partial view on spirituality during college because it relies on a single snapshot of data instead of a series of surveys at multiple occasions. Results Output from multi-level analysis provides variance components, sigma-squared and tau, which may be used to estimate the explanatory power of the multi-level model. Table 4 displays the intercepts and variance components from the statistical analysis.

11 Spiritual Development 11 [Insert Table 4 about here] Researchers can determine the intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC), a measurement that indicates the variance attributed to the between-group (level-2) variables. Multi-level analysts recommend that an ICC above 5% is necessary to justify using a multi-level analysis over OLS regression (Porter, 2005; Smart, 2005). The result of our ICC calculation is This means that 19% of the variance in this model is between institutions. The between-institution variance exceeds 5%, thus justifying the use of multi-level techniques. The ICC also indicates that 81% of the variance for students reported spiritual gains is attributed to individual differences among students. Thus, a large majority of the variance in the dependent variable is due to differences in students backgrounds, experiences, beliefs, and values. For the level-1 analysis of student data, the variance was reduced from.940 in the unconditional model to.939 in Model 2 which represented precollege student characteristics only. Thus, adding the precollege traits reduced the variance by less than one-half of a percent. This suggests that for the students in this study, their background demographic characteristics have little to do with any differences in reported gains in spirituality. After entering all variables, the final model shows that International (β =.22), Asian (β =.15), and first generation (β =.08) students are more likely to experience gains in their spirituality as a result of their college experience than their peers from other backgrounds. Table 5 displays the coefficients for the level-1 variables. [Insert Table 5 about here] The complete level-1 analysis (Model 3) including student experiences explained most of the difference, and reduced the variance nearly 18% to.763. This finding implies that what students do in college matters more to their spiritual development than who they are. Several

12 Spiritual Development 12 curricular and classroom experiences were related to spiritual development. For the control variables, being a biology major had a negative effect (β = -.08) on students spiritual gains, while business students (β =.07) experienced positive gains in their spiritual development compared to students in other majors. Also, first-year students who participated in servicelearning also reported gains in their spiritual development. Involvement in a community-based project as part of a regular course was the strongest predictor (β =.12) of all the curricular and classroom experiences. One classroom experience that contributed to students spirituality was including diverse perspectives in class discussions and writing assignments (β =.10). Outside the classroom, students who participated more frequently in activities to enhance spirituality, such as praying, meditating, and worshiping, reported higher gains in spirituality during their first year than their peers who participated less frequently or not at all (β =.33). Also, the perceived quality of relationships with other students positively affected students spiritual development (β =.11). For the level-2 analysis summarized in Table 6, we began by entering only the institutional characteristics (type, size, and control) to determine how much these standard variables contribute to the analysis. The column showing Model 4 in Table 6 indicates that private governance significantly related to spiritual gains, and institutional type and size did not. Thus, using the variance components displayed previously in Table 4, we learn that the institutional characteristic of private institutions reduced the between-group variance by 14%. However, when we added the denominational identities to the analysis (Model 5), we discovered that the variance explained increased remarkably to 54% and the private control variable became nonsignificant. Every denominational category significantly contributed to this analysis.

13 Spiritual Development 13 According to Model 5, the impact of denominational institutions explains nearly three times as much of the level-2 variance as the single characteristic of private control. [Insert Table 6 about here] Last, Model 6 represents the complete level-2 analysis for the final, converged model. Adding specific organizational features to the denominational identities, all together, explain 87% of the variance between institutions. In this final model with all level-2 variables, most of the denominations were no longer significant. Students who attended institutions that they perceived supported their social development and helped them cope with nonacademic responsibilities also reported that their institutions contributed to their spiritual development. This two-item scale is the strongest predictor of all level-2 items (β =.69). Baptist institutions had the greatest magnitude (β =.36), followed by Various Protestant/Nondenominational (β =.27) and Roman Catholic (β =.12). The strongest organizational feature at religious institutions that related to student gains in spirituality was the required religious observance (β =.59). Another organizational feature at religious campuses was the requirement that faculty must subscribe to the institutional creed or be a member of the same denomination (β =.27). Also, denominational institutions that promoted their religious or spiritual values using language in their mission statements saw higher gains in their first-year students spiritual development (β =.20). The general education required course(s) in theology or religion (β =.20) related positively to students gains in their spiritual development. The last academic or co-curricular program, policy, or practice is the presence of a campus ministry or chaplain. This is a slightly negative predictor (β = -.08).

14 Spiritual Development 14 Discussion The first year of college carries with it an array of experiences and opportunities for growth in a variety of outcomes. Students precollege characteristics and individual experiences within the peer environment matter, as do the organizational features at the colleges and universities where they attend. As demonstrated by the recent surge in literature on spirituality in higher education (Astin, 2004; Astin & Keen, 2006; Bryant, 2006; Bryant, 2007; Bryant & Astin, 2008; Bryant et al., 2003; Lindholm, 2007), postsecondary scholars and practitioners seem to be more interested in understanding the inner lives than they were in prior decades. This study provides some new insights regarding the impact of college on spirituality among first-year students and confirmed prior knowledge on this topic. As it is with other student outcomes (Terenzini & Reason, 2005), various precollege characteristics, institutional programs, policies, and practices, and curricular and out-of-classroom experiences contribute to developing a deepened sense of spirituality during the first year of college. Student Precollege Characteristics Of all the statistically significant precollege characteristics, international students report the highest gains in spiritual development as a result of their first-year experience at their institutions. This finding confirms prior research (Gonyea & Kuh, 2006; Kuh & Gonyea, 2005) which demonstrates that international student status is positively associated with developing a deepened sense of spirituality during college. Why is it so strong among international students? Perhaps college students from other countries enter their first-year experience with a sense of openness to spirituality. Maybe this is because international students are separated from their home culture, language, traditions, and social support that their encounter with difference on the American campus is so profound that they look inward. International students are immersed in

15 Spiritual Development 15 such a different setting with peers who hold different beliefs and values that perhaps they question their own identity, values, beliefs, and purpose in life. Asian students also report that their institution contributed to their spiritual growth. This finding reinforces the results of the earlier studies on the 2004 NSSE data (Gonyea & Kuh, 2006; Kuh & Gonyea, 2005) which indicated that nonwhite students display higher levels of spirituality than White students. In general, nonwhite populations tend to be more spirituallyoriented than White Americans. We also expected that African Americans would have significantly greater gains in spirituality since prior research indicates that African Americans practice spiritual activities and identify as being more spiritual than others (Chae, Kelly, Brown, & Bolden, 2004; Chatters, Taylor, Bullard, & Jackson, 2008; Pew, 2009). First generation students attribute a positive relationship between their first-year experience and spiritual development, a finding which confirms Gonyea and Kuh s (2006) study. Perhaps this suggests that students whose parents have higher educational levels are less likely to value spirituality. Or, maybe first generation students feel somewhat out of place, and their encounters with new and different experiences promote inward reflection. Organizational Context The full impact of organizational features on holistic development, especially in the domain of spirituality, is not fully understood. Reflecting on their national study of institutional religious affiliation and students spirituality, Gonyea and Kuh (2006) wrote, While there is mounting evidence that student interest in religion and spirituality is stronger than in recent decades, and growing support for the conclusion that some collegiate experiences may strengthen students beliefs, if not their practices, an unresolved dynamic is the influence of institutional characteristics in this process of change (p. 5).

16 Spiritual Development 16 At the end of Hartley s (2004) review of fifteen years of literature on the impact of college on students religious faith and practice, he observed that researchers need to probe deeper into the contextual setting to better understand the effect various campus environments and cultures have on students spiritual development (p. 124). Our study reveals that first-year students spiritual development varies depending on the organizational context, and that some of these differences are unique to religious institutions while others may appear on any college campus whether religious or secular. Religious features. To begin with, first-year students who attend colleges or universities affiliated with certain denominations report that their institutions makes a positive difference in their development of a deepened sense of spirituality while their peers at other denominational affiliated institutions do not. First-year students at Baptist, Various Protestant or Nondenominational, and Roman Catholic institutions attribute their gains in spirituality to their college experience. The impact of these campus cultures should not be taken lightly, because the multi-level analysis, Model 5, found that the effects of the denominational identities alone reduced the level-2 variance by 40%. Second, students who attend denominational institutions that promote religious or spiritual values and outcomes in their mission statements claim that these institutions contribute to their spiritual development. In higher education, the mission statement serves as an overarching purpose statement that all activities and programs follow. Publicly stating the intended spiritual outcomes and religious values in the mission statement associates positively with the overall institutional contribution to first-year students spiritual gains. The religious institutions in this study that express spiritual values in their mission statements appear to fit closely with Benne s (2001) typology of orthodox colleges, the religious institutions known for

17 Spiritual Development 17 their commitment to their doctrinal heritage. A religious institution s priorities and culture should convey the values described in its mission statement (Kuh & Whitt, 1988), and as illustrated in this study, the college impact on first-year students gains in spirituality may result directly from intentional efforts by the institution ultimately guided by the mission statement. Academic and co-curricular programs, policies, and practices. Students who attend religious institutions that require their faculty to subscribe to a denominational creed or statement of faith claim that their first-year experience positively impacts their spiritual development. This finding appears to illustrate what prior scholars have explained regarding the importance of selecting faculty whose values and beliefs reflect those of the institution s, especially for institutions with a religious purpose (Benne, 2001; Kuh & Whitt, 1988). Further, this discovery may confirm that faculty s values and attitudes can affect students values and attitudes (Astin, 1993). The campus program that exerts the strongest effect is the required religious observance at religious institutions. For some denominational institutions this may be an occasional convocation, but for others this requirement may be a weekly or daily chapel service or mass. Whatever form this religious service looks like, it does make a positive difference. While chapel services are not as common today as they were years ago, some religious colleges and universities continue to schedule required services as one component of the undergraduate experience. A large majority (84%) of first-year students who attend institutions with compulsory chapel attendance respond that their institution contributed either quite a bit or very much to their spirituality. In contrast, less than half (44%) of first-year students at religious institutions that do not require attendance at a campus service say that their institution contributed quite a bit or very much.

18 Spiritual Development 18 The campus chapel experience may be such a strong influence because it appears to merge several powerful influences that together impact spiritual development. Chapel programs convey the institutional mission and denominational values. Spiritual and cultural symbols ranging from sacred paintings and statues to the clergy s garb and setting of the meeting place may collectively set a reverent atmosphere for personal reflection. During this event, students participate in spiritually enhancing activities such as singing religious music, reading holy literature, and prayer and meditation. When a campus chapel service is mandatory, students experience the event along with their peers. The potential for this peer experience to influence spiritual orientation may be greater than we realize. It appears that this discovery may point to what some historians have suspected previously regarding campus worship services. Those historians who recount the decline of religious distinctiveness and the trend toward secularism among church-related colleges and universities point to the abolishment of required chapel as one evidence among institutions which severed their denominational ties and diminished their impact on students faith (Benne, 2001; Burtchaell, 1998; Marsden, 1994). Contemplating these organizational features that relate positively with students spiritual development during the first-year experience, additional questions and reactions arise. What is it about the campus conditions and student experiences at Baptist, Various Protestant or Nondenominational, and Roman Catholic institutions that relate to spiritual growth? Why don t students at religious institutions affiliated with the other denominations claim that their first year of college makes a difference in their spiritual development? Perhaps religious colleges and universities that do not require chapel attendance or faculty religious affiliation are not as concerned about their students spiritual outcomes because they intend to promote other aspects of the undergraduate experience and focus on improving

19 Spiritual Development 19 outcomes other than spirituality. These institutions may provide a broad liberal education within an environment inclusive of faculty and students whose religious affiliations, values, and beliefs are more diverse than homogenous. Perhaps the institutions that contribute less to their students gains in spirituality focus primarily on the academic and vocational preparation of their students. One of the academic practices conducive to cultivating spirituality appears at public and nonaffiliated private institutions alike. Students who attend institutions where they are required as part of the general education to take coursework in religion, theology, or spirituality perceive that their institutions make a greater impact on their spiritual development than their peers who are not required to take such courses. Does the content of the coursework make a difference, or does the process of self-discovery impact students? Perhaps the pedagogy in these courses not only encourages but requires self-reflection. The Inventory for Assessing the Moral and Spiritual Growth Initiatives of Colleges and Universities (Dalton, 2006) proposed as one of numerous undergraduate practices contributing to spiritual development that the institution embeds spirituality into programs and courses. This inventory is designed for use by secular and religious institutions alike, and our finding that coursework in religious or theological issues relates to spiritual gains demonstrates support for the inventory. One potential extension of this study would be to analyze whether an increase in the number of required courses in religion or theology relates to corresponding increases in reported spiritual growth. Institutional support for first-year students nonacademic life is essential. First-year students face a critical transition time of their lives, and thus, they need to feel supported, not only academically but in other areas as well. We found that students who reported that that their institutional experience has contributed to developing a deepened sense of spirituality also claimed that they felt supported for their social and nonacademic needs. Colleges and

20 Spiritual Development 20 universities that help their students thrive socially and cope with their nonacademic responsibilities are helping to provide a nonthreatening environment in which students may explore issues of identity, value, and meaning in life. One of the discoveries from the HERI Spirituality Project is that today s incoming first-year students generally expect their college or university to play a role in their emotional and spiritual development (Lindholm, 2007, p. 13). Undoubtedly, first-year students want institutional assistance for personal growth not only inside but also outside the classroom. Surprisingly, the institutional support entity of a campus ministry or chaplain emerges as a slightly negative predictor in this study. This may be due to a relatively strong percentage of secular institutions that provide some type of religious or spiritual office, counselor, or chaplain. Among the nonreligious institutions in this study, 53% of the public and 63% of the private, nonaffiliated institutions provide support through campus ministries or chaplains offices so that students may explore their spirituality or engage in religious activities on campus. Perhaps some students who use institution-based spiritual support services do not perceive these experiences as contributing to their spiritual growth. Considering this from another perspective, is it possible that campus clergy generate a resistance effect, that is, they militate against the pluralistic worldviews and liberalization of undergraduates attitudes and values? One institutional policy that does not remain significant in the multi-level analysis is the admissions criterion at denominational institutions regarding applicants religious affiliation. Perhaps this is because so few denominational institutions consider students religious commitment or affiliation to be important or very important, or we may have had insufficient data. Among the sample institutions in this study, one out of four (24%) religious colleges and universities weighs student affiliation as a leading factor in admissions selection.

21 Spiritual Development 21 Results of the multi-level analysis indicate that 19% of the difference among first-year students reported institutional contribution to their spiritual development was due to betweeninstitution variance. In the final analysis, Model 6, we identified 87% of the level-2 (betweeninstitution) variance. Not only does institutional religious affiliation matter, but there are significant differences in the level of impact on student spirituality depending on the denominational affiliation with which an institution identifies. Further, what an institution does for its students makes a difference. Institutions that support their students social and nonacademic needs, provide some form of required spirituality-enhancing event, hire faculty who share the institution s spiritual values, promote their spiritual priorities publicly, and integrate spirituality-focused coursework into the core curriculum are more likely to make a positive, spiritual impact on the first-year experience. Individual Student Experiences Curricular and classroom experiences. We controlled for academic major, and in the final model two programs significantly associated with the institutional contribution to spiritual development. Students who majored in biology reported that their first year of college had a negative impact on their spiritual development. This may illustrate the preference toward rational thinking and empirical evidence characteristic of those who study in the scientific fields. Such a mindset tends to be more skeptical of the intangible notions of the divine, supernatural, and other unseen attributes common to spirituality. In comparison, students who majored in business reported that a higher level of spiritual development because of their first-year experience. These results are similar to findings from prior research that examined the relationship between academic programs and students religious commitment and values (Feldman & Newcomb, 1969; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). The current findings, however must be interpreted carefully

22 Spiritual Development 22 because first-year students generally to do not take courses in their major; it is possible that this phenomenon is descriptive of biology and business students predispositions regarding spirituality. Service learning was another curricular experience that related positively to spiritual development. Students who participated in a community project as part of a course reported that their institution contributed more towards their spiritual growth than their peers who did not participate in service learning. However, we do not know if the impact of service learning on spiritual outcomes varies depending on particular forms of service activities or encounters with different settings and people. Would a mission trip for students at religious institutions affect gains in spirituality to a similar degree as service learning? This finding reinforces many of the prior studies connecting spirituality and service learning (Astin, 2004; Eyler & Giles, 1999; Gonyea & Kuh, 2006; Kuh & Gonyea, 2005; Radecke, 2007). The relationship between service learning and spirituality may seem conceptually similar to the relationship between compulsory chapel attendance and spirituality. In both chapel and service learning, students experience an event that encourages self-reflection, challenges personal viewpoints, and raises awareness of humanity s needs. Unlike the required religious observance, service learning occurs at many kinds of institutions, both secular and religious. One classroom experience contributed positively to students spiritual growth. Students who included diverse perspectives in class discussions or writing assignments gained more spiritually than their peers who did not encounter different perspectives in class. Perhaps this is indirectly related to taking required courses in religion or theology because those courses present multiple worldviews and belief systems, thus confronting students with different values and perspectives than their own.

23 Spiritual Development 23 In contrast, however, this study found that having serious conversations with other students whose values and beliefs are different does not relate to gains in spirituality. We expected the personal, social encounters with students having different beliefs and values to have a similar result as the classroom encounter with difference. The results of this study may suggest that the impact of encounters with difference in and outside the classroom is unclear. Out-of-class experiences. Positive, supportive relationships with faculty, peers, and others on campus are important to student success in general. The same may be said of college students gains in spirituality. In this study, students who perceived the quality of their relationships with other students as being friendly and supportive were more likely to contribute their spiritual development to their college experience. First-year students who felt a sense of belonging within their social group were more likely to experience a deepened sense of spirituality. The frequency of engaging in some form of spiritual activities such as prayer, meditation, or worship relates positively and directly to gains in spiritual development during the first year of college. It is no surprise, then, that this experience would have the strongest effect of any student-level variable. This finding confirms the results of prior studies connecting religious service attendance with increased religiosity (Cherry et al., 2001; Lee, 2000; Lee, 2002) and gains in spirituality (Bryant, 2007; Bryant & Astin, 2008; Bryant et al., 2003; Kuh & Gonyea, 2005; Gonyea & Kuh, 2006). Two-thirds (68%) of all first-year students, regardless of whether they attend religious or secular institutions, who participate very often in spiritual activities also report that their college experience contributes quite a bit or very much to their spiritual development. In contrast, about the same percentage (62%) of all students who never participate

24 Spiritual Development 24 in activities to enhance their spirituality perceive that their institution contributes very little to their spirituality. In this study, students who attended denominational institutions reported a wide range of participation in prayer, meditation, and worship. Nearly three out of four first-year students at a group of selected Various Protestant and Nondenominational institutions and seven out of ten students at Baptist institutions pray, meditate, or worship often or very often. In contrast, one in three students at Lutheran and United Methodist institutions engages in these spiritual activities during their first year. This may be explained, in part, by looking at whether these institutions require mandatory attendance at religious events or worship services on campus. None of the 50 Lutheran and United Methodist institutions in the sample require students to attend campus religious services. The relationship between spiritual development and activities such as prayer, meditation, and worship is still unclear, and generates more questions. Do students engage in prayer, meditation and worship because they are already highly spiritual, or does their spirituality increase as a result of their praying, meditating, and worshiping? Similarly, do first-year students become more spiritual because their institution causes the change, or were they previously interested in spirituality and therefore enrolled at an institution where they knew they could continue the spiritual journey they had started prior to college? To be sure, colleges and universities that emphasize religion and participating in spirituality-enhancing practices almost certainly attract greater numbers of students who are predisposed to engaging in spiritualityenhancing practices (Gonyea & Kuh, 2006, p. 17). Do students who are predisposed to certain religious and spiritual values and outcomes choose to participate in religious activities, which then feed their spiritual growth? It appears that a mutually reinforcing relationship among growth

25 Spiritual Development 25 in spirituality, religious engagement, and predisposition to certain values and practices may be evident. We can confidently conclude that a positive relationship exists between spiritual activities and spiritual growth, however we cannot state with certainty the direction of this relationship. An interesting pattern emerged for several pairs of significant and nonsignificant variables. It appears that required activities and experiences make a greater impression on student development than similar optional activities and experiences. For example, the optional activity of performing community service or other volunteer work was not significantly related to spirituality in this study. However, when students enrolled in a class that required them to participate in a service learning project, this experience related to gains in spirituality. As a second example, many secular and religious institutions designate campus ministries or chaplains to provide religious and spiritual support for students, but this organizational feature was a slightly negative predictor. This may be due to the high number of public and nonaffiliated private institutions that provide a religious office or multi-faith center. Yet, when students were required to attend a campus religious service or take a class in religion or theology, these experiences associated significantly to spirituality. Third, findings from the study indicate that students who include different values and beliefs in class discussions and assignments also report gains in spirituality. However, student conversations outside the classroom with peers who hold different values and beliefs are not significantly associated with spirituality. It appears that some of the individual experiences conducive to spiritual development are also experiences that may be uncomfortable and first-year students prefer to avoid them. It may be that when students are placed into situations where they must engage in a conversation or take action to help someone in need, those are the occasions when students mature in their personal development. The

26 Spiritual Development 26 question remains: is it better to require that students participate in these first-year experiences or allow them to choose the activities they want? In this study, the level-1 (student) variables accounted for 81% of the differences in reported gains in spirituality during the first year. However, this study explained only 19% of the student-level influences on spiritual development. Perhaps one reason for this relatively low amount of level-1 variance explained is because the survey was not designed to measure college student spirituality. Rather, the survey is a broad-based assessment to capture students reports of their experiences and perceptions of college life regarding a wide range of academic and cocurricular areas. Implications The results of this study pose implications for research, practice, and policy. One of the implications for theory and research pertains to self reflection. Results of this study reinforce the research on spirituality among college students regarding the value of reflection activities in the academic and co-curricular experiences. This study found that service learning, attending campus religious services, and engaging in worshipful activities relates positively with spiritual gains, and these forms of student experiences involve some form of personal reflection. Current theories and empirical research on spiritual development point to the value of self-reflection (Astin, 2004; Astin et al., 2006; Bryant & Astin, 2008; Tisdell, 2003), yet we need to understand further why self-reflection is such an important exercise. Further, there are implications for the practice of higher education. The first report of the Spirituality Project explained that higher education represents a critical focal point for responding to the question of how we can balance the exterior and interior aspects of our lives more effectively (HERI, 2004, p. 2). If the critical years of undergraduate education,

27 Spiritual Development 27 particularly the first-year experience, are so important to helping students better understand themselves, then faculty and student affairs practitioners should be prepared to deal with the interior aspects of students lives. Professional development and other training opportunities for faculty and administrators would enable them to more effectively aid students regarding spiritual matters. Another practical implication of this study is that faculty and administrators might better appreciate the diversity and intensity of students religious and spiritual values. Students matriculate with a host of characteristics that ultimately shape their experiences in college. Although we often think of diversity in terms of race, gender, class, sexual orientation, and so forth, religious and spiritual traits have received less consideration (Bryant, 2006, p. 24). Bryant continues, explaining that the worldviews that students bring with them to college serve as the lenses they use to make sense of their encounters within the classroom and beyond it (p. 24). Results from this study show that students from different kinds of institutions have various perceptions of the impact of their first year of college on their spirituality, and these first-year students interpreted their experiences from many different perspectives. Religious institutions may benefit by re-evaluating their role in the spiritual development of their undergraduate students. The finding that one in three to one in four of all students attending religious institutions never participate in any activities to enhance their spirituality may be troubling to some educators and clergy. Likewise, half of all students at religious institutions express that their first-year experience contributed very little or some to their spirituality. One key may be the role of reflection in these programs is it an intentional component of the experience? Do students have repeated opportunities to reflect on their development as spiritual individuals? If denominational institutions desire to make a major impact on their students