Chapter 9: Intelligence and Psychological Testing

Transcription

1 KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages ) - Psychological tests are standardized measure of behaviour- usually mental abilities or aspects of personality. Test scores are interpreted by consulting test norms to find out what represents a high or low score. - As measuring devices, psychological tests should produce consistent results, a quality called reliability. Test-retest reliability is estimated by comparing subjectsʼ scores on two administrations of a test. Reliability estimates should yield fairly high positive correlations - validity refers to the degree to which there is evidence that a test measure what it was designed to measure. Content validity is crucial on classroom tests. Criterion-related validity is critical when tests are used to predict performance. Construct validity is critical when a test is designed to measure a hypothetical construct Key Concepts in Psychological Testing - psychological test - a standardized measure of a sample of personʼs behaviour. - used to measure the individual differences that exist among people in abilities, aptitudes, interests, and aspects of personality - a particular behaviour sample may not be representative of your characteristic behaviour Principal Types of Tests MENTAL ABILITY TESTS - broad class of tests including three principal subcategories: intelligence tests, aptitude tests, and achievement tests: - Intelligence tests - measure general mental ability - designed to measure potential rather than previous learning or accumulated knowledge - Aptitude tests - assess specific types of mental abilities - designed to measure potential more than knowledge - Achievement tests - gauge a personʼs mastery and knowledge of various subjects - like aptitude tests, have specific focus, but theyʼre supposed to measure previous learning instead of potential PERSONALITY TESTS - personality tests - measure various aspects of personality, including motives, interests, values, and attitudes - many psychologists prefer to call these tests personality scales Standardization and Norms - Both personality scales and tests of mental abilities are standardized measures of behaviour - standardization - the uniform procedures used in the administration and scoring of a test - the standardization of a testʼs scoring system includes the development of test norms - test norms - provide information about where a score on a psychological test ranks in

2 relation to other scores on the test - required because psychological tests tell you how you score relative to other people - Usually, test norms allow you to convert your raw score on a test into a percentile - percentile score - indicates the percentage of people who score at or below the score one has obtained - The sample of people that the norms are based on is called a testʼs standardization group - Even though Canadian and American societies are similar in many ways, there are also many important differences in culture, language, and educational systems that might be important considerations when evaluating an individualʼs performance on a test Reliability - Consistency in measurement is essential to accuracy in measurement - reliability - the measurement consistency of a test (or of other kinds of measurement techniques) - psychological tests are not perfectly reliable - test reliability can be estimated: - test-retest reliability - estimated by comparing subjectsʼ scores on two administrations of a test - Reliability estimates require the computation of correlation coefficients - correlation coefficient - a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables - in estimating test-retest reliability, the two variables that must be correlated are the two sets of c=scores from the two administrations of the test - reliability estimates should yield fairly high positive correlations Validity - Even if a test is quite reliable, we still need to be concerned about its validity - validity - the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure - the term validity is also used to refer to the accuracy or usefulness of the inferences or decisions based on a test - can be estimated in several ways, depending on the nature and purpose of a test CONTENT VALIDITY - content validity - the degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain its supposed to cover - evaluated with logic more than with statistics - crucial on classroom tests. CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY - Criterion related validity - estimated by correlating subjectsʼ scores on a test with their scores on an independent criterion (another measure) of the trait assessed by the test - critical when tests are used to predict performance

3 CONSTRUCT VALIDITY - In measuring abstract qualities, psychologists are concerned about construct validity - the extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular hypothetical construct - critical when a test is designed to measure a hypothetical construct - process of demonstrating construct validity usually requires a series of studies that examine the correlations between the test and various measures related to the trait in question KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages ) - The first crude efforts to devise intelligence tests were made by Sir Francis Galton, who wanted to show that intelligence is inherited. Galton is also known for inventing correlation and percentile test scores. - Modern intelligence testing began with the work of Alfred Binet, a French psychologist who published the first useful intelligence test in Binetʼs scale measured a childʼs mental age - Lewis Terman revised the original Binet scale to produce the Standford-Binet in It introduced the intelligence quotient and became the standard of comparison for subsequent intelligence tests - David Wechsler devised an improved measure of intelligence for adults and a series of IQ tests that reduced the emphasis on verbal ability. He also introduced a new scoring system based on the normal distribution - Today, there are many individual and group intelligence tests, An individual IQ test is administered to a single examinee by a psychologist who has special training for this purpose. Group IQ tests can be administered to many people simultaneously. The Evolution of Intelligence Testing Galtonʼs Studies of Hereditary Genius - To better demonstrate that intelligence is governed by heredity (better than family trees), Galton needed an objective measure of intelligence - Made the first crude efforts to devise intelligence tests - wanted to show that intelligence is inherited - he is also known for coining the phrase nature vs. nurture and for inventing correlation and percentile test scores. - although his mental tests were a failure, his work created an interest in the measurement of mental ability, setting the stage for the subsequent breakthrough by Alfred Binet Binetʼs Breakthrough - Modern intelligence testing began with the work of Alfred Binet who published the first useful intelligence test in Had the insight to load it with items that required abstract reasoning skills, rather than the sensory skills Galton had measured - Binetʼs scale measured a childʼs mental age - mental age - indicated that he or she displayed the mental ability typical of a child of that chronological (Actual) age

4 - other psychologists continue to build on his work Terman and Standford-Binet - Lewis Terman revised the original Binet scale to produce the Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale in was quite loyal to Binetʼs original conceptions but incorporated a new scoring scheme based on intelligence quotient (IQ) - a childʼs mental age divided by chronological ages multiplied by IQ made it possible to compare children of different ages - IQ ratio placed all children on the same scale which was centred at 100 if their mental age corresponded to their chronological age Wechslerʼs Innovations - David Wechsler devised an improved measure of intelligence for adults - published the first high-quality IQ test designed specifically for adults known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) - The Wechsler scales were characterized by at least two major innovations: - made his scales less dependent on subjectsʼ verbal ability than the Stanford-Binet - formalized the computation of separate scores for verbal IQ, performance (nonverbal) IQ, and full-scale (total) IQ - discarded the intelligence quotient in favour of a new scoring scheme based on the normal distribution Intelligence Testing Today - Today, there are many individual and group intelligence tests. - An individual IQ test is administered to a single examinee by a psychologist who has special training for this purpose - ex: Stanford-Binet & Wechsler scales - expensive and time consuming to administer - Group IQ tests can be administered to many people simultaneously. - ex: Otis-Lennon School Ability Test & Cognitive Abilities Test KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages ) - Intelligence tests contain a diverse mixture of questions. In the modern scoring system, deviation IQ scores indicate where people fall in the normal distribution of intelligence for their age group. On most tests, the mean is set at 100 and the standard deviation is set at 15 - Although they are intended to measure potential for learning, IQ tests inevitably assess a blend of potential and knowledge. IQ tests are exceptionally reliable, with reliability coefficients typically ranging into the IQ tests are reasonably valid measures of academic intelligence in that they predict school grades and the number of years of school that people complete. However, they do not tap social or practical intelligence, and they do not measure intelligence in a truly general sense - IQ scores are correlated with occupational attainment. However, there is active debate about whether they predict performance within an occupation very well.

5 - Intelligence testing is largely a Western enterprise and IQ tests are not widely used in most non-western cultures. One reason is that different cultures have different conceptions of intelligence. Basic Questions about Intelligence Testing What Kinds of Questions Are on Intelligence Test? - Intelligence tests contain a diverse mixture of questions - dependant on many factors such as if it is intended for children or adults (or both) and whether the test is designed for individuals or groups What Do Modern IQ Scores Mean? - scores on intelligence tests used to represent a ratio of mental age to chronological age - Now, based on the normal distribution and the standard deviation - normal distribution - a symmetric, bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many characteristics are dispersed in the population - Psychologists recognized that intelligence scores fall into a normal distribution - Raw scores are translated into deviation IQ scores - locate subjects precisely within the normal distribution, using the standard deviation as the unit of measurement - On most tests, the mean is set at 100 and the standard deviation is set at 15 - Deviation IQ scores can be converted into percentile scores Do Intelligence Tests Measure Potential or Knowledge? - Although they are intended to measure potential for learning, IQ tests inevitably assess a blend of potential and knowledge (due to peopleʼs different backgrounds) - test developers try to circumvent this problem by requiring subjects to apply relatively common knowledge Do Intelligence Test Have Adequate Reliability? - IQ tests are exceptionally reliable, with reliability coefficients typically ranging into the 0.90s - Low motivation or high anxiety may drag a personʼs score down on a particular occasion Do Intelligence Tests Have Adequate Validity? - IQ tests are valid measures of the kind of intelligence thatʼs necessary to do well in academic work - however, if the purpose is to asses intelligence in a broader sense, validity of IQ tests is questionable - IQ tests are reasonably valid measures of academic intelligence in that they predict school grades and the number of years of school that people complete. - however, the meaning of this is complicated by the fact that the casual links between IQ and schooling are bidirectional - IQ tests do not tap social competence, practical problem solving, creativity, mechanical ingenuity, or artistic talent

6 - Robert Sternberg - found that people generally recognize three components of intelligence: - (1) verbal intelligence - speaks clearly and articulately - is verbally fluent - is knowledgeable about a particular field - reads with high comprehension - (2) practical intelligence - Sees all aspects of a problem - Sizes up situations well - Makes good decisions - Poses problems in an optional way - (3) social intelligence - Accepts others for what they are - has social conscience - Thinks before speaking and doing - Is sensitive to other peopleʼs needs and desires - Although IQ tests are billed as measures of general mental ability, they actually focus somewhat narrowly on a specific type of intelligence: academic/verbal intelligence Do Intelligence Tests Predict Vocational Success? - IQ scores are correlated with occupational attainment - People who score high on IQ tests are more likely than those who score low to end up in high-status jobs - However, there is active debate about whether they predict performance within an occupation very well - employers are increasingly turning to personality tests to select employees and psychologists are also trying to develop test of practical intelligence to aid employers in their hiring decisions Are IQ Tests Widely Used in Other Cultures? - Intelligence testing is largely a Western enterprise and IQ tests are not widely used in most non-western cultures - western IQ tests do not translate well into the language and cognitive frameworks of many non-western cultures - different cultures have different conceptions of intelligence and value different mental skills KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages ) - IQ scores below are usually diagnostic of mental retardation, but these diagnoses should not be based solely on test results as adaptive behaviour should also be evaluated carefully. Four levels of retardation have been distinguished. The vast majority of retarded people are mildly retarded - Although over 350 biological conditions can cause retardation, biological causes can be pinpointed in only a minority of cases. Research suggests that cases of unknown origin are mostly caused by unfavourable environmental factors, such as poverty, neglect, and poor nutrition. - Children who obtain IQ scores above 130 may be viewed as gifted, but cut-offs for accelerated programs vary, and schools rely too much on IQ scores. Research by Terman showed that gifted children tend to be socially mature and well adjusted.

7 However, Winner has expressed some concerns about the adjustment of profoundly gifted individuals. - gifted youngsters typically go on to be very successful in life. However, most do not make genius-level contributions because these depend on a combination of high intelligence, creativity, and motivation. Research suggests that intensive training and hard work are crucial to achieving eminence, but many theorists are reluctant to dismiss the importance of innate talent. Extremes of Intelligence Mental Retardation - mental retardation - subaverage general mental ability accompanied by deficiencies in adaptive skills, originating before age 18 - adaptive skills consist of everyday living skills in ten domains including communication, self-care, home living, social interaction, community use, and health/ safety - The IQ criterion of subnormality is arbitrary - right now AAMR set a flexible cut-off line which is an IQ score of or below - requirement of deficits in everyday living skills is included because experts feel that retardation should not be determined solely on the basis of individualsʼ test ability - subjective assessment since no objective methods of measuring everyday living skills LEVELS OF RETARDATION - Metal retardation has traditionally been classified into four levels characterized as mild, moderate, severe, or profound. - Vast majority of retarded people are mildly retarded ORIGINS OF RETARDATION - Although over 350 biological conditions can cause retardation, biological causes can be pinpointed in fewer than 25% of cases. - increasing as scientists unravel more of the genetic bases for various kinds of disorders - Research suggests that cases of unknown origin are most likely caused by unfavourable environmental factors, such as poverty, neglect, and poor nutrition Giftedness IDENTIFYING GIFTED CHILDREN - Children who obtain IQ scores above 130 may be viewed as gifted, but cut-offs for accelerated programs vary, and schools rely too much on IQ scores and not enough on qualities such as creativity, leadership, or special talent PERSONAL QUALITIES OF THE GIFTED - Research by Terman showed that gifted children tend to be socially mature and well adjusted - in comparison to normal children, gifted children were found to be above average in height, weight, strength, physical health, emotional adjustment, mental health, and social maturity

8 - However, Winner has expressed some concerns about the adjustment of profoundly gifted individuals - she asserts that profoundly gifted children are often introverted and socially isolated - Therefore, the psychosocial adjustment of gifted individuals may depend in part on their level of giftedness GIFTEDNESS AND ACHIEVEMENT IN LIFE - Gifted youngsters (in Termanʼs sample for example) typically go on to be very successful in life - However, most do not make genius-level contributions - There are two very different groups that the concept of giftedness is applied to: - high-iq children - eminent adults who make enduring contributions in their fields --> accomplishments involve a much higher level of giftedness --> theorized that this rarer form depends on the intersection of high intelligence, high creativity and high motivation - Even in school itself, not all gifted children succeed - specific subgroups of gifted children exist, including one they refer to as the hidden gifted - gifted children who for a variety of reasons may not be properly identified as gifted as they are under performing academically - Research suggests that intensive training and hard work are crucial to achieving eminence, but many theorists are reluctant to dismiss the importance of innate talent. KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages ) - The debate about the influence of heredity and environment on intelligence has important socio-political implications. Twin studies show that identical twins even raised apart, are more similar in IQ than fraternal twins, suggesting that intelligence is inherited. Adoption studies reveal that people resemble their parents in intelligence even when not raised by them. Estimates of the heritability of intelligence mostly range from 50% to 70%, but heritability ratios have certain limitations - Many lines of evidence, including adoption studies, studies of environmental deprivation and enrichment, home-environment studies, and research on the Flynn effect indicate that environment is also an important determinant of intelligence. The concept of reaction range posits that heredity places limits on oneʼs intellectual potential while the environment determines where one falls within these limits. - Arthur Jensen in the United States and J. Philipe Rushton in Canada sparked great controversy by arguing that cultural differences in average IQ are largely due to heredity. Although the authors of The Bell Curve tried to side step the issue, their book ignited the same controversy - Genetic explanations for cultural differences in IQ have been challenged on a variety of grounds. Even if the heritability of IQ is great, group differences in average intelligence may not be de to heredity. Moreover, ethnicity varies with social class, so socio-economic disadvantage may account for low IQ scores among minority students. - Claude Steele has collected some thought-provoking data suggesting that stereotype vulnerability contributes to the culture gap in average IQ. Cultural bias on IQ tests may

9 also contribute a little to ethnic differences in IQ, but it does not appear to be a crucial factor. Heredity and Environment as Determinants of Intelligence - It has become clear that both heredity and environment influence intelligence however, theorists and researchers continue to argue about which is more important, in part because the issue has such far-reaching sociopolical implications Evidence for Hereditary Influences - family studies can determine only whether genetic influence on a trait is plausible, not whether it is certain - family members share not just genes, but similar environments TWIN STUDIES - The rationale for twin studies is that both identical and fraternal twins normally develop under similar environmental conditions however, identical twins share more genetic kinship than fraternal twins - the average correlation reported reported for identical twins is very high, indicating that identical twins tend to be quite similar in intelligence and the average correlation for fraternal twins is significantly lower indicating that fraternal twins also tend to be similar in intelligence but noticeably less so than identical twins - support notion that IQ is inherited to a considerable degree - identical twins even raised apart, are more similar in IQ than fraternal twins, suggesting that intelligence is inherited - the gap in IQ similarly between identical twins reared apart and fraternal twins reared together appears to widen in middle and late adulthood, suggesting paradoxically that the influence of heredity increases with age ADOPTION STUDIES - Adoption studies reveal that people resemble their parents in intelligence even when not raised by them. HERITABILITY ESTIMATES - heritability ratio - an estimate of the proportion of trait variability in a population that is determined by variations in genetic inheritance - heritability estimates for intelligence vary considerably - Estimates of the heritability of intelligence mostly range from 50% to 70%, but heritability ratios have certain limitations - a heritability estimate is a group statistic based on studies of trait variability within a specific group - a heritability estimate cannot be applied meaningfully to individuals - the heritability of a specific trait may vary from one group to another depending on a variety of factors Evidence for Environmental Influence ADOPTION STUDIES

10 - Adopted children show some resemblance to their adoptive parents in IQ - usually attributed to the fact that their adoptive parents shape their environment - adoption studies also indicate that siblings reared together are more similar in IQ than siblings apart (true even for identical twins, who have the same genetic endowment) - entirely unrelated children who are raised in the same home also show significant resemblance in IQ ENVIRONMENTAL DEPRIVATION AND ENRICHMENT - If environment affects intelligence, children who are raised in substandard circumstances should experience a gradual decline in IQ as they grow older - cumulative deprivation hypothesis - investigators did find that environment deprivation led to the predicted erosion in IQ scores - children who are removed from a deprived environment and placed in circumstances more conducive to learning - IQs of these children tend to increase noticeably HOME ENVIRONMENT AND SCHOOLING EFFECT - researchers have found that quality of home environments correlate with youngstersʼ IQ scores - researchers have also found that school attendance has a positive impact on measured IQ GENERATIONAL CHANGES: THE FLYNN EFFECT - performance on IQ tests has steadily increased over generations - James Flynn noticed that the level of performance required to earn a score of 100 jumped upward every time the tests were renormed - gathered extensive data from 20 nations and demonstrated that IQ performance has been rising steadily all over the industrialized world since the 1930s - This trend have been dubbed the Flynn effect - attributed to environmental factors, as the modern worldʼs gene pool could not have changed overnight - the proposed explanations for the Flynn effect are conjectural The Interaction of Heredity and Environment - current thinking is that heredity may set certain limits on intelligence and that environmental factors determine where individuals fall within these limits - genetic makeup places and upper limit on a personʼs IQ that canʼt be exceeded even when environment is ideal - heredity is also thought to place a lower limit on an individual's IQ - reaction range - these genetically determined limits on IQ (or other traits) - The reaction range for most people is estimated to be around points on the IQ scale - There is no readily apparent way to measure the range, which makes it difficult to test the reaction-range model empirically

11 Cultural Differences in IQ Scores - Although the full range of IQ scores is seen in all ethnic groups, the average IQ for many of the larger minority groups in the U.S is somewhat lower than the average for whites - disparity ranges from 3-15 points depending on group - controversy concerns why the differences are found HERITABILITY AS AN EXPLANATION - Arthur Jensen in the United States sparked great controversy by arguing that cultural differences in average IQ are largely due to heredity - asserted that intelligence is largely genetic in origin, and therefore, genetic factors are strongly implicated as the cause of ethnic differences in intelligence - Although the authors of The Bell Curve tried to side step the issue, their book ignited the same controversy - their main thesis is that in recent decades intellectually ability (believed to be largely inherited), has become the primary determinant of individualsʼ success in life - J. Philipe Rushton in Canada also created a great deal of controversy with his views concerning race and intelligence - argued that the nature perspective that the races could be ranked in terms of inherited intelligence, social behaviour and physical attributes - Flaws and weakness in heritability explanations for ethnic differences in IQ - estimates for intelligence have been based on studies dominated almost entirely by white subjects - even if one accepts the assumption that heritability of IQ is very high, it does not follow logically that differences in group averages must be due largely to heredity --> differences in the average IQ of various human populations could be entirely due to environmental differences, even if within each population all variations were due to genetic differences SOCIOECONOMIC DISADVANTAGE AS AN EXPLANATION - Ethnicity varies with social class, so socio-economic disadvantage may account for low IQ scores among minority students - average IQ scores among children from lower social classes tend to run about 15 points below the average scores obtained by children from middle and upper class homes RACIAL STEREOTYPE VULNERABILITY AS AN EXPLANATION - Claude Steele argues that derogatory stereotypes of stigmatized groupsʼ intellectual capabilities create unique feelings of vulnerability in the educational arena - these feelings of stereotype vulnerability can undermine group membersʼ performance on tests, as well as other measures of academic achievement - maintains that stigmatized groupsʼ apprehension about confirming peopleʼs negative stereotypes can contribute to academic underachievement in atleast two ways - can undermine their emotional investment in academic work - standardized tests such as IQ tests may be especially anxiety arousing for members

12 of stigmatized groups because the importance attributed to the test makes oneʼs stereotype vulnerability particularly salient CULTURAL BIAS ON IQ TESTS AS AN EXPLANATION - critics argue that because IQ tests are constructed by white, middle-class psychologists, they naturally draw on experience and knowledge typical of white, middle-class lifestyles and use language and vocabulary that reflect the white, middleclass origins of their developers - however balance of evidence suggests that the cultural slant on IQ tests is modest to negligible - AS a whole, the accumulated evidence suggests that cultural bias produces only weak and inconsistent effects on the IQ scores of minority examinees KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages ) - Modern intelligence tests place a greater emphasis on the measurement of specific mental abilities and less emphasis on tapping Spearmanʼs g than their predecessors. The distinction between fluid and crystallized intelligence is the basis for the most recent revision of the Standford-Binet IQ test. - Although reaction-time indexes of intelligence are being explored, they seem to have little practical utility. Measures of inspection time may prove more useful, although additional research is needed. - Research on intelligence increasingly uses a cognitive perspective, which emphasizes the need to understand how people use their intelligence. Many modern theorists, such as Robert Sternberg and Howard Gardner, argue that the concept of intelligence should be expanded to encompass a greater variety of skills. Researchers have made some progress in their efforts to measure emotional intelligence. New Directions in the Assessment and Study of Intelligence Increasing Emphasis on Specific Abilities - recent years have brought an increased emphasis on the measurement of specific mental abilities as opposed to general mental ability - Intelligence testing grew out of a particular theoretical climate in the first few decades of the last century when Spearmanʼs ideas about the structure of intellect were dominant - developed an advanced statistical procedure called factor analysis - correlations among many variables are analysed to identify closely related clusters of variables - used factor analysis to examine the correlations among tests of many specific mental abilities and concluded that all cognitive abilities share and important core factor which he labelled g for general mental ability s - intelligence involves multiple abilities -found that he could carve intelligence into several distinct factors - Later - suggest that g should be divided into fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence - fluid intelligence - involves reasoning ability, memory capacity, and speed of information processing - crystallized intelligence - involves ability to apply acquired knowledge and skills in

13 problem solving - the basis for the most recent revision of the Standford-Binet IQ test. Exploring Biological Indexes of Intelligence - biologically oriented theorists such as Jensen and Eysenck have attempted to find raw physiological indicators of general intelligence - has led them to focus on the sensory processes - Jensen measures reaction time (RT) - his findings suggest an association between raw mental speed and intelligence - not all that surprising since many conventional IQ tests have imposed demanding time limits on examinees, working under the assumption that fast is smart however the correlation between RT and IQ appears to be too weak to give RT any practical value as an index of intelligence - Measures of inspection time assess how long it takes participants to make simple perceptual discriminations that meet a certain criterion of accuracy - may prove more useful, although additional research is needed Investigating Cognitive Processes in Intelligent Behaviour - Research on intelligence increasingly uses a cognitive perspective, which emphasizes the need to understand how people use their intelligence - testing perspective - emphasizes measuring the amount of intelligence people have and figuring out why some have more than others - cognitive perspective - focuses on how people use their intelligence - cognitive psychologists focus on the information-processing strategies that underlie intelligence - Robert Sternberg - triarchic theory of human intelligence - three parts - contextual subtheory - argues that intelligence is a culturally defined concept - different manifestations of intelligence behaviour are valued in different contexts - experiential subtheory - emphasizes the ability to deal effectively with novelty (new tasks, demands, and situations) and the ability to learn how to handle familiar tasks automatically and effortlessly - componential subtheory - describes three types of mental processes that intelligent through depends on: meta-components, performance components, and knowledge acquisition components - Cognitive research has shown that more-intelligent subjects spend more time figuring out how to best represent problems and planning how to solve them - argue that traditional IQ tests place too much emphasis on speed - Sternberg has asserted that there are three aspects or facets of what he calls successful intelligence : - analytical intelligence - involves abstract reasoning, evaluation, and judgement - creative intelligence - involves the ability to generate new ideas and to be inventive in dealing with novel problems - practical intelligence - involves the ability to deal effectively with the kinds of problems that people encounter in everyday life

14 - Data gathered suggesting that all three facets of intelligence can be measured reliably, are all relatively independent and assessment of them all can improve the prediction of intelligent behaviour in the real world Expanding the Concept of Intelligence - Many modern theorists, such as Robert Sternberg and Howard Gardner, argue that the concept of intelligence should be expanded to encompass a greater variety of skills. - Gardner suggests the existence of a number of relatively autonomous human intelligences - concluded that humans exhibit eight intelligences: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist - For the most part, he has found that people tend to display a mixture of strong, intermediate, and weak abilities, which is consistent with the idea that the various types of intelligence are independent - Some argue that his use of the term intelligence is so broad, encompassing virtually any valued human ability - also that his theory has not generated much research on the predictive value of measuring individual differences in the eight intelligences he has described Measuring Emotional Intelligence - A variety of theorists have argues that the measurement of emotional intelligence can enhance the prediction of success t school, at work, and in interpersonal relationships - emotional intelligence - consists of the ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion and regulate emotion - Emotional intelligence includes four essential components - people need to be able to accurately perceive emotions in themselves and other and have the ability to express their own emotions effectively - people need to be aware of how their emotions shape their thinking, decision making, and coping with stress - people need to be able to understand and analyse their emotions, which may often be complex and contradictory - people need to be able to regulate their emotions so that they can dampen negative emotions and make effective use of positive emotions - The test that has the strongest empirical foundation is the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) - Skeptics have questioned whether sophistication about emotion should be viewed as a form of intelligence, and they have correctly pointed out that a great deal of additional research will be needed to full validate the MEIS and to fully document the adaptive significance of emotional intelligence