Learning Needs in the Multicultural Classroom: Implications to Equitable Teaching Gracel Ann S. Saban

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1 CATALYST Asia-Pacific International University JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE FOR INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES Volume 8 Number 1 December Editorial - Wann Fanwar Learning Needs in the Multicultural Classroom: Implications to Equitable Teaching Gracel Ann S. Saban Experiences in Adventist Colleges/Universities: An International Alumni Perspective Jimmy Kijai, Vinita Sauder and Robert Weaver Effect of Performance-Based Rewards on the Performance of Teachers in Selected Private Secondary Schools in Uganda Leonard Richard Mghweno, Mark Obboko and Stella Adongo Primary and Lower Secondary School Teachers Attitudes toward English Language Learning: A Case Study of Teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang Districts, Saraburi Province Nakhon Kitjaroonchai Internal Quality Assurance of Private Higher Education Institutions in Thailand: A Comparison of Quality Assessment Result in 2012 Damrong Sattayawaksakul, Wanlee Putsom and Narumon Keawduang Nine Lessons from the Preaching Ministry of Jesus Derek J. Morris Jesus Methods of Dealing with Accusations Nola Tudu Student Evaluation of Teaching Effectiveness: Does Faculty Profile Really Matter? Andrea B. Pama, Levinia B. Dulla and Richard C. De Leon Book Review Gerard Bernard Book Review Miguel Luna

2 CATALYST, Journal of the Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies, Asia-Pacific International University ISSN Editor Wann M Fanwar, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand Editorial Review Board Samuel Gaikwad, Associate Dean, Graduate School, Adventist International Institute for Advanced Studies, Philippines Clifford Jones, Associate Dean, SDA Theological Seminary, Andrews University, USA Chayada Thanavisuth, Dean, Faculty of Arts, Assumption University, Thailand Siroj Sorajjakool, Professor, Theological Studies, Loma Linda University, USA Kai Arasola, Professor, Religious Education, Lönnrot University, Finland Daniel Bedianko, Dean, School of Graduate Studies, Valley View University, Ghana Beulah Manuel, Professor of English, Washington Adventist University, USA Loren Agrey, President, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand Oktavian Mantiri, Director, Graduate Studies Program, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand Ritha Lampadan, Dean, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand Pak Lee, Professor, Accounting and Finance, Adventist International Institute for Advanced Studies, Philippines Publication Board Wann M Fanwar, Wayne Hamra, Ronny Kontour, Sang-Hoon Jee, Wanlee Putsom, Ritha Lampadan, Nola Tudu, Nguyen Thi Phuong Linh, Martin Bredenkamp, Petcharat Watanapinyo, May Su Thwe Mang Copy Editor Nola Tudu Layout May Su Thwe Mang 1

3 Editorial Statement CATALYST is the flagship journal of Asia-Pacific International University (AIU). It is an inter-disciplinary, peer-reviewed journal published by AIU s Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies through its publishing arm, Institute Press. The journal is published online with a limited number of hard copies available. Scope of CATALYST As an interdisciplinary journal, CATALYST brings together articles in several areas of the social sciences such as religion, education, arts and humanities and business. Objectives of CATALYST 1. To facilitate scholarly activity among the faculty of AIU 2. To engender scholarly exchanges with other universities within Thailand and with visiting lecturers, pastors and teachers from other parts of the world 3. To encompass scholarly as well as professional articles, seminar/forum papers, research papers and book reviews Publishing Schedule CATALYST is published annually by Institute Press during the month of December. Indexing EBSCO and CAR Submissions Procedure 1. Manuscripts should be in MS Word format and should relate to one of the relevant disciplines. 2. Manuscripts should adhere to the Catalyst Publishing Guidelines (refer to Catalyst Publishing Guidelines on the webpage). 3. Manuscripts may be submitted in one of the following ways: a. Via attachment to either fanwar@apiu.edu or relsec@apiu.edu; b. Online, through the Catalyst webpage (follow instructions on the webpage). 4. Manuscripts should be submitted by the 30 th of September. Current and Past Issues Volume 8 December 2013 Volume 7 December 2012 Volume 6 December 2011 Volume 5 December 2010 Volume 4 November 2009 Volume 3 November 2008 Volume 2 November 2007 Volume 1 November 2006 Contact information Wann M Fanwar fanwar@apiu.edu Tel: ext 1505 May Su Thwe Mang relsec@apiu.edu Tel: ext 1504 All opinions, errors, omissions and such expressed in Catalyst are the responsibility of the authours. Institute Press, Asia-Pacific International University,

4 Editorial Wann Fanwar [The following editorial is an excerpt of a paper presented at the 1 st International Scholars Conference held at Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand, on 3-4 October 2013.] Time and Eternity: Dual Classrooms Qohelet 3:1-15 is the most widely recognised passage of the entire book we know as Ecclesiastes in English. The book itself plays a major liturgical role in Judaism, is listed by some Hebrew traditions as belonging to Megillot (the five scrolls) and is read during the Sabbath of Sukkot, the feast of Tabernacles (LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, 1996). Its role among Christians is much more nebulous almost to the point of neglect. Even Theodore of Mopsuestia (AD ), the influential exegete of the Antioch school, questioned the canonical standing of Qohelet (Ibid.). Arguably, among Christians, Qoh 3:1-15 (especially the first eight verses) is well-known (Loader, 1986) and functions as the crux passage of the book. Qoh 3:1-15 constitutes a single unit with a continuous train of thought (Fox, 1999, p. 193). It is bound by several repetitions of certain words like (`et, time ). The unit is divided into two sub-units, 3:1-9 and 3: The first sub-unit was popularised in the 1960 s in the form of a pop hit song entitled Turn, Turn, Turn. Qoh 3:1-9 is structured in a unique way. The pericope is framed by vv. 1 and 9 which sandwich seven pairs of poetic antithetical lines (vv.2-8) exhibiting a specific structural pattern. The first verse provides a general introduction to the subsequent lines (vv.2-8), while verse 9 serves as a bridge to the second sub-unit (vv.10-15). Loader (1986) refers to this unit as one of the most ingenious passages in the Hebrew Bible (HB) and asserts that its appeal lies in the beauty of its perfect symmetry and the precise balance of its pronouncements (p. 33). It is the verses within the envelope (vv.2-8) that have attracted the most attention. Verse 1 reads: There is an occasion for everything, and a time for every activity under heaven (HCSB). When examining various translations (see below), the complexity of v.1 begins to emerge: For everything there is a season, and a time for every matter under heaven (ESV) For everything there is an appointed time, and an appropriate time for every activity on earth (NET Bible) A season is set for everything, a time for every experience under heaven (JPS) There is a time for everything, and a season for every activity under heaven (NIV) Everything has a season, and a time for every matter under the heavens (Alter, 2010) For everything there is a season, a time for every matter under the heavens (Fox, 1999) For everything there is a moment, and there is a time for every affair under the heavens (Murphy, 1992) The verse follows an ABB A chiastic structure which reads: lakkol zeman v`et lekhol khefets. Literally rendered, for everything (A) a season (B) and a time (B ) for every activity (A ). The noun `et has a similar semantic range as the English word time. However, the noun zeman, while a synonym of `et, refers more to time that is appointed for something (Neh 2:6; Esth 9:27, 31; see Fox, 1999). The chiastic parallelism utilised here implies that time is something ordained by someone, God perhaps, and that time is cyclical, as are the experiences of life. The events listed in the subsequent verses are more typical than specific (Fox, 1999). Consequently, Qohelet s usage should be viewed not as something prescriptive but rather descriptive (Loader, 1986). The apparent fatalism expressed in this text could only be true if the second sub-unit is not factored in (see below). The structure of verses 2-8 reveals a pendulum movement that climaxes in a simple chiasm. Each pair of statements contains depictions of things that are negative (N) and positive (P). The negative statements include events that are unpleasant or destructive, while positive statements represent the opposite (Fox, 1999). The pairing of statements reflects neither complementarity nor the presence of merisms (Ibid.). The pairings do however indicate a polarity which implies a totality of life. When these statements are analysed, the following pattern emerges (see Fox, 1999; Murphy, 1992; Loader, 1986). The first pair is made up of P N//P N statements (v.2). This is followed by two pairs of N P//N P and N P//N P (vv.3-4). Next comes two pairs of P N//P N and P N//P N (vv.5-6), followed by a pair of N P//N P (v.7). The final pair is a simple, climactic chiasm P 3

5 N N P (v.8). The following enumeration sets out these relationships. 3:2 P N (being born-dying) // P N (planting-uprooting) 3:3 N P (killing-healing) // N P (tearing down-building up) 3:4 N P (weeping-laughing) // N P (mourning-dancing) 3:5 P N (casting-gathering stones) // P N (embracing-shunning embrace) 3:6 P N (seeking-losing) // P N (keeping-discarding) 3:7 N P (tearing-sewing) // N P (keeping silent-speaking) 3:8 P N (loving-hating) // N P (war-peace) Qohelet is not saying that these events, opaque as some of them are, must happen or that we should expect them to. Nevertheless, he is saying that this is how life essentially works; life is a tapestry of positives and negatives. The ever-changing kaleidoscope we call life comprises of joy and mourning, life and death, peace and war and so on and so forth; things unasked and without our control as well as things unhelpful or chosen (Davidson, 1986, p. 22). The positive-negative pairing teaches that everything in life, even unfortunate and destructive deeds and events, have their right times (Fox, 1999, p. 194). As Loader (1986) puts it, there is a specific occasion for everything that happens. When the occasion arrives, the event that fits it occurs... Whatever happens happens, and there is nothing you can do about it (p. 35). These things happen to us, yet this is not mere determinism as these things are under divine control and, therefore, are God s times instead of ours (Murphy, 1992). This is not so much a portrayal of the inevitability of life but rather its reality. This mixture of positives and negatives is what each of us will encounter in life. This poem is a statement of the divine determination of all that occurs (Fox, 1999, p. 197). After confronting such inescapable reality, Qohelet is left with an exasperated rhetorical question: What does the worker gain from his struggles? (v.9; HCSB). This question is the climax of Qohelet s Catalogue of Times (Fox, 1999). The contradictory events of human life, both good and bad, are beyond man s control (Alter, 2010, p. 355). This question is essentially a judgement on human activity, for humans are locked into a world of events that they cannot shape (Murphy, 1992). To every person, life is no more than serving time. There is a certain despondency regarding life that leaves the thinking person burdened by inevitability. The very thing that should serve humanity becomes a tyrant that no one can escape. Time runs its own course and people are quite helpless to do much about it and no amount of effort can change the time that God has determined (Murphy, 1992, p. 34). This is the first classroom that Qohelet entered where he learned about the gloom and doom of human existence. However, Qohelet is not yet done for he continues his discourse by entering a different classroom. While he has struggled in the classroom of time (3:1-9), with all of its trappings and implications, in 3:10 he enters another, a classroom of eternity. In this new classroom, Qohelet admits that there is something else to learn. He begins to fathom the reasons behind the litany of times and its discomforting message. The veil is lifted, allowing Qohelet to discover the hand of God behind the apparent paradoxes of life. The second sub-unit in this passage also exhibits a noteworthy pattern. The centre piece (vv.12-13) addresses the value of the joy of life and is enclosed by two sections dealing with the inscrutability of God s work (vv and 14-15; see Loader, 1986). In v.10, Qohelet speaks of what he sees (the Hebrew verb ra ah is used here; cf. 3:16; 4:1, 4, 7; 6:11; 7:15; 8:10; 9:11, 13), while in verses 12 and 14 he says, I know (the Hebrew verb yada` is utilised). Qohelet experiences a paradigm shift by what he sees and knows. The repetition of yd` with its connotations of learning and understanding evidently points to the new lessons that Qohelet is compelled to embrace (Murphy, 1992). The first lesson concerns the control that God exercises over human existence. Such control involves what God assigns for people to do (v.10), the appropriateness of God s actions (v.11a) and the fact that God will always remain a mystery (v.11b). Qohelet admits, I have seen the task that God has given people to keep them occupied (v.10; HCSB). Our lives are ordained by God and it is he who determines what we become. On our own, life would be no more than hebel habelim ( nothing of nothings ). Further, God has made everything appropriate in its time (v.11a; HCSB). God continues to make things at all times ; he makes the day of good fortune and the day of bad fortune (7:14) (Fox, 1999). He has also put eternity in their hearts (v.11b; HCSB). 4

6 There is no consensus on the second sentence among scholars because of differing opinions concerning the use of the Hebrew word (`olam). The word `olam normally means eternity (cf. 1:4; 2:16; 3:14; 9:6; 12:5) and in this verse it is the antonym of time. However, it has been suggested that in this verse the word should be emended to `elem to mean ignorance or darkness (see discussion by Fox, 1999; cp. Davidson, 1986). It has also been suggested that `olam here means duration (cf. Gen 9:16; Exod 21:6; Ps 61:7) rather than eternity (see discussion by Murphy, 1992). It seems best to retain the nuance of eternity as Qohelet is attempting to contrast two different temporal realities: time and eternity (see Davidson, 1986; Alter, 2010). This view of time and eternity allows Qohelet to share two more new things he has learnt. In v.12, using the emphatic sense of I know, he tells his readers that the best thing about life is simply to enjoy it because it is a gift from God (v.13). It may be said that there is only one possible lifestyle: making the best of the prevailing circumstances (Loader, 1986, p. 40). Qohelet urges us to enjoy the pleasures of life here and now, but he is perfectly aware it is a matter of luck, or God s unfathomable determination, whether we are given the time and means to enjoy the good things of life (Alter, 2010). Despite the pervading presence of hebel habelim in life, such darkness is not the only reality since there is another realm of reality. Time is one classroom, but eternity offers another. Qohelet also knows that while time and its contents are fleeting, eternity, the abode of God, is non-fleeting. Finally, Qohelet learns that whatever God does lasts forever (v.14a), there is nothing that can be added or subtracted from his work (v.14b), and man s primary task is to stand in awe of God (v.14c; cf. Deut 4:2; see Tidball, 1989). God is in complete control of time and life (Alter, 2010). We can neither add a favourable event or subtract an unfavourable one from God s determinations (Loader, 1986); he is the divine guarantor of the secure life (Eaton, 1983). To punctuate the thought, Qohelet winds up this unit with another enigmatic statement: Whatever is, has already been, and whatever will be, already is. God repeats what has passed (v.15; HCSB). Despite the difficulty of interpreting this final verse, the gist appears to be that God is in control both in time and eternity (cf. Fox, 1999); nothing escapes the dominion of God, who has everything within the divine purview (Murphy, 1992). In the classroom of time, Qohelet has learned about human privilege (vv.12-13), while in the classroom of eternity he has faced the purpose of God (vv.14-15), bringing full circle the pessimism encountered in the litany of time by replacing it with an immutable hope in the security God provides (Loader, 1986). Two Classrooms: Reflections If Qohelet s message is to amount to anything in the life of God s people, then his two classroom proposal should be carefully contemplated. Every lesson that is taught in the classroom, regardless of the field of study, should always endeavour to move the students from one classroom to the other. The classroom called time is essential for dealing with the reality of human existence. Even though such examination may compel students to confront the darkness of life, it is a necessary educational option. To function within the real world, students should be taught that their lives are not those of birds in a gold cage. There is pain, tragedy, and suffering all around us. Some of this is man-made, while some of it belongs to the natural order. Yet, such lessons require a counter-balance or they will stifle the mind, burden the heart and create students who are crippled and unable to enjoy the positives of life. This is where the other classroom enters the picture. Every lesson of life should have its eternal counterpart for no matter how dark life may appear under the sun, God is present over it. What we are unable to fathom in time, is explicable in eternity. This is why Qohelet is able to conclude his entire discourse with the stirring words of Qoh 12:13, When all has been heard, the conclusion of the matter is: fear God and keep his commands, because this is for all humanity (HCSB). Through the telescope of time, Qohelet has viewed the colours of eternity and this has put paid to the argument that life is hebel habelim. Without God s eternal perspective, life is indeed hebel habelim. With God life is quite something else. The discovery of these two perspectives (classrooms) is the true challenge of all educational pursuits. It was true for Qohelet; it should remain true today. References Alter, R. (2010). The Wisdom Books: Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. Davidson, R. (1986). Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon. Philadelphia: Westminster. Eaton, M. A. (1983). Ecclesiastes: An Introduction and Commentary. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press. 5

7 Fox, M. V. (1999). A Time to Tear Down and a Time to Build Up: A Rereading of Ecclesiastes. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. LaSor, W. S., Hubbard, D. A., and Bush, F. Wm. (1996). Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Loader, J. A. (1986). Ecclesiastes A Practical Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Murphy, R. E. (1992). Ecclesiastes. WBC 23A. Dallas: Word Books. Tidball, D. (1989). That s Life! Realism and Hope for Today from Ecclesiastes. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press. 6

8 Catalyst ISSN: , Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press Learning Needs in the Multicultural Classroom: Implications to Equitable Teaching Gracel Ann S. Saban [The following article was first presented as a paper at the 1 st International Scholars Conference held at Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand, on 3-4 October 2013.] Abstract This qualitative study identified the learning needs of students in the multicultural classroom. The study utilised a semi-structured interview guide and data were gathered through focus group interviews of six ethnic groups, namely: Asian, Black, Filipino, Filipino-American, Hispanic, and White. Each group was comprised of eight to twelve members purposively sampled from the student population of one multicultural university in the Philippines for the collegiate year The themes that emerged from the Qualitative Data Analysis of interview transcripts showed that learning needs in the multicultural classroom are culturally responsive teaching, teacher immediacy behaviours, differentiated instruction, and teacher language competence and instructional clarity. It is thus recommended that teachers rethink their approaches so that students from diverse cultural and language backgrounds will have equal learning opportunities. Further, it is deemed imperative to look into the curriculum and instruction to bring about changes in the way educational programmes are conceptualised, organised and taught. Keywords: learning needs, multicultural classroom, equitable teaching, culturally responsive teaching Introduction Classrooms are a melting pot of various cultures which include differing worldviews, religious beliefs, values, abilities, languages, and family backgrounds of students. No matter how school administrators and teachers strive for homogeneity in the classroom, differences are inevitable and thus must be dealt with appropriately as this diversity may increase or impede students learning success. Because Multicultural Education (ME) seeks to promote equity and excellence across such variables as race, ethnicity, nationality, social class, regional groups, and language background, educators must understand the function language can play in either helping or inhibiting the educational fulfilment of individuals. As Ovando (1989) stated, a fair curricular process is one that builds on whatever socio-cultural and linguistic backgrounds the students bring with them (p. 215). Students language diversity in the classroom implies varying degrees of learning needs. These learning needs are related to educational outcomes students academic achievement in particular, and learning in general. Several studies (La Belle & Ward, 1994; Gersten, 1996; Trueba, 1988; Culatta, Tompkins, & Werts, 2003; Mattes & Omark, 1984; Ysseldyke & Algozzine, 1995) have attested the prevalence of educational inequality experienced by language and/or cultural minority students related to their inability to understand, speak, read and write standard English in the required school curriculum. Such case is no different in this multicultural university in the Philippines where students come from diverse language backgrounds and where English is used as medium of instruction. The main goal of ME is to change teaching and learning approaches so that students of both genders, from diverse cultural and ethnic groups, and language backgrounds will have equal opportunities to learn in the classroom. This goal suggests that major changes ought to be made in the ways that educational programs are conceptualised, organised and taught. There is a dire need for students learning needs to be identified 7

9 and analysed in order to transform and improve teaching approaches in multicultural classrooms. Hence, this study was pursued to identify the learning needs of students in the multicultural classroom, and analyse their implications to equitable teaching. Significance of the Study The findings of this study are deemed significant to the following: 1) Students since their actual linguistic needs will be identified and analysed, teachers will look into ways to address them. They may benefit from a culture-sensitive and equitable teaching not only through improved academic achievement, but also through a more satisfying learning experience; 2) Teachers they may glean insights from this study on transforming their perspectives and approaches in teaching their subject. This study may not only inspire them to adopt a multicultural perspective, but also inform and/or remind them to rethink and overhaul, if need be, their language habits and instructional strategies in the classroom; 3) Administrators the findings of this study may be useful to them in areas of supervision of instruction, human resource management, professional development, teacher training, teacher evaluation and curriculum revision; 4) Curriculum Developers the findings of this study may provide relevant inputs which they may integrate in constructing learning materials reflective of cultural diversity and language expectations and limitations; and 5) Researchers this study may awaken further interest to explore something novel in the field of multicultural teaching, such that educational outcomes will continue to improve through research-based practices. Scope and Limitations This study focused on purposively sampled college students of a multicultural university in the Philippines enrolled in the first semester of collegiate year Since the purpose of the study was to identify and analyse students learning needs in the multicultural classroom, representations from 6 ethnic groups, namely: Asian, Black, Filipino, Filipino-American, Hispanic and White, comprised the final sample of the study. Only students in their first year and last year in the university were included in the study. Learning Needs in the Classroom Learning needs abound in a classroom where individual differences are limitless. Ovando (1989) stressed that in thinking in terms of pluralism or assimilation, it would be useful to view a particular society as a dynamic and complex cultural and linguistic organism that is constantly undergoing evolution, change and modification according to the nature of circumstances a constructive pluralism in which maintenance, diversification and assimilation are taking place simultaneously under varying circumstances. And within such environment of constructive pluralism, blaming the student s genetic, environmental, cultural or linguistic background for lack of academic success in the English-dominated classroom cannot be accepted. Programmes and practices can be implemented to redress past inequities experienced by both English-background students who come to our schools speaking stigmatised nonstandard versions of English as well as students whose primary language is not English. According to Griffin and Barnes (1986), a good place to start in addressing learning needs is by examining what constitute effective teaching and learning classroom climates for students in general. They stated: A composite picture of effective teachers drawn from this body of research findings would give attention to the following: the teacher s establishment of a work orientation while maintaining a warm, supportive environment; a high level or organization with emphasis on management of the class to increase the productive use of time; active involvement with students to prevent misbehavior and prompt interventions to stop misbehavior; clear presentation of new material with opportunities for students to practice new skills; monitoring of student behavior; provision of feedback to students; assignment of individual seatwork; and systematic evaluation of student products (p. 18). The growing body of research on teaching and learning cannot, by itself, suffice without due consideration of the importance of teacher effectiveness. Brophy (1992) mentioned that literature on effective teaching gave a significant contribution to education at large because of the recognised teachers roles in learning and systematic pursuits for research-based claims. 8

10 Teachers view the use of nonstandard English in the classroom in a seemingly negative way. However, effective teachers are open-minded enough to understand and address cultural and language barriers accordingly. According Ovando (1989), limited English proficiency cannot be singled out as the cause for school failure. As Torrey (1983) puts it, teachers should not judge children s language abilities by their schoolyard grammar (p. 165). Instead, a more likely source of poor academic performance is the school s reaction and approach to language limitations. The challenge for students with limited English proficiency (LEP) is that they speak little English at all. Based on teacher effectiveness research, Macias (1986) identified some basic competencies for quality instruction for LEP students regardless of whether the teacher speaks the students home language: Use of active teaching behaviors, including giving directions clearly, describing tasks accurately, specifying how students will know when the tasks are completed correctly, and presenting new information by using appropriate strategies like explaining, outlining and demonstrating, keeping students engagement in instructional tasks by pacing instruction appropriately, by involving students actively, and by expressing expectations for students successful task completion, monitoring students progress and providing immediate feedback when necessary (p. 37). In addition to this, Macias found that significant instructional features for teachers who speak the students first language included use of both languages for instruction, assuring not only understandable instruction, but a clear and positive environment and status for each language; the integration of English language development with academic skills development; understanding and appropriate use of the cultural background and diversity of the students to mediate learning, and classroom management (p. 58). Many teachers who work with LEP students are not bilingual, and they provide instruction in English as a Second Language (ESL) rather than bilingual instruction. Among the skills important to their task are a sound knowledge of how languages are naturally acquired and an explicit grasp of the rules of the English language coupled with an ability to convey such things as grammar rules through means other than lectures and drills. An important principle to keep in mind when working with language minority students is that their cognitive development must be launched from within a given sociolinguistic context. Even language socialisations have different patterns. One implication of variations in language development is that the academic success that language minority students will experience in school hinges more on how these children are able to manipulate language in a variety of contexts and for different purposes than on the specific language they use. It follows that the school s responsibility is to provide a wide range of experiences that will facilitate language development for social interaction as well as language for academic prosperity (Heward & Orlansky, 1989). In all likelihood, teachers will have bilingual students of varying English-language and academic abilities in their classes throughout their teaching career. Ruddell (2008) opined that it is the responsibility of teachers to provide full access to multicultural-sensitive curriculum in ways that enrich students learning in the classroom. The qualitative study of Tahtinen (2009) examined the types of academic, social, and linguistic support currently available to immigrant school-aged children and their families as they entered into a small mid-western community in the United States. Major findings of the study include: (a) the need for increased communication and access to services, (b) the need for more opportunities to learn English, and (c) the importance of maintaining native language skills and culture as an asset to the community. Several studies assessed students language needs in different contexts (Cohen, 2008; Dominguez, 2009; Steele, 2008; Vakilifard, 2008; Williams, 2009). These studies brought into focus the interlocking connection between linguistic and cultural diversity toward literacy teaching in English medium schools. As implicitly suggested, there can be no effective teaching not only of the target language but also teaching in content areas without deliberately identifying and addressing students language needs. As general knowledge, language can either be a building or stumbling block to learning. Although a high level of language proficiency may not be wholly associated with intelligence, one cannot effectively get his or her ideas across if not well-armed with language tools appropriate for any particular learning context as language skills support good thinking (Vyhmeister, 2006, p. 63). Language barriers or language deficiency among second or foreign language learners and poor vocabulary among first language learners have often been cited as the underlying causes of student failure (Brown, 1995; Choo, 2007; Dekker, 2003; Schiff-Myers, Djukic, McGovern-Lawler, & Perez, 1993; Trueba, 1988; Waters 9

11 & Vilches, 2008). Because of language issues, the teacher only has time to go over the subject material briefly and is not able to develop the students cognitive skills in the classroom. Students with language difficulty are often the source of teacher anxiety (Johns & Espinoza, 1996). Unable to develop concepts with the learners in a language they understand well, the teachers cannot build on the cognitive skills, thereby stunting intellectual growth. Characteristics of a Multicultural Classroom Classrooms today have a diverse blend of many different cultures. Educators need to keep informed on the current trends and methodology regarding multicultural education. In addition, the classroom needs to reflect the diverse needs of these students. McIntyre (2012) affirms this: Creating a multicultural environment in the classroom is an important step in the teaching profession. Now, more than ever, teachers need to be attentive to the benefits of creating an environment that is advantageous for diverse students students who benefit of a good, multicultural classroom environment are more likely to excel in school. Furthermore, teachers who incorporate a multicultural environment in the classroom are more tolerant to the needs of their students. This creates a reciprocal understanding between teachers and students which in turn creates a positive learning environment. (para. 2) Further, McIntyre posits that a multicultural classroom is open and non-judgemental, embraces language differences, and celebrates differences. Given the fact that differences abound in classrooms, it is deemed important that a teacher possesses an impartial stance in the way he/she deals with individual students. Genuinely understanding students means empathising with their language and cultural adjustment difficulties. And above all, diversity should not be viewed as a limitation, but rather as a strength to be celebrated and capitalised on. Several studies (Cohen, 2008; Dominguez, 2009; Steele, 2008; Vakilifard, 2008; Williams, 2009) as cited in Dissertation Abstracts International (2010) had not only determined language needs but also highlighted the features of multicultural classrooms that promote effective teaching and learning process. Particularly, Baralis (2009) examined the long-term effects of a K-5 dual language programme (English-Spanish) on middle school student achievement and degree of acculturation in a suburban school district in New York. Those students with exposure to dual languages had consistently higher levels of biculturation than their counterparts. The characteristics of a multicultural classroom are similar to that of a learning environment that respects and values individuality and differences. Several studies (Cohen, 2008; Dominguez, 2009; Steele, 2008; Vakilifard, 2008; Williams, 2009) as cited in Dissertation Abstracts International (2010) had not only determined language needs but also highlighted the features of multicultural classrooms that promote effective teaching and learning process. Particularly, Baralis (2009) examined the long-term effects of a K-5 dual language program (English-Spanish) on middle school student achievement and degree of acculturation in a suburban school district in New York. Those students with exposure to dual languages had consistently higher levels of biculturation than their counterparts. The characteristics of a multicultural classroom are similar to that of a learning environment that respects and values individuality and differences. Language Needs and Equitable Teaching True teaching cannot exist without authentic consideration of learners. Banks and McGee Banks (1989) emphasised the binary relationship between effective teaching and equitable teaching. They argued that these two are interdependent. It means that teaching cannot be effective if it is not equitable, and it cannot be equitable if it is not effective. Unlike the term effective, the term equitable has not been commonly attached to teaching. For the purpose of this study, equitable is deemed more appropriate to relate with multiculturalism in the classroom. But literature showed the similarity of both terms (Banks & McGee Banks, 1989). Hence much of the literature was gleaned from teaching effectiveness research as these would still pertain to equitable teaching. Effective teaching is both a science and an art because it necessitates great amounts of intuition, improvisation, and expressiveness, and effective teaching depends on high levels of creativity, sound 10

12 judgment, and insight (Davis, 2001, An Art, A Science, A Profession section, para. 2). The art of teaching is a synergistic blend of three components: teacher, theory, and practice (Cain, 2007; Fromm, 1956). An effective teacher will endeavour to identify and address the students needs individual, cultural, linguistic, moral and spiritual towards holistic development (White, 1903). In terms of language ability mismatch between teachers and students and the seemingly scarce language background of teachers, August and Hakuta as cited in Rieger (2006) mentioned that: many English language learners spend most of their academic life with teachers who speak only English and who are not prepared to fully understand their varying needs as English language learners. In order for today s teachers to meet the challenge of educating a richly diverse generation of children, they need to learn a great deal about second language acquisition and effective pedagogy for English language learners through pre-service teacher education programs and in-service professional development opportunities. (p. 3) In support to this pedagogical insight on language, Rieger also stated that a teacher s understanding of the language acquisition process and pedagogy could not be, in any way, undermined. Undoubtedly, this knowledge will help teachers address the needs of linguistically diverse classroom learners. In addressing the social complexities of teaching in a multilingual classroom, Nash as cited in Rieger (2006, pp. 5-6) adapted the following recommendations in her Spanish classroom: 1) Smile when you see me, 2) Call me by name, 3) Let me know that you missed me when I was absent, 4) Recognise my own special talents, even if they do not show up on my report card, 5) Praise me when I do something right and 6) If you do not like something that I do, help me understand that you still like me as a person. These practices support the positive learning environment proposed by McIntyre (2012) which is a key element in the success of a multicultural classroom. Methodology This study employed a purely qualitative research method in which a semi-structured interview guide was utilised. Since the purpose of the study was to identify and analyze the various learning needs of students in the multicultural classroom, data were gathered through focus group interviews of six ethnic groups, namely: Asian, Black, Filipino, Filipino-American, Hispanic and White. Each group was comprised of 8 to 12 members purposively sampled from the student population of a multicultural university in the Philippines for the collegiate year These groups were formed on the basis of their geographical origin and similarity in language and/or culture. In order to determine the population s nationality and year level, two lists were procured from the University Registrar: a) master list of students enrolled in the first semester of collegiate year (indicating the students course and year level), and b) master list of foreign students (by nationality, course, and year level). Then the researcher strategically clustered students into six ethnic groups ensuring balanced distribution based on the purpose of the study, particularly in terms of nationality, geographic location and year level. Students in their first or last year in the university were selected to provide variety in terms of perspectives and experiences in one focus group. For instance, the Asian group was comprised of two of each Thai, Indonesian, Korean, Japanese and Chinese nationalities; the two with similar nationality were of different year levels, such that the other one was in his/her first year and the other was in his/her fourth or last year in the university. This also proved to be helpful in providing language and social support to a freshman who seemed struggling with communication barriers (i.e., indistinct pronunciation, insufficient English vocabulary, feeling shy to express, etc.) as a fellow countryman in his/her senior year provided support through language translation of the views and feelings shared by the former. Selection was strategically done such that there would be a balanced distribution according to the geographical location of students. I personally contacted each of the purposively sampled respondents to explain the requirements of the study and arrange focus group interview schedule with them. Finding a common free time among members in one group was the major challenge I encountered during data gathering. However, through persistence and sacrifice, researcher-proposed schedules were agreed upon by all. To ensure 100% attendance of the selected respondents, the following were executed: 1) I communicated with each student through mobile phone in order to get their confirmation to attend the scheduled interview, 2) Excuse letters noted and approved by the university research director were sent to professors of respondents whose interview conflicted with a class schedule, and 3) Meals were provided to all focus groups since the interview schedules fell either on a lunch break or after 5:30 pm which is dinner time. The duration of interviews ranged from one to two hours. For ethical considerations in the conduct of this study, respondents were assured of their anonymity 11

13 as respondents, confidentiality of the information they would be sharing and that their participation was voluntary, not compulsory. Then they were asked to sign an informed consent form to signify their willing participation and knowledge that the entire focus group interview session was to be video-recorded. Instrumentation The semi-structured interview guide was the sole instrument used in this study. It served as a guide in the conduct of focus group interviews. Its questions were divergent in nature and were gleaned from several literatures, particularly those that determined learning needs. The questions were validated by three experts: An ESL/EFL teacher, Education specialist and a Curriculum and Instruction teacher. Further, an informal pilot interview was conducted with a student who belongs to the language minority on campus. Below are the questions contained in the guide: 1. Who do you mostly interact with in school? 2. Tell me about your friends with respect to ethnic background and race. 3. What language do you use in your daily social interactions among your peers? 4. Have you experienced or seen anyone experience negative attitudes for speaking in their heritage/ native language? If so, how did it make you feel? 5. How is your language interwoven into your culture? 6. How would you describe the overall university climate in terms of language use? 7. How about classroom climate? 8. In your schooling experience, what language difficulties do/did you have? Language needs in the classroom? 9. How do the school and/or your teachers address your language needs? What types of teaching strategies or activities do your teachers employ to address your cultural and linguistic uniqueness? Any suggestions? 10. In culturally and linguistically diverse university classrooms, how do you think a teacher can teach fairly so that ALL students will have equal opportunity for academic success? Qualitative Data Analysis In order to extract the themes leading to the identification and analysis of students learning needs, qualitative analysis was employed. The inductive method of analysis is considered useful in drawing meaningful patterns of teacher qualities from the substantial data available. The qualitative data sources were the transcriptions from six audio-recorded focus group interviews. The researcher personally conducted the focus group interviews then a senior English major student was assigned to transcribe the interviews. For validation and transcript accuracy checking purposes, I hired another student to check the transcript s accuracy by listening to the interview audio files while reading the transcribed interviews. Several corrections were made at this stage. Then, for final validation and initial step in the data analysis, I went through the interview transcripts in relation to their respective audio files. A few errors were found and rectified. The edited and final transcriptions were printed and treated with the Qualitative Data Analysis Model of Serdet (1998). This study considered the very essence of qualitative analysis which is the extraction of themes that will emerge dominantly from the interview data. The analysis of interview transcriptions went through the process of noticing similar themes. The identified learning needs as extracted from the responses of respondents were analysed, through content analysis, vis-à-vis their implications to equitable teaching. Results and Discussion In this study, ethnic group pertains to a group of university students coming from similar geographic location or sharing common language, racial, and national or cultural norms. The actual data showed that the six ethnic groups were comprised of different nationalities as operationally defined in this study, such as follows: 1) Asian pertains to a group of university student population coming from Asian countries such as Indonesia, Korea, Myanmar, China, etc.; 2) Black refers to a group of university students coming from African continent such as Angola, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Congo, Rwanda, etc.; 3) Filipino a group of university students who were born and raised in the Philippines; they are natives of the land who grew up in Luzon, 12

14 Visayas or Mindanao; 4) Filipino-American a group of university students who are Filipinos by blood, but American by culture, language and exposure; they may be born in the Philippines or in the United States, or Filipino citizen or Fil-Am citizen but the dominant part of their growing years was in the foreign land; 5) Hispanic a group of university students coming from South American continent such as Argentina, Mexico, Chile, Costa Rica, Brazil, etc.; and 6) White a group of university students coming from any part of USA and Europe. Table 1 presents the nationality or origin composition of six ethnic groups. Emerging Themes from Interview Transcript Analysis Using Serdet s Qualitative Data Analysis Model in treating interview transcripts, five general themes had emerged. These themes, which centred on the learning needs in the multicultural classroom, are culturally responsive teaching, teacher immediacy behaviours, differentiated instruction, instructional clarity and teacher language competence. Culturally Responsive Teaching On top of all the needs which were expressed during focus group interviews, all respondents were one in saying that they need a culturally responsive teaching. Concepts such as cultural diversity, cultural sensitivity, cultural respect and the like kept recurring across all the focus group interviews conducted. I would say, awareness because as long as [the university] has so many international students, so many cultures and language and then the accent and the pronunciation, we will always have these difficulties because we just have to, if we are trying them, teachers and students we have to try harder to understand each other... [and] so [is] the culture. (Black Group) Especially po (Filipino word indicating respect) [if] your topic is so wide and it pertains to, I mean the definition of that subject or that concept that you are talking to is that it has different meaning in different cultures. So I think if the teacher is willing enough or interested enough to ask the students what s that in their culture katulad ng sinabi natin kanina na (Just like what we said earlier), we will ask them, Paano to sa inyong culture, anong ginagawa ninyo (How is this in your culture? What do you do with it) so we should show interest. (Filipino Group) Table 1: Nationality/Origin Composition of Six Ethnic Group Ethnic Group Nationality/Origin (# in a group) 1. ASIAN a. Papua New Guinean (1) b. Thai (2) c. Indonesian (2) d. Japanese (2) e. Korean (2) f. Bangladeshi (1) g. Chinese (2) 1. BLACK a. Kenyan(2) b. Malawian (1) c. Zambian (1) d. Angolan (1) e. Congolese (1) f. Zimbabwean (1) g. Tanzanian (1) h. Ghanaian (1) i. Rwandese (1) 13

15 2. FILIPINO a. Northern Luzon (3) b. Central Luzon (1) c. Southern Luzon (1) d. Central Visayas (2) e. Northern Mindanao (1) f. Southern Mindanao (2) 3. FILIPINO-AMERICAN a. Philippine-born (3) b. US-born (3) 4. HISPANIC a. Brazilian (1) b. Colombian (1) c. Honduran (2) d. Mexican (1) 5. WHITE a. American (4) b. British (1) c. South African (1) Two Asian students expressed the importance of open-mindedness and cultural respect, not only by the teacher, but even amongst students in the classroom: It s not really my experience but it s my friend s. Some, it depends on your culture... Sometimes it [is] insensitive with their culture or it is not appropriate so sometimes some teachers, not just teachers, some people cannot understand that because they don t really associate with that culture. So of course the person or the people might not try or might not intend to like offend them, but for the person especially that my friend is new. That person got a little offended since they didn t know the person s culture. Of course, the person has to get used to the culture that there should be some kind of way to let everyone understand the other cultures and of course the Filipino culture also. It s more easy [easier] to understand and not offend each other [by] making them not want to learn. (Asian Group) I just wanna say like maybe, if the classmates I am not asking them to learn our culture but to understand to be open-minded and try to help those because sometimes, it depends on their culture that they don t. For Japanese people, we don t want to bother other people. It is a bother to them. So it is hard for some people to ask help. It is really culture. If some people would go out trying to help those... maybe it could really be a big help to those who need. (Asian Group) One student in Black group, a Zambian, suggested that the university should seriously consider the multicultural needs as a whole, not only the language. He seemed to denote that there are no adequate measures done to address students learning needs, especially when it comes to the plurality of cultures that abound on campus: I believe a study should be done by the university to teachers to understand the multicultural society that we live. It is not only about language. There are a couple of other factors which have to be dealt. We should study about them, too. (Black Group) It is noteworthy that a culturally responsive teaching includes teachers initiative in establishing a positive learning environment, where everyone is encouraged to respect each other because their teacher shows a good example of cultural respect. According to Borich (2011), Bias in a way the teacher interacts with students is undesirable in any form, but it is particularly distasteful when it pertains to students who belong to a cultural, ethnic, or linguistic minority. Our nation and our educational system are based on respect for individual differences of all types. (p. 28) This means that our classrooms become one of the most important showplaces of democratic values. It is disturbing that researchers report frequent ethnic bias or cultural insensitivity during student-teacher interactions in mixed-ethnic classrooms. Studies (Dillon, 1989; Tharp & Gallimore, 1991) have pointed out that 14

16 many actions of teachers diminish the classroom participation of minority students and/or build resentment because the actions are culturally incongruent. As educators, Gottlieb (2006) stressed that we are constantly challenged to make informed decisions about our students; to do so, we plan, gather, and analyse information from multiple resources over time so that the results are meaningful to teaching and learning. Cooper (2011) discussed culturally responsive teaching (CRT) as an approach to teaching and learning that builds on the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant and effective for them. Also referred to as culturally relevant, culturally congruent, and culturally compatible, this approach of working with students of diverse backgrounds affirms the identities of students and builds upon who students are and what they bring with them to school. Teacher Immediacy Behaviours Teacher immediacy is characterized by verbal and nonverbal behaviours that reduce physical and/or psychological distance between teachers and students. According to Gorham (1988), verbal immediacy includes the use of humour, frequent use of student name, encouragement of discussion and following up on student-initiated comments, encouraging future contact with students, and sharing of personal examples; while nonverbal immediacy includes smiling, eye contact, vocal expressiveness, open gestures and body movement behaviours done by the teacher. During the interview, I sensed the seemingly strong need of students for teacher immediacy behaviours to be practiced in the classrooms: I have one teacher like that. If you cannot understand, you are afraid to ask because they treat you it s like a damn. You feel afraid to ask. (Hispanic Group) Some teachers, you say something and they just cut you off and it s kind of you are not important. So when they interrupt you, that is unfriendly. Some teachers don t listen. (Hispanic Group) One student even emphasised the importance of student-teacher relationship in learning, and that this relationship must spring from a teacher s sense of being a Christian and being connected to God: Maybe don t look at it as academic but when a teacher is a Christian and you can see that, it helps. The atmosphere is different in the classroom. When you have a teacher who knows you, well, everyone has weaknesses. We re not perfect. Sometimes, prejudices come up or pride or what else... Sometimes the teacher is very opinionated and learning and learning is not about forcing an opinion on someone. Well, learning, one teacher who is connected to God and that is brought in the classroom, half of the problems are gone when it comes to relationship. (Hispanic Group) Most of the respondents shared how some of their teachers would get offended when corrected, or annoyed when students tried to clarify the lesson presented: But I think the problem with that is, I just noticed this, it is that they get very offended if you tell them to say certain things... Like Ma am can you please enunciate it better so that we can understand. And then parang (like), Ang arte mo, Like that. No ma am it s just that I am trying to help out other students who talk to me that they could not understand. (Filipino-American Group) Well, we, Africans, think that there are some foreigners in the class who don t know English. I think teachers should forgive them because there are some foreigners like in the countries they come from, they do not use English. So it is good for the teachers to understand the African or the foreigners because some of the students [are] from Korea, from China. They don t know English. I think as a teacher, you should ask the students, Do you want to ask [about] what I was teaching? (Black Group) Respondents went on expressing their need for teachers genuine care and concern towards their needs, such that this concern motivates teacher s pleasant verbal and nonverbal behaviours in and out of the classroom: 15

17 It is good for every teacher to have a personal concern for every student. (White Group) Yeah, if a student feels the teacher s personal concern, I mean if the teacher I feel is involved... It s just like they would adjust to each other and the teacher would go down to the students level and know the problem. Example if the students are doing exam and the students did not perform well, they should talk to the student. That way, the student would perform better. (Black Group) But almost all teachers are not there during consultation time and if they are there, I am made to feel that I am a nuisance when I share my concerns. (Asian Group) I think the best strategy is Jesus example. Jesus was the best teacher. He mingled with the students. (Black Group) A good teacher doesn t leave a student behind.... (White Group) In my experience, one teacher like when I asked her, she made me feel like, Why are you so stupid? (Asian Group) A group of Filipino respondents expressed their sentiment about how some of their teachers tone of voice, demeanour, facial expressions and even choice of words could dampen their motivation to learn. It seemed that they got carried away by the topic that most of them spoke in Filipino language: Another thing is communication techniques. Kasi (because) some of the teachers... hindi siya ganoon ka approachable kaya (they are not approachable) instead na parang yung ano mo matuto (your aim is to learn), since hindi naman approachable ang teachers mo (but the teachers are not approachable). So parang wala lang din (you won t be motivated to learn). May mga teachers na pagdating pa lang sa classroom, nakasimangot na.... (There are teachers who are already frowning even upon coming into the classroom). Pero kung mali man ang student, try to say something na hindi nakaka-hurt sa feelings ng student Even if the student commits a mistake, try to say something that does not hurt student s feelings). Kasi may mga teacher po na halimbawa, May mga tanong pa ba kayo? Kapag tinanong naman sila, sasabihin nila, Diba na-discuss na natin ito? Kaysa naman pagalitan pa hindi nalang magtatanong (There are teachers who ask if students have questions. But if we ask, they will say, Haven t we already discussed this? So as not to be reprimanded, we don t care to ask anymore). In traditional classrooms, researchers found that teachers immediacy behaviours can lessen the psychological distance between themselves and their students, leading to more effective learning and motivation (Christophel, 1990; Gorham, 1988; Kelley & Gorham 1988; Menzel & Carrel, 1999; Myers et al., 1998). Further, sharing personal stories and examples, responding quickly, responding in a friendly tone, and creating a safe psychological environment for student participation can provide the needed caring presence that encourages student engagement (Swan & Richardson, 2003). Differentiated Instruction Respondents across all focus groups brought up the need for teachers to vary their teaching strategies to suit the different needs of students, particularly in a multicultural classroom. Though the White group acknowledged the fact that the university has several academic strengths, they boldly shared their perceptions on the quality of teaching and learning process they experienced: I think teachers here in the Philippines for the whole three years that I have been here, teachers have one way of teaching. They don t adjust... they don t adopt. It s just like they go on with the syllabus. I don t care what your issues are. That s how I feel. 16

18 Not all teachers consider learning styles because some classes are full of audio people. Some are just visual. So things like that. If you are studying with a class with visual, they don t get anything when you write things on the board. They don t get anything. You will come out of the class like What? But you could have adjusted some of your teaching criteria. One thing is... I saw the biggest problem here is that there is no textbook. Most teachers ask students to go to the copy center, spend a long time in line just to photocopy a small piece of material. It s a waste of time. The Asian group also revealed similar predicaments in terms of learning difficulties. Some teachers are just writing on the board and the handwriting is very hard to understand. When we asked the teacher, Oh anyway, this is my handwriting. Whether you like it or not, this is my handwriting. I think, maybe we can use media, a video. A teacher may find a video related to the topic so that the students can get some insights about the things that are discussed by their teacher. If I were on a teacher s shoe, I think I could give them [students] equal chance but in case of different range of understanding, learning and the background, the value of equal chance may be different for each student... so teachers need to discover the individual needs, so he can know what to do. The Filipino group elucidated the same insights that justify students earnest need for a differentiated instruction to address student needs: So ang suggestion ko po kasi po hindi lahat ng mga estudyante ay may kakayahang magsalita, so yung iba magaling talaga. Mayroon talagang magagaling sa klase na kahit na isang ano pa lang, pick up na agad nila. So ang ano ko po, sana doon, sa unang klase pa lang po, dapat sana, alamin ng teacher kung ano ang mga kahinaan ng mga estudyante, tapos mag-isip siya kung ano ang mga strategy niya upang matugonan and pangangailangan ng lahat ng estudyante (Since not all students have the ability to express, unlike others who are eloquent in class...they can easily understand the concepts taught, I suggest that on the first day of classes, the teacher should know students weaknesses. Then she has to think of strategies to address those weaknesses). For me, more illustrations. They [teachers] should give more illustrations. Even though kahit mahina ang voice nila, mayroon silang illustration na makakatulong... (Even if the teacher s voice is soft or not very audible, the illustrations can help students understand). Pwede naman pong lahat ay projected po talaga para take time talaga silang magbasa (The teacher may project or show all the materials and so they can take time to read). Enough materials at saka dapat marami rin siyang enough choices... pag walang electricity at least may written handout siya. Kasi ganoon ang nangyayari sa amin (Teachers should have enough choices, so that if there is no electric power, he/she has a printed handout. That is what is happening to us). Two of the Black group respondents shared that there was no equal chance for learning in the university. They backed up this seemingly informal assessment with personal classroom observations and experiences: I can say that there is no equal chance of learning. You see... a teacher should care. You see, we have different kinds of students. Some learn by listening and if language is a barrier, how they are speaking in class, they won t learn easily. Some actually are visual learners so if you speak perfectly but you have a bad power point, they still won t get you. So if a teacher doesn t care of every students sitting in the classroom, they can try to understand, what type of learning [do] you want [for]him or her? What I can do for this student? The teacher really has to care. The major classes, it becomes easy but in general classes, it is hard because most students do not even know their own learning styles. 17

19 In my opinion, no equal chance. [The university] basically has auditory learners, go to class, listen, attend class, always check in the class, lower grades and that means that if you study in the library, though you get the same content, you are going to flunk the class which means it is not fair for everyone. Some students need a room and they can dance around and they study in the pool. But if you are forced to sit down in the class for you to pass, it becomes unfair to others although most students have continuous routine from elementary school. It is not a perfect system for everyone. That respondent sharing about the need for a room where students can dance, perhaps while studying, or study in the pool area, implies the need for a differentiated instruction. It is a reality that not all students who sit in the class can maximise learning because these students might have other ways of learning at their best. This seems to bear a repercussion to curriculum as well. On the other hand, the all-nursing Filipino-American group seemed to find handouts as an effective instructional material: I think, handouts are very good idea. Just like to give a visual for them to understand what words are being said or to just have so whatever the teachers are saying, it is actually seen. Instead of just listening and what was that word exactly? Two respondents from Hispanic group expressed their difficulty in coping up with dictated quizzes: In printed quiz, I feel confident and not pressured. I just can sit down and concentrate and not listening. But if he [teacher] is giving a quiz to write, you don t have enough time to think. But for those who are speaking in English, they can write fast. It s good but for those have limitations, it is stressful. I have a problem about that but the teacher knows about that. It is about quiz because sometimes you study hard, but when sometimes you write, you answer well and then the teacher starts to ask the question, 1,2,3,4 and then one is one minute I think. You don t have time to finish, they start the second one and then I have to leave the class because I cannot follow. Then the next class, the teacher asked me, Why you left the class? I said, I cannot do the quiz that s why I left the class. But still I lost points because I don t show up on time and then I have to go back and then I lost many quizzes. In addition, same members from the Hispanic group accentuated their need for learning options. During the interview, I sensed the dire exigency of this need as they went on suggesting that teachers give options for academic requirements, and that they should consider other dimensions of intelligences and measures of assessment: You are mentioning different ways people learn, sometimes I feel like the teacher has usually in the classroom to do a group project or a term paper something like that. Maybe to reach everyone, or maybe the language problem can also be addressed in this way. Maybe they can have 3 or 4 options and they can advise you, You will do this one. I think you will do better with this one. The person just chooses, not that it is easier than the other things so that I choose the easiest one to go out of it. But I know where my learning is, where I learn better, maybe, I will not do research. Maybe, I will do a project. Yeah so if the project is done outside of my schedule, give me another option. Let me do research or let me read five books and let me give you a paper. I will learn like that. But don t tell me at such a date, you have to perform or dramatized a script and I don t learn in it. It is stressful. I was thinking about the multiple intelligences. I was gonna suggest just also instead of just lectures and you know deadlines for this assignment. You know options? It is good to have options. I think the principal or the head teacher should let teachers upgrade themselves. You have courses to upgrade yourselves to the new trends of education because some teachers have been teaching 30 years, even though if it s just lecture, everybody listens. To me, I m giving you all the information. But they don t know new theories, new trends in education and technology. They can use to improve learning, to improve opportunity for students learning as much as listening. So I think, using methods, also bring yourself every year having short classes like two or three weeks just learning new methods. 18

20 This theme is considered to be the root of the other four themes, as the latter may interplay with differentiated instruction. According to Borich (2011), differentiated instruction provides the opportunity for the teacher to consider multiple characteristics of the learner simultaneously in choosing an instructional strategy for a particular learner and learning objective. Therefore, differentiated instruction is ideally suited for a heterogeneous classroom, in which learning histories, learning styles, learner interests, and skills as well as disabilities representing special populations may impair learning. The goal of differentiated instruction is to give learners alternate paths with which to learn. Students working below grade level may be given resources that retrace major objectives that have already been taught, whereas learners above grade level may be asked to produce work that requires more complex and advanced thinking. By varying teaching strategies, the teacher makes sure that each student has the opportunity to learn in a manner compatible with his or her own learning strengths and preferences. The curriculum is no longer defined in terms of what a teacher will teach but rather in terms of what a student will be able to demonstrate. Honey and Mumford as cited in Glover and Law (2002) emphasised that learning is as much about developing personal competence as about accumulating knowledge. Jester and Miller (2000) espoused the four styles of learning, namely: 1) Visual/Verbal: relying on what is seen and in a written language format; 2) Visual/Non-verbal: relying on what is seen but presented via pictorial or graphic media; 3) Tactile/Kinaesthetic: relying on physical involvement, for example, experimentation and hands-on; and 4) Auditory/Verbal: relying on the presentation of material in oral language format Buskist and Benassi (2012) stated that audio and visual technologies are becoming increasingly common in education because teachers find that they are easy to use and students find that they enhance their classroom experiences. As with social technologies, some audio and visual technologies that were not originally designed for educational instruction are finding their way into college and university teaching. Most of the technologies in this category are widely available, easily accessible, cost-effective, and require minimal technical know-how. Buskist and Benassi also emphasised that the focus on professional development is particularly important in light of the rapidly changing nature of today s student body. Filling the classrooms of colleges and universities is a new breed of student: individuals who have grown up online with much of the world s knowledge a mouse-click away. Although these tech-savvy students present new challenges for faculty, the effective use of technology in the classroom has the potential to make teaching and learning more impactful and fulfilling. With the rapid evolution of technology, it has perhaps never been more important to remember that professional development does not end with the completion of graduate school. Instead, it is a lifelong process that requires individuals to stay abreast of pedagogical research development and implement teaching methods that promote high levels of student learning. Teacher Language Competence and Instructional Clarity As I re-analysed the interview data, I realised that teacher language competence and instructional clarity cannot be separated. The instances shared by the respondents that pertain to either of these two are always intertwined with the other. The following interview transcriptions would prove the team-up of these two themes. Further, it did not come as a surprise to find that students would need effective communication in the classroom, for after all, what would teaching be without communication? All the ethnic groups, except for the Filipino group, conveyed their learning anxiety about some teachers who, despite their presence in the classroom, would still dominantly use the Filipino language in teaching. The Asian group vividly shared their experiences: If the teacher is not really English-oriented and there is [are] really [a] few foreigners, they tend to speak Tagalog if they knew that there are [a] few foreigners. And since the majority is Filipinos, they want to express to the majority which is Tagalog. We don t feel like we belong... It s me and the other foreign students. Okay how come you know the teacher is talking without considering us? And then we will be asking our other friends but they wouldn t know how to really, you know, explain to us again in English. 19

21 Like when they speak, it s not the right accent. So it is hard for me to understand. It s like when a question is asked, the teacher says it in Filipino so it s like we have to ask our friends and the teacher shows any interest in answering questions that are asked by us, foreign students. It is like, I already answered because sometimes, they hardly [find it hard to] speak in English. Sometimes I cannot understand teachers saying because like teachers are speaking too fast. The Black group expressed similar experiences regarding teachers ostensibly inconsiderate language stance in the classroom: Yeah! During my freshman year, my first semester here in [this university], whenever our teacher used Tagalog in class, it would upset me because I ve been trying to understand. Why can t he see me? No, it s just hard to fully understand... I normally focus in class. One of my teachers before, he kept changing languages, English-Tagalog, English-Tagalog. And I have to say, Sir, I am not dumb but I fail in your class because you continuously use Tagalog. I think it depends to [upon] all of us. If you know some Tagalog, you see you are a foreigner and you cannot understand Tagalog and it s a major turn off. Whenever you come to class, the teacher just starts talking and like you know your mind just goes off even if you are really focused. You think, Oh, I will just wash my clothes and stuff, but automatically, your brain just loses its focus and it is not really good because we came here to study. So we end up nothing in class. First day, second day... eventually you miss classes, absences and you don t know if you have assignments and at the end, [everything is] piling up. Two students pointed out that a teacher s English language limitations, or Philippine variety of English, can affect influence how he/she uses English as medium of instruction and writes instructions in English, thereby affecting student understanding: It is something with sentence structure. If someone is thinking in Tagalog and end up writing it to English, the way they construct the sentence would be difficult for you to understand. So even if I speak quickly, I m trying to understand the alternating words. The structure sometimes is confusing even in some examinations. The question asked, it looks straight and it s very confusing and as a teacher, they will be saying it s clear. So it s kind of I m getting to use to it now but the structure is sometimes different. They say something and mean something else. Sometimes, they tend to... not all, tense is not really correct. He uses something in the past but he is not really talking about the past. Okay, that s confusing. I m like trying to understand and comprehend what he is really trying to mean. On a different note, the Filipino-American group observed that general subject teachers tended to use Tagalog or Tagalog when teaching. They shared that their major subjects were not really a problem, since their teachers would solely use English as medium of instruction: I noticed that most of our major subjects are more taught in English but a lot of my minors are like its mostly like Tagalog or Taglish. I have a class where the teacher has a really different accent and he spoke Taglish so whenever there were slides or powerpoint or anything, when we took notes it s really hard to understand what he was saying and he would talk fast like, What are you saying? Grammar constraints of teachers were also pointed out as barriers to instructional clarity: Sometimes, it is grammatically wrong. 20

22 Sometimes, it can be misleading like it is confusing sometimes. But that is easily fixed. You just ask. But it s just minor and little grammatical errors. One Filipino-American student whose mother hailed from Mindanao was quite prudent in stating sweeping statements, specifically about those who speak a dialect. She, herself, knew how to speak the Visayan dialect but she expressed how teachers with prominent regional dialect can affect the understanding of the lesson: English with their thick Tagalog or Visayan accent because students would just focus on the funny intonation instead of listening to the lesson and then yeah... they just talk and talk. The Hispanic group s statements further gave proofs of the interplay between teacher s English language competence and instructional clarity: Some teachers are giving explanation in Tagalog and then spend time with that and then speak quick English. So we feel like we did not get the essence. But it s only a few teachers, mostly in general subjects. I just wanna skip class because it s just like I cannot understand. Better read your book at home because at school, you cannot understand. So why go to class? Because sometimes, they [teachers] don t know how to explain well in English... that is why they speak in Tagalog. But it is becoming difficult for foreigners. I think teachers should learn how to express themselves clearly. With due fairness to those teachers who ensure that they are not only proficient in English language, but they are also making classroom communications clear, one student commended those who are doing the extra mile to explain nicely: Sometimes for me on the exams, the wording is a little bit weird like when they are asking a question you don t sometimes like how they word it. They explain too long, they just lost what they want to ask. And we have told teachers that and they have like actually listened to us or if I have a question, they are really nice. They do come and they really explain what the question is asking but some teachers, they don t know how to explain any other way. One student from the Filipino group also mentioned of the same concern a student in the Black group had pertaining to vague instructions and questions in the examinations. This student cited the grammatical mistakes in sentence constructions, making the test items too ambiguous: I have also observed in one of my classes. In the exam, the sentences are so complex. I mean you can t really understand what kind of answer a teacher is looking for and so the tendency is, hindi maintindihan so hindi ko na alam kung ano ang isasagot (Since the question can t be understood, I don t know what to answer). And so aside from the sentence structure, very complicated, grammar pa niya... And so especially with, kasi may mga times na tinatanong niya (there are times that a teacher asks), it is not correct)grammar, kung papansinin mo yung grammar. And so malilito talaga ang estudyante. Again, the issue on teacher s fast-paced talking was brought up, such that if the teacher speaks too fast, instructional clarity is compromised. As a result, a student would lose the lustre of his/her motivation to learn: I experienced kasi that time noong second year when I took English subject. Yung parang instead namamotivatekang mag-aral, walana, kasiparanghindimosiyamaintindihankahitgaanosiyakafluent mag English. Some teachers are very fast talking po. The interview data revealed how students struggled with teacher language limitations and their relation to the quality of instructional clarity in the classroom. In this study, it was found that students equated insufficient English competence with instructional quality in spoken and written forms. Instructional clarity, as stated by 21

23 Cruickshank, Jenkuns, and Metcalf (2009), has been the focus of much research ever since Rosenshine and Furst (1971) identified it as the most promising teacher variable related to student achievement. Instructional clarity refers to the teacher s ability to provide instruction that helps students come to a clear and accurate understanding of important concepts or ideas. Thus, clarity is something students achieve, not something the teacher does. However, research has identified specific teacher behaviours that students say help them achieve this clarity of understanding (Hines, 1981; Hines, Kennedy, & Cruickshank, 1985). For students with learning disabilities, the clarity of the teacher is of critical importance (Banikowski, 1999; Winter, 2001). Further, according to students, clear teachers emphasise important points by repeating them, writing them on the board or in presentations, pausing after stating them, and reviewing them. They monitor students clarity of understanding by asking questions and providing students with activities and experiences that allow them to apply their knowledge. When students do not understand, clear teachers repeat, review, or rephrase important points. Not surprisingly, teachers who most often and most proficiently use these behaviours to help students understand are associated with significantly greater student learning and satisfaction than teachers who do not (Chesebro & McCroskey, 2001; Hativa, 1998; Holpin, Easterday, & Elrod, 1994; Metcalf, 1992; Metcalf & Cruickshank, 1991). In similar vein, language proficiency constitutes the foundation of the professional confidence of non-native teachers who use or should use English as medium of instruction. Language competence has been rated as the most essential characteristic of a good teacher according to Lange, as cited in Eslami and Fatahi (2008). Berry, as cited in Eslami and Fatahi (2008) conducted a study of two groups of English teachers teaching at the secondary level in Poland. His aim was to determine which of three components (methodology, theory of language teaching, or language improvement) they needed most. Language improvement was ranked as the most important for both groups, and methodology was second, while the two groups ranked theory a poor third. According to Doff, as cited in Eslami and Fatahi (2008), a teacher s confidence in the classroom is undermined by a poor command of the English language. Poor command of the language can affect the self-esteem and professional status of the teacher and interfere with simple teaching procedures. Furthermore, it can keep the teacher from fulfilling the pedagogical requirements of a more communicative approach to language teaching. Conclusion Learning needs abound in a multicultural classroom. In the learning context of the university where the study was conducted, this research was deemed imperative to specifically identify and address the varying needs of the student population from over 50 countries. Findings indicated that the learning needs in the multicultural classroom are culturally responsive teaching, teacher immediacy behaviours, differentiated instruction and teacher language competence and instructional clarity. Each of these themes bears implications to equitable teaching. Students need a culturally responsive teaching, such that if a teacher is culturally sensitive, he/she will endeavour to know student backgrounds and capabilities and eventually make teaching preparation relevant to the needs of actual students with no one left behind. Upon knowing individual students, a teacher can then employ differentiated instruction to meet the needs of all, considering their strengths and learning styles. This learning need is the root of all the other themes as the latter build on the former. Moreover, a good teacher who has committed and taken steps towards culturally responsive teaching will, by all means, employ various teaching strategies. Teacher verbal and nonverbal immediacy behaviours will then be manifested as these put across messages of love and concern towards individual students in spite of who they are. Furthermore, since the teacher desires to reach out to students needs, he/ she will use the language of instruction masterfully so that effective communication will eventually lead to mutual understanding and respect. Multicultural education aims for equitable teaching which means that there is equal learning opportunity among all students of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The findings entail the overarching need for school administration to formulate curriculum and instruction policies for foreign students; teachers need to do learning needs assessment at the start of classes in relation to students knowledge and skills of the subject matter; negotiate modifications in the course syllabus with the students; and teachers to become more equipped with pedagogical tools and up-to-date teaching media; need to further improve instructional communication skill in English, both in spoken and written forms. Teacher immediacy behaviours need to be enhanced and practiced as these are integral to students psychological well-being affecting their attitudes towards learning. Finally, data analysis showed students need for teacher s English language competence as 22

24 this impinges on instructional clarity. Respondents cited teachers frequent use of the Filipino language as a manifestation of the latter s apathy towards their needs as international students, Filipino students included. Hence, teachers need to seriously reflect upon their current practices and see how these affect not only student learning, but also student harmonious development at large. It is thus recommended that teachers rethink their approaches so that students from diverse cultural and language backgrounds will have equal learning opportunities. Further, it is deemed imperative to look into the curriculum and instruction to bring about changes in the way educational programs are conceptualised, organised, and taught. References August, D., & Hakuta, K. (Eds.). (1997). Improving schooling for language minority children: A research agenda. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Banks, J. (1989). Teaching strategies for ethnic studies (6 th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Banks, J., & McGee Banks, C. (1989). Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Baralis, A. (2009). On the boarder of a new culture: Spanish-speaking middle school newcomers perceptions, expectations and attitudes. Dissertation Abstracts International: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 71(4), 1164-A, ProQuest LLC. Batten, M., Marland, P., & Khamis, M. (1993). Knowing how to teach well: Teachers reflect on their classroom practice. Hawthorn, Australia: Brown Prior Anderson. Borich, G. (2011). Effective Teaching Methods (7 th Ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Boschee, F., Beyer, B., & Engelking, J. (1997). Special and compensatory programs: The administrator s role. Boston: R&L Education. Brophy, J. E. (1992). Probing the subtleties of subject-matter teaching. Educational Leadership, 49(7), Brown, J. D. (1995). The elements of language curriculum. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Buskist, W., Benassi, V. (2012). Effective College and University Teaching. Washington D.C.:SAGE Publications, Inc. Cain, C. (2007). Is teaching an art or a science? Retrieve 14 August 2012 from com/article/111558/is_teaching_an_art_or_a_science.html Cooper, J. (2011). Classroom Teaching Skills (9 th Ed.). USA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Cruickshank, D., Jenkins, DB., & Metcalf, K., (2009). The Act of Teaching (5 th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Culatta, R., Tompkins, M., & Werts, G. (2003). Fundamentals of special education: What every teacher needs to know. Boston: Merrill-Prentice Hall. Cummins, J. (1984). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In California State Department of Education. Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 3-49). Sacramento: Author. Davis, J. (2001). Clear thinking about teaching. Retrieved 10 August 2012 from lib/btml_xrpt.htm Dekker, D. (2003). A case study of the first language component bridging program in rural Philippines. Philippine Journal of Linguistics, 34(1), Dissertation Abstracts International (2010). The Humanities and Social Sciences, 71(4), 1164-A, ProQuest LLC. Eslami, Z. &Fatahi, A., (2008). Teachers Sense of Self-Efficacy English Proficiency, and Instructional Strategies: A Study of Non-native EFL Teachers in Iran. Retrieved 7 May 2013 from issues/ issues/volume11/ej44/ej44a1 Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2006).How to design and evaluate research in education (6 th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Fromm, E. (1956). The art of loving. New York: Harper & Row. Gersten, R. (1996). A delicate balance: Enhancing literature instruction for students of English as a second language. The Reading Teacher, 47, Glover, D., & Law, S., (2002). Improving Learning. Buckingham: Open University. Gottlieb, M., (2006). Assessing English Language Learners. California: Corwin Press. Griffin, G., & Barnes, S. (1986). Using research findings to change school and classroom practices: Results of an experimental study. American Educational Research Journal, 23(4),

25 Hancock, B. (2002). An introduction to qualitative research. Retrieved 26 August 2012 from ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/mba603/mba603_files/introqualitative Research.pdf Heward, W. I., & Orlansky, M. D. (1989). Exceptional children (3 rd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill. Hymes, D. (1981). Foreword, in Charles A. Ferguson and Shirley Brice Heath, eds., Language in the USA: Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press. Insch, G., Moore, J. E., & Murphy, L. (1997). Content analysis in leadership research: Examples, procedures, and suggestions for future use. The Leadership Quarterly, 8(1), Johns, K. M., & Espinoza, C. (1996). Management strategies for culturally diverse classrooms. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa. La Belle, T., & Ward, C. (1994). Multiculturalism and education: Diversity and its impact on schools and society. New York: State University of New York Press. Macias, R. (1986). Teacher preparation for bilingual education. A Report of the Compendium of Papers on the Topic Bilingual Education, Mattes, L., & Omark, D. (1984). Speech and language assessment for the bilingual handicapped.usa: College-Hill Press. McIntyre, H. (2012). Creating a multicultural environment in the classroom. Retrieved August 28, 2013 from Moule, J. (2012). Cultural competence: A primer for educators. USA: Wadsworth CENGAGE Learning. Ovando, C. (1989). Bilingual/bicultural education: Its legacy and its future. Phi Delta Kappan. Rieger, A. (2006). Understanding English language learners needs and the language acquisition process: The two educators perspectives. Retrieved 26 August 2012 from understanding_ell.pdf. Roy-Campbell, Z. M. (2006). Educational language. Retrieved 22 August 2012 from com/content/w0k503847t Ruddell, M. R. (2008). Teaching content reading and writing. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Santos, A. (2002). Personality ForTodays Youth (2 nd Ed.). Mandaluyong City: National Book Store. Schiff-Myers, N., Djukic, J., McGovern-Lawler, J., & Perez, D. (1993). Assessment considerations in the evaluation of second-language learners: A case study. Retrieved 18 August 2012 from Findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3130/is_n3_v60/ai_ Serdet, J. V. (1998). Qualitative data analysis. Retrieved 18 August 2012 from ProQuest database. Tahtinen, D. (2009). Making visible the invisible: Dual language teaching practices in monolingual instructional settings. Dissertation Abstracts International: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 71(4), 1164-A, ProQuest LLC. Torrey, J. (1983). Black children s knowledge of Standard English. American Educational Research Journal, 20(4), 627. Trueba, H. T. (1988). Cultural bases explanation of minority students academic achievement. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 19(4), Vyhmeister, S. (2006). Writing with integrity. The InFo Journal, 10(2), Waters, A., & Vilches, M. L. (2008). Factors affecting ELT reforms: The case of the Philippine basic education curriculum. RELC Journal, 37(2), White, E. G. (1903). Education. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. Wood, J., (2007). Interpersonal Communication Everyday Encounters. USA: Thomas Wadsworth. Ysseldyke, J., & Algozzine, R. (1995). Special education: A practical approach for teachers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. About the Author Gracel Ann S. Saban is currently the Dean of the College of Education and Chair of the Graduate Education Department at Adventist University of the Philippines, Puting Kahoy, Silang, Cavite, Philippines. vercel25@yahoo.com 24

26 Catalyst ISSN: , Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press Experiences in Adventist Colleges/Universities: An International Alumni Perspective Jimmy Kijai, Vinita Sauder and Robert Weaver [The following article was first presented as a paper at the 1 st International Scholars Conference held at Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand, on 3-4 October 2013.] Abstract This study examines the college experiences of a sample of graduates of Adventist colleges and universities outside North America. Data were collected using an online questionnaire using Survey Monkey. Responses from 171 alumni suggested that they attended Adventist higher learning institutions for their Adventist values and the opportunity to grow spiritually. About 77% rated their college experience to be good to excellent. They rated their college experience as quite effective in career/life preparation skills and development of community and social values. They were often involved in activities related to religiosity and friends/ relationships. Professor/classroom experience was the best predictor of overall college ratings. Current involvement in religious/community services and life satisfaction are associated with involvement in religious/ spiritual activities, extra-curricular activities and enhanced social/community values while in college. Background of the study In 2005, the Association of Adventist Colleges and Universities (AACU) in North America conducted a study to examine the awareness and perceptions among Adventist college-bound youth regarding Adventist higher education. In this study, Sauder (2008) reported that college-bound youth attending public schools in North America had low awareness of Adventist colleges and universities. In addition, there were few contacts from Adventist colleges and universities with these students. Resulting from the study, a centralised marketing enrolment system managed by a full-time AACU employee in collaboration with the enrolment teams from the colleges and universities was established. This move strengthened one of AACU s strategic initiatives: a collaborative enrolment management and marketing strategy, including system-wide branding, promotion, and prospective student search efforts, primarily among Seventh-day Adventists attending public high schools. A follow-up to the 2005 AACU study, the College-Impact study was completed in It was designed to examine the college experiences, involvement and satisfaction of alumni who graduated from Adventists colleges and universities in North America as well as Adventists who graduated from public colleges/universities. However, since the College-Impact survey link was promoted in churches and forwarded to many Adventists around the world, the study also included responses from a convenient sample of graduates of Adventist international colleges and universities. It is this sample of graduates (those who received undergraduate degrees from Adventist colleges outside North America) that is the focus of this paper. The result of this study is intended to inform college and university administrators of the strengths and challenges of the Adventist college environment and assist in programme modification and implementation so that current students will continue to have positive college experiences. Together with the 2005 AACU study, we hope this investigation will help us better understand Adventist higher education and assist in improving student life programming, branding and marketing. 25

27 Literature review Much has been written regarding the impact of college and what conditions provide the most satisfactory and successful higher education experiences. In their book, How College Affects Students: A Third Decade of Research, Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) comprehensively review decades of research and synthesise what has been learned about college influence on student learning and overall experience. Similarly, What Matters Most in College? Four Critical Years Revisited (Astin, 1997) presents a definitive assessment, based on a study of more than 20,000 students in 200 institutions, of how students change and develop in college and how colleges enhance that development through academic programmes, faculty, student peer groups and other variables. Student Success in College: Creating Conditions That Matter (Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh, and Whitt, 2010) delves into the documented practices at 20 colleges with institutional conditions that are important to student development and success, from research by the DEEP project (Documenting Effective Educational Practice) at the Center for Postsecondary Research, Indiana University. Effective practices in these institutions included high standards for student performance, balancing academic challenge with support for students, respect for cultural differences, active learning, emphasis on the first year of study, feedback, collaboration among students and out-of-class contact with faculty. The value of a residential environment is demonstrated with outcomes of higher persistence rates. Several factors have been cited as reasons why students go to a particular college/university. They include academic reputation, financial aid, cost, location and distance from home and national rankings (Briggs, 2006; Callender & Jackson, 2008; Griffith & Rask, 2007; Hoover, 2008; Ridley et al., 2005). Specific to community colleges, Barreno & Traut (2012) found that students attend these institutions primarily for the following reasons: transferability of courses, available academic programs and quality, campus location, cost, available educational facilities and technology and advice from family and friends. For Christian colleges, Schipull (2009) reported that students chose to attend these institutions for the Christian liberal arts nature of the college, location of the college and the quality of the degree programme. Rood (2009), in his study of first generation students attending Christian colleges, reported that the Christian community nature of the college was a primary reason why they chose to attend the college. In investigating minority students decision to enrol in 4-year faith-based institutions, Confer and Mamiseishvili (2012) reported that campus interaction, extra-curricular activities, academic reputation and facilities, availability of majors and student-friendly institutional Web sites were top reasons. The impact of the college experience has been well documented. Pascarella & Terenzini (2005) in their synthesis of research on how college affects students concluded that students become more mature, knowledgeable and focused during college and that they develop a higher level of overall workplace readiness (p.534). Although somewhat dated, Astin (1997) in his study of how college environment affect student outcomes concluded that the single most powerful source of influence on the undergraduate student s academic and personal development is the peer group (p.8). He further concluded that next to the peer group, interaction with faculty represents the most significant aspect of the student s undergraduate development (p. 11). Several significant studies have examined impact of the college experiences in Christian colleges. A study among Lutheran colleges (Lutheran Educational Conference of North America, 2005) indicated that graduates of Lutheran colleges rate their college experiences as effective in helping them develop leadership skills, speaking and writing skills, team spirit, career preparation skills, political and social awareness, appreciation for the fine arts, moral principles, sense of purpose in life, deepened sense of spirituality, integrate faith with other aspects of their life and a sense of community. The study also reported that personal interaction with professors challenged and mentored them in their academic and faith development. Hunt (2006) echoed the Lutheran study when he stated that undergraduate students identified faculty influence as having the most effect on their faith development (p. 78). Similarly, Birkholz (1997) suggested that faculty and staff have significant influence in students spiritual maturity and closeness with God. The Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (2001) study reported that CCCU graduates credit their college for having the ability to work in teams, thinking analytically, developing career-related skills, integrating faith with other aspects of their lives, modelling spiritual values and developing a sense of community. Similar results were found in studies conducted by the National Catholic College Admission Association (2010). College experience is multi-faceted and inter-related. Several studies suggested that student interactions in classroom discussions and involvement in research projects enhanced critical thinking skills and behaviours, and sense of spirituality (Kinzie et al, 2007; Ma, 2003; Smith, 1980; Tsui, 2002). And professors who integrate 26

28 ethnic and racial content in their course materials support greater student satisfaction with their college (Villalpando, 2002). Students who took part in an off-campus study tour may lead to growth in self-confidence (Hadis, 2005), self-efficacy (Kehl, 2005), respect for and ability to relate to different culture (Clarke et al, 2009; Engle and Engle, 2004; Hadis, 2005; Wortman, 2002) and support future volunteerism (Dwyer, 2004). The influence of college experiences on post-college involvement in religious and community services and life satisfaction have been examined in several studies. Students who were involved in service learning and community services during college were more likely to be engaged in their community and church and report positive well-being including personal growth, purpose in life and life satisfaction (Bowman et al, 2010; Carpenter, 2002), donate to their alma matter, help others in difficulty and promote racial understanding (Astin, Sax and Avalos, 1999; Vogelgesand and Astin, 2000). Studies by the Lutheran Educational Conference of North America (2005) and the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (2001) appear to suggest that their graduates, compared to graduates of public colleges and universities were more likely to participate in church, financially support the church, foundations and non-profit organsations. The Present Study The College-Impact study involved alumni of Adventist colleges and universities as well as Adventist graduates of public universities and non-adventist private universities in North America. However, a segment of the respondents who participated in the College-Impact study were graduates of Adventist colleges and universities outside of North America. The focus of this paper is this subsample of alumni. In this paper, we addressed the following research questions: (1) what reasons do alumni give for attending Adventist colleges and universities? (2) how do they rate their college experiences? (3) currently, what is their level of involvement in their churches and community? (4) how satisfied are they with their current life? (5) to what extent is overall rating of their college experiences related to specific areas of college experiences? (6) to what extent are current religious/community involvement and life satisfaction related to college experiences? Method Survey research methodology using online survey via Survey Monkey was used as the research framework for this study. Survey research has the advantages of being relatively inexpensive, easily scored, confidential and anonymous, easy to target respondents and use of standardized items and procedures. A primary disadvantage is that it generally yields poor response rate (Gay, Mills and Airasian, 2012). Procedure We developed an online survey which was then administered via Survey Monkey. Items were generated after conducting a comprehensive review of the literature and other college experience surveys and questionnaires. The final format and items of the survey were the result of feedback from alumni directors, marketing personnel, university professors whose expertise were in curriculum and instruction, higher education, educational research, measurement and applied statistics. While the survey was being developed, we contacted alumni directors of the various Adventist colleges and universities seeking their participation in the College-Impact study. Eleven of the 15 Adventist colleges and universities in North America agreed to participate. Once the survey was finalised, the URL for the survey was sent to the alumni directors who were requested to forward the link to all alumni of their institution who had graduated with undergraduate degrees. According to several alumni directors, up to 20% were bad addresses. Return rates were less than 10%, according to two alumni directors who tracked the survey delivery and return. We did not think return rates in the other remaining institutions were any different. For Adventists who graduated from public and non-adventist private universities, we worked with the Adventist Christian Fellowship (ACF), the official organisation of Adventist Campus Ministry operating in non-adventist colleges and universities in North America, Bermuda and Guam. Invitations to participate in College-Impact Study were also published in the Spectrum Magazine (the journal of the Association of Adventist Forums), and church bulletins of several randomly selected churches. Individuals who received the survey were also encouraged to forward the link to people who they believe graduated from non-adventist private and public colleges/universities. During data analysis, we discovered that there were respondents who graduated from Adventist colleges 27

29 and universities outside North America. We then created a separate data set for this group of alumni. The analyses reported in this paper are of alumni who graduated from Adventist colleges/universities outside North America. Participants Participants in this particular study were 226 alumni of Adventist colleges and universities outside North America. They represent graduates of Avondale College in Australia to River Plate University in Argentina and Adventist colleges in between these two countries. After excluding participants who had large number of missing values, the effective sample size is 171. The demographic characteristics are summarised in Table 1. Approximately half (50.3%) are male. About one-third is black (32.2%) primarily from Africa (19.9%) and the Caribbean (35.7%). At the time they were in college, 84.8% reported they were Adventists. At the time of the study (2012), 73.1% reported they are Adventists. Slightly over half (55%) graduated with undergraduate degrees within the last 20 years. About 44% currently live in the United States or Canada. Instrumentation We developed an online survey to collect the data for this study. The online survey was administered via Survey Monkey. The survey consisted of 265 items designed to elicit demographic characteristics, reasons for choosing and attending Adventist colleges/universities, 9 college experiences areas (career preparation, social and community values, purpose/philosophy values, classroom experience, professor interaction, friends and relationships, personal/professional development, extra-curricular experiences, and spiritual experiences), current involvement in church and community, life satisfaction, importance and benefits of college experiences, commitment to Adventist education and denominational loyalty. Table 1: Demographic Characteristics (N=171) Variable n % Gender Male Female Ethnicity Asian Black Hispanic White Other College/University Graduated From Africa Asia Australia Caribbean Central America Europe India Middle East South America Year Graduated

30 Religious Affiliation College SDA Non-SDA Now SDA Non-SDA Current Residence USA/Canada Other *Percentages to not necessarily add to 100% due to missing values Items for the survey were generated and developed from (a) a comprehensive review of the literature, (b) reviews of college experience surveys, (c) feedback from alumni directors, (d) feedback from a panel of judges whose expertise are in marketing, educational research, higher education and curriculum and instruction. Feedback was used to modify response options, and delete or revise items for clarity. For the purpose of this particular study, only items related to the following are used: demographic characteristics, reasons for attending Adventist colleges, the 9 college experiences areas, overall rating of college experiences, current involvement in church and community, and life satisfaction. Reasons for attending Adventist colleges consisted of a check list (Yes/No). Items for the 9 college experiences areas, involvement in church/community and life satisfaction were scaled along a 5-point modified Likert scale (e.g. never to always, not at all to very effective). Kijai (2013) reported that exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the data for all participants (North America and the sample used in this particular paper) indicated that items measuring the 9 college experiences areas can be adequately explained by six factors (career/life satisfaction, religious/spiritual experiences, social community values, friends/relationships, professors/classroom and extra-curricular experiences). Items measuring current religious/community experiences can be explained by two factors (religious involvement, community involvement) while items measuring life satisfaction can be explained by two factors (personal life satisfaction, relationship life satisfaction). For the sample in this study, scale means, standard deviations, number of items and reliability estimates (Cronbach s alpha) are reported in Tables 2 and 3. Internal consistency reliabilities range from a low of 0.75 for community involvement to a high of 0.96 for religious/ spiritual experiences. Table 2: Ratings of College Experiences Variables N Mean SD #Items Crobach s Alpha Career and life preparation a Religious and spiritual experience b Social and community values a Friends and relationships b Professor/classroom experiences b Extra-curricular activities b a 1-Not at all, 2-slightly effective, 3-somewhat effective, 4-quite effective, 5-extremely effective b 1-Never, 2-rarely, 3-sometimes, 4-often, 5-Always 29

31 Table 3: Religious/Community Involvement and Life Satisfaction Variable N Mean SD #Items Cronbach s Alpha Religious involvement a Community involvement a Personal life satisfaction b Relationship life satisfaction b a 1-Never, 2-rarely, 3-sometimes, 4-often, 5-always b 1-Not at all, 2-slightly, 3-moderately, 4-very, 5-completely Result Reasons for college choices Reasons reported for choosing and attending Adventist colleges and universities are summarised in Table 4. About 75% indicated they chose to attend Adventist colleges and universities for their Adventist values. Sixty-one percent attended for opportunities for spiritual growth. About half (48%) chose Adventist colleges for their friendly atmosphere. Another 45% chose them for their programmes and majors. Unimportant reasons appear to be sports program (2.3%), location from home (6.4%), and admission standard (9.9%). Table 4: Reasons for Attending Adventist Colleges/Universities (N=171) Reasons n % Adventist values Opportunities for spiritual growth Friendly social atmosphere Programs/majors available Advice of parents/relatives Strong academic reputation Personal attention/interaction with faculty/staff Location close to home Low cost/price Be with friends/meet new friends Small size Flexible admission standards Small class sizes Availability of scholarship/financial aid Competitive admission standards Advice of school personnel Location far from home Fast track to a career Large size Sports program College experiences We asked alumni how effective their college experiences were in helping them develop (a) career and life skills and (b) social and community values. We also asked them how often they were engaged in activities related to (a) religious/spiritual experience, friends and relationship, professor/classroom experiences, and extra-curricular activities. Means and standard deviations for each of these six areas are summarised in Table 30

32 2. Generally, Adventist colleges and universities were quite effective (M=3.86, SD=0.68) in helping alumni develop career and life preparation skills. They were only somewhat effective (M=3.57, SD=0.80) in helping the alumni develop social and community values. Alumni were often involved in activities related to religious and spiritual experiences (M=3.82, SD=0.90) and friends and relationships (M=3.90, SD=0.67). They were involved only sometimes with activities related to professor/classroom experiences (M=3.38, SD=0.79) and extra-curricular programs (M=2.72, SD=1.05). To be specific, over 80% of the alumni reported that the institutions they attended were quite effective to extremely effective in helping them develop (a) moral principles that can guide actions (85.29%), (b) knowledge specific to their careers (81.29%), and (c) a sense of purpose in their lives (81.07%). Adventist institutions were quite effective to extremely effective in helping them develop (a) the ability to relate to people of different culture (77.84%), (b) a deeper understanding of the importance of healthy living (75.30%), (c) personal compassion for the underprivileged (65.87%), and (d) understanding of social justice (53.01%). While in college, they regularly attended church (88.27%), participated in Bible study (71.25%), contributed money to their church (68.12%) and participated in evangelistic outreach programs (53.42%). They also often felt a sense of God s calling for their lives (82.35%), a deepened sense of spirituality (81.18%) and a stronger commitment to their church (77.06%). Seventy-five percent or more of the alumni reported that they had positive experiences with their professors and their classrooms. Approximately 80% indicated that professors positively influenced their intellectual growth; another 76% said their professors really challenged them academically. Seventy-five percent reported their professors integrated values and ethics in classroom discussions and 69.64% said their professors positively influenced their relationship with Christ. About 80% reported they had positive social experiences. Most had friends with similar values and beliefs (85.45%); who attended worships with them (81.21%); and positively influenced their attitudes and values (77.58%); and intellectual growth (76.97%). With respect to involvement in extra-curricular activities, 52.83% reported leading at their church in some ways; 49.08% participated in campus clubs; 37.42% held leadership positions in student government; and 35.44% led in community services. Current involvement and life satisfaction In our survey, we asked alumni the extent of their involvement in their churches and communities over the last five years. We also asked them how satisfied they are with their current life. Table 3 summarizes their ratings. Overall, in the past five years, alumni were often involved in religious activities (M=3.75, SD=0.94) and sometimes involved in community services (M=2.99, SD=0.91). Specifically, alumni reported being involved in the following religious activities often/regularly in the last five years: attending worship services (90.44%); contributing money to their church (85.82%); volunteering at their church (75.19%); participating in prayer group/bible study (68.89%); and participating in evangelistic outreach programmes (51.13%). About 70% are in leadership positions in their work place while 56% participate in professional organisations related to their careers. About 40% participate in community services and projects. Most are very satisfied with their personal life (M=3.72, SD=0.72) as well as their relationships (M=3.80, SD=0.98). Most are very satisfied with their mental health (79.14%), faith and spirituality (72.46%), physical health (68.12%) and career (64.23%). Over 70% are satisfied with their family life (74.10%) and marriage or dating relationships (70.15%). About 57% are satisfied with their social support. College experiences and overall rating We asked the alumni to rate their overall college experiences. About 77% reported their college experiences to be good to excellent. We were also interested in which of the six college experiences areas may explain this overall rating. For this we performed a standard regression analysis. Zero order correlations between college experience areas and overall ratings are found in Table 5. These coefficients ranged from negligible (0.18) to moderate (0.48). As shown in Table 6, the regression model is statistically significant (F (6,139) =7.98, p 0.001) and explains about 26% of the variance in alumni ratings of their overall college experience. That is, the linear combination of the 6 college experience areas accounts for 26% of the variance in overall rating of alumni college experience. However, the only statistically significant factor (p<.01) and the most important factor (β=0.37) appears to be professors/classroom experiences, which alone explains about 23% of the variance (r=0.48) in overall college experience. This result suggests that overall college experiences may be primarily defined by professor/classroom experience. 31

33 College experiences, current involvement and life satisfaction In our study, we asked alumni their level of religious and community involvement during the last five years. We also asked them to rate their current life satisfaction. We were interested in the extent to which current religious/community involvement and life satisfaction are related to college experiences. For this, we conducted a canonical correlation analysis. Correlation coefficients between involvement and satisfaction variables are reported in Table 5. Coefficients among involvement variables range from moderate (r=0.48) to high (r=0.78); coefficients among satisfaction variables also range from moderate (r=0.5) to high (r=0.75). Coefficients between involvement and satisfaction variables range from a low of r=0.26 between social/ community values and religious involvement to a high of r=0.71 between religious/spiritual experience and religious involvement. Table 5: Zero-order Correlation among Experiences, Involvement and Satisfaction Variables Variables Career and life preparation Religious and spiritual experience Social and community values Friends and relationships Professor/classroom experiences Extra-curricular activities Religious involvement Community involvement Personal life satisfaction Relationship life satisfaction.25 11Overall rating of college experience Table 6: College Experiences and Overall Rating Variable b SE β t p Career/life preparation Religious/spiritual experience Social community values Friends/relationships Professors/classroom Extra-curricular activities (Constant) R 2 =0.26, F (6,139) =7.98, p The canonical correlation analysis result is reported in Table 7. Two canonical functions are statistically significant (p<0.001). In the first canonical function, overlapping variance between the set of experiences variables and the set of involvement/satisfaction variables is (r c =0.77). That is, approximately 59% of the variance in involvement/satisfaction variables can be explained by the college experiences variables. Using canonical loadings of 0.3 or larger (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013), high scores on all involvement/ satisfaction variables are associated with high scores on all experiences variables. That is, higher religious involvement (0.95), higher personal life satisfaction (0.78) and relationship satisfaction (0.70 and higher community involvement (0.69) are associated with higher college religious/spiritual involvement (0.97), more positive career/life preparation experience (0.57), friends/relationship experience (0.56), professor/ classroom experiences (0.42) higher involvement in extracurricular activities (0.53), and more developed social/community values. Primarily, according to the standardised canonical coefficients for Function 1, current religious involvement (0.77) and personal life satisfaction (0.31) can be largely explained by college religious/spiritual involvement (1.07). 32

34 Table 7: Canonical Correlation Analysis Result Canonical Standardised Canonical Loadings Coefficients Experiences Career/life preparation Religious/spiritual Social community Values Friends/relationships Professor/classroom Extracurricular % of Variance Redundancy Involvement/Life Satisfaction Religious involvement Community involvement Personal satisfaction Relationship satisfaction % of Variance Redundancy Canonical Correlation Wilk s Chi-Square df p <0.001 < In Function 2, approximately 24% of the variance in involvement/satisfaction variables can be explained by the set of college experience variables (r c =0.49). In this function, current community involvement (0.62) and relationship satisfaction (0.40) are associated with social/community values (0.78), professor/classroom (0.68), extra-curricular activities (0.62), career/life preparation (0.59) and friends/relationship (0.47). The standardised canonical coefficients for Function 2 appear to indicate that current community involvement (1.20) and relationship satisfaction (0.49) can be explained largely by social/community (0.60), extra-curricular activities (0.56) and religious/spiritual (-0.85). Taken together, the canonical correlation analysis result appears to suggest that greater involvement in religious/community services and higher life satisfaction are associated with more positive college experiences. Specifically, higher levels of current religious involvement and more positive personal life satisfaction can be explained primarily by more positive college religious and spiritual experiences; and levels of current community involvement and relationship satisfaction may be explained by enhanced social/community values and greater involvement in extra-curricular activities while in college. Discussion In this study, we examined the college experiences, current religious and community involvement and life satisfaction of alumni of Adventist colleges and universities outside North America. Participants reported that they chose to attend Adventist colleges and universities for their Adventist values and the opportunities they provide for personal spiritual growth. Most rated their college experience as good to excellent. Generally, Adventist colleges and universities were somewhat effective to quite effective in helping the respondents develop career/life preparation skills and social and community values. Alumni were often involved in activities related to religious/spiritual experiences and friends/relationships. They reported to have been involved only sometimes with activities related to professor/classroom experiences and extra-curricular 33

35 programs. However, it is interesting to note that professor/classroom experience was the best predictor of overall rating of their college experiences. Most are currently involved in their churches and communities and are quite satisfied with their life. Current involvement in religious/community services and life satisfaction are primarily explained by involvement in religious/spiritual activities, extra-curricular activities and enhanced social/community values while in college. In our study, students chose to attend Adventist colleges for their Adventist values and the opportunities for spiritual growth. These institutions appear to have fulfilled their expectations. In our study, 65% reported they benefitted quite a bit to very much from the emphasis on personal values and ethics; 76% said they benefited from the opportunities for spiritual development. Our findings are consistent with Schipull (2009) and Rood (2009) who reported that many attend faith-based colleges for their Christian community. Adventist educational institutions around the world are faith-based and are described as such. At Avondale College, students may enjoy Christian fellowship while receiving quality education ; at Babcock University, the emphasis is on the integration of faith and learning, knowing that to educate a man without God is to educate an intelligent devil ; at Andrews University, its mission is to transforms its students by educating them to seek knowledge and affirm faith in order to change the world ; and the educational community of River Plate University are based on the Holy Bible, based on Christian values. The experiences of the alumni of Adventist colleges around the world are largely positive, particularly in areas related to career/life preparation, religious/spiritual and values development. This is consistent with findings found in the Lutheran Educational Conference of North America (2005a, 2005b); the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (2001) and the Minnesota Private College Research Foundation (2004). Faith-based institutions provide an environment that is conducive not only for academic and career development but also for spiritual/religious and values development. In our study, overall rating of college experiences is related to interaction with professors and classroom-related experiences. Interaction with faculty and faculty influence significantly affect students undergraduate academic and faith development (Astin, 1993; Birkholz, 1997; Hunt, 2006; NCCAA, 2010). We found in this study that post graduate involvement in religious and community services and life satisfaction are related to positive college experiences, particularly those involving religious/spiritual activities, development of community and social values, and involvement in extra-curricular activities. Consistent with previous studies (e.g. LECNA, 2005; CCCU, 2001, MPCRF, 2004) alumni are more likely to be involved in their church and community if they, as college students, had been involved in similar activities. They are also quite satisfied with personal and relationship lives. A high percentage (up to 75%) of the alumni in this study were involved in academic, religious, community and extra-curricular activities. Our findings seem to parallel those found in the Lutheran, Christian Coalition and Minnesota Catholic studies. That is, college experiences in Adventist colleges are largely positive and that these experiences may influence post-graduate life satisfaction and involvement in religious/community services. Our results suggest that the more involved and engaged the alumni were in college, the more likely they are involved in their churches and community and are satisfied with life. This seems to imply that Adventist higher learning institutions should continue to engage students in all facets of the college/university life. We believe student life programming should be strengthened and that students should be encouraged to be actively involved in the college life. Limitation and implication At only 171, our sample is small, relative to all the graduates of the Adventist colleges and universities outside North America. The respondents in this particular study were obtained indirectly, in that, they responded to our survey only because they were also graduates of colleges and universities in North America. They may be the cream of the crop of their undergraduate alma mater, and thus, may not be representative of the general population of alumni of these international Adventist colleges and universities. Further studies should be designed with a larger sample size and a more representative sample of the general population of alumni. With a larger sample size, it would be possible to examine gender and geographical differences. It would also be possible to examine differences across decades of degree completion. About 44% of the respondents in this study currently live in the United States and Canada. Their level of involvement in their churches and community and life satisfaction may be very different from those alumni who have remained in their respective countries. Further studies should be undertaken to understand post graduate religious and community involvement. 34

36 The influence of the college experience on denominational loyalty should be examined. What aspects of the college experience are related to retention, conversion and apostasy? College experiences and engagement of current students in Adventist higher learning institutions should be conducted, particularly, because the population of non-adventist students in many Adventist educational institutions has become larger over the last several years. How does this changing demography in Adventist institutions influence values development? References Astin, A. W. (1997). What matters most in college: Four critical years revisited. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Astin, A. W., Sax, L.J., & Avalos, J. (1999). Long-term effects of volunteerism during the undergraduate years. The Review of Higher Education, 22(2), Barreno, Y. and Traut, C. A. (2012). Students decisions to attend public two-year community colleges. Community College Journal of Research & Practice, 33(11), Birkholz, D. M. (1994). Walking with God: Students stories of spiritual growth at a small Christian college. Dissertation Abstracts International A, 55 (09). Retrieved April 9, 2010, from ProQuest Dissertation & Theses. (UMI No ). Bowman, N. A. (2009). College diversity courses and cognitive development among students from privileged and marginalized groups. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 2(3), Briggs, S. (2006). An exploratory study of the factors influencing undergraduate student choice: The case of higher education in Scotland. Studies in Higher Education, 31, Callender, C., & Jackson, J. (2008). Does the fear of debt constrain the choice of University and subject of study? Studies in Higher Education, 33, Carpenter, J. D. (2002). Co-curricular involvement of West Virginia four-year state college students and the statistical relationship with post-graduate community and professional involvement, leadership, salary, and job satisfaction. Dissertation Abstracts International A, 63 (06). Retrieved September 29, 2010, from ProQuest Dissertation & Theses. (UMI No ). Clarke, I., Flaherty, T. B., Wright, N. D., & McMillen, R. M. (2009). Student intercultural proficiency from study abroad programs. Journal of Marketing Education, 31(2), Confer, C. and Mamiseishvili, K. (2012). College choice of minority students admitted to institutions in the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities. Journal of College Admission, Fall, Council for Christian Colleges and Universities. (2001). Comparative alumni research: What matters in college after college. Retrieved April 23, 2010, from alumni_outcomes Dwyer, M. M. (2004). More is better: The impact of study abroad program duration. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 10, Engle, L., & Engle, J. (2004). Assessing language acquisition and intercultural sensitivity development in relation to study abroad program design. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 10(1), Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E. and Airasian, P. (2012). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Griffith, A., & Rask, K. (2007). The influence of the U.S. News and World Report collegiate rankings on the matriculation decisions of high-ability students: Economics of Education Review, 26I, Hadis, B. (2005). Gauging the impact of study abroad: How to overcome the limitations of a single-cell design. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 30(1), Hoover, E. (2008, February). Colleges face tough sell to freshman, survey finds. Chronicle of Higher Education, 54, A1. Howell, D. (2013). Statistical methods for psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning Hunt, B. G. (2006). Supports and challenges in the faith development in Jesus Christ in traditionally aged college students (Doctoral Dissertation). Azusa, California: Azusa Pacific University. Retrieved from Kehl, K. L. (2005). Differences in self-efficacy and global-mindedness between short-term and semester-long study abroad participants of selected Christian universities (Doctoral Dissertation). Baylor University. Retrieved April 20, 2010 from 35

37 Kijai, J. (2013). Exploratory factor analysis of the College Impact Study survey (Unpublished research monograph). Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan. Kinzie, J., Gonyea, R., Kuh, G. D., Umbach, P., Blaich, C., & Korkmaz, A. (2007). The relationship between gender and student engagement in college. Retrieved April 20, 2010 from files/pdfs/gender-and-student-engagement-in-college.pdf Kuh, G. D., Kinzie, J., Schuh, J. H., and Whitt, E. J. (2010). Student success in college: Creating conditions that matter. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Lutheran Educational Conference of North America. (2005a). Lutheran student comparison: Lutheran students at Lutheran colleges and Flagship publics. Retrieved April 21, 2010 from org/resources. Lutheran Educational Conference of North America. (2005b). Overall comparison: Lutheran colleges to Flagship publics. Retrieved April 21, 2010 from Ma, S. Y. (2003). The Christian college experience and the development of spirituality among students. Christian Higher Education, 2(4), National Catholic College Admission Association. (2010). A Comparative Advantage Alumni Study for the National Catholic College Admission Association. Retrieved April 20, 2010 from Pascarella, E. T. and Terenzini, P. T. (2005). How college affects students: A third decade of research. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ridley, K., White, K., Styles, B., & Morrison, J. (2005). Factors affecting applications to Oxford and Cambridge Repeat survey. Slough, Berkshire, UK: National Foundation for Educational Research. Retrieved April 23, 2010 from Rood, R. E. (2009). Driven to achieve: First-generation students narrated experience at a private Christian college. Christian Higher Education, 8, Sauder, V. (2008). Marketing Seventh-day Adventist higher education: College-choice motivators and barriers (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan. Schipull, R. L. (2009). Factors Determining Student Choice of Christian Liberal Arts Colleges (Masters Thesis). OhioLINK / University of Toledo. Retrieved April 27, 2010 from view?acc_num Smith, D. G. (1980). College Instruction: Four Empirical Views of instruction and outcomes in an undergraduate setting. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA. Retrieved April 26, 2010 from servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed Tabachnick, B. G. and Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Tsui, L. (2002). Fostering Critical Thinking through Effective Pedagogy: Evidence from Four Institutional Case Studies. The Journal of Higher Education, 73(6), Villalpando, O. (2002). The Impact of Diversity and Multiculturalism on All Students: Findings from a National Study. NASPA Journal, 40(1), Vogelgesang, L. J., & Astin, A. W. (2000). Comparing the Effects of Community Service and Service-Learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 7(1), Wortman, T. I. (2002). Psychosocial effects of studying abroad: Openness to diversity. Pennsylvania, United States: The Pennsylvania State University. About the Authors Jimmy Kijai, PhD, is professor in the School of Education at Andrews University, Michigan, USA. Vinita Sauder, PhD, is Vice President for Strategic Initiatives at Southern Adventist University, Tennessee, USA. Robert Weaver, MBA, is a member of the Association of Adventist Colleges and Universities. 36

38 Catalyst ISSN: , Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press Effect of Performance-Based Rewards on the Performance of Teachers in Selected Private Secondary Schools in Uganda Leonard Richard Mghweno, Mark Obboko and Stella Adongo [The following article was first presented as a paper at the 1 st International ScholarsCofeenceheld at Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand, on 3-4 October 2013.] Abstract A cross-sectional and correlation research was conducted to investigate the effects of performance-based rewards on the performance of teachers in selected private secondary school in Gayaza Township in Uganda; using questionnaire and interview guide to 113 respondents. The study revealed the types of performance-based rewards common in private secondary schools to be public appreciation (mean, 3.67), packages (gifts or presents) (mean, 3.44), duty allowance (mean, 3.41), certificate of merit (mean, 3.21), and overtime pay (mean, 2.98). The study revealed also that there is a significant relationship between the performance-based rewards and performance of teachers which was moderately rated (mean, 3.22), with r-value = and p-value = at α = It is concluded that, when used properly, performance-based rewards can improve teachers performance, consequently the general performance of students. Key Words: Performance, rewards, appreciation, merit Introduction People influence important aspects of organisational performance in a multiple ways. Workers conceive and implement the organisational strategy, while the mix of workers and system mostly determine organisation s capabilities. Competencies required to execute the strategy are primarily a function of the skills and knowledge of an organisation s human capital. If an organisation is to treat its employees as its most important asset, it has to know what motivates the workers to reach their full potential (Lawler, 2003). It is not easy to know all the things that motivate people in life or at work but effort has to be made to maximise human resource potentials. Traditionally, individual performance in organisations has centred on the evaluation of performance and the allocation of rewards. Organisations nowadays acknowledge that planning and enabling individual performance have an effect on organisational performance. The planning process is one of the primary elements of the total reward system and it affects performance between pay checks. It provides the basis on which individuals results are measured and acts as a bonding agent in programmes that direct rewards to true performance. The primary focus of reward and recognition is how organisations define their reward schemes and communicate it in a manner that employees clearly understand the link between reward and performance (Flynn, 1998, in Kirunda, 2004). Reward is something that increases the frequency of an employee action (Zigon, 1998), and retention (Jimenez, 1999). It can take a form of monetary or non-monetary. Non-monetary recognition can be very motivating, helping to build feelings of confidence and satisfaction than even monetary (Keller, 1999, cited in Ryan), and should be part of comprehensive performance improvement strategy. In fact, in a study by Nelson (2004), 78% of employees indicated that it was very or extremely important to be recognised by their managers when they do good work. In general, employees perform more energetically when they feel strongly connected to and valued by the organisation. One can imagine how the disciples of Jesus worked after he had given them a rest after a day s toil, come and rest awhile Mark 6:30, 31 (KJV). 37

39 In the education sector, the quality of education depends on the teachers performance of their duties. Over time pupils academic performance in both internal and external examinations had been used to determine excellence in teachers and teaching (Ajao, 2001). Teachers have been shown to have an important influence on students academic achievement and they also play a crucial role in educational attainment because the teacher is ultimately responsible for translating policy into action and principles based on practice during interaction with the students (Afe, 2001). Both teaching and learning depend on teachers; no wonder an effective teacher has been conceptualised as one who produces desired results in the course of duty as a teacher (Uchefuna, 2001). Performance refers to the result of an activity according to Boddy (2008). Upon individuals results, there are three main models of performance-based rewards that are commonly found in education systems. The first model is merit-pay, which generally involves individual pecuniary awards based on student performance, and classroom observation (McCollum, 2001, in Harvey-Beavis, 2003). The second model is knowledge and skill-based compensation, which generally involves individual pecuniary rewards for acquired qualifications and demonstrated knowledge and skills, which are believed to increase student performance (Ibid.). Knowledge and skill-based pay differs from merit pay because it provides clear guidelines on what is being evaluated. The third model is school-based compensation, which generally involves group-based pecuniary rewards, typically based on student performance (Odden & Kelley, 2002). For purposes of this study, performance based reward refer to what a teacher earns as a result of his/her performance despite his/her skilfulness, knowledge and the level of education. Performance-based rewards have a long history in education, particularly in the United States, but nowadays a number of countries have adopted pay-for-performance strategies to modify the traditional salary scales. The distinguishing feature of a performance-based scheme is that it rewards or sanctions teachers based upon some form of performance evaluation (Chamberlin, et.al, 2002). Kirunda (2004) observed: Distinctions in performance-based reward programmes are found in the skills assessed and the rewards provided. Most individually-based programs have used pecuniary rewards for high levels of performance, usually defined in terms of student outcomes or teacher skills and knowledge. Today, some analysts have proposed that intrinsic rewards, such as seeing students improve in performance, and increased feelings of well-being are better motivators of teachers. Other rewards include increased holiday time and professional development courses. Different performance-based rewards have been applied worldwide with different results and preferences recorded. Many of the earlier programmes tended to focus on individual performance, in particular merit pay (Richardson, 1999), with recent debates more likely to consider group-based reward programmes, or knowledge and skill based rewards (Odden, 2000; Odden and Kelley, 2002). However, Azordegan, et.al. (2005) in their study on diversifying teacher compensation discovered that many countries have consolidated individual performance bonuses into base pay. Others prefer to administer them in the form of one-off payments either as a token for a good year s work or a reward for contribution to a project. However, according to Langdon (1998), only 40% of teachers as by 1998, favoured performance based compensations. The reasons given being; it is difficult to evaluate teacher s performance, teachers morale problem may arise, and possibility of arising political problems in schools. Furthermore, Solmon and Podgursky (undated), synthesises fifteen disadvantages of using performance-based compensations to teachers, among them being; discontentment of the choice of beneficiaries, insufficiency of the pay comparing to the work required, bias and favouritism, killing the spirit of collaboration and inculcating competition, teachers working for pay and not for teaching. The imposition of the motivation strategy was also mentioned with a great concern. Teachers feel like been not valued if the motivation scheme is decided by other people for them. A good example is in the United States where there has been a push from parents to pay teachers according to the performance of teachers, but even up to 2010 this idea has greatly been opposed by teachers (Turner, 2010). On the other hand, the recommendations made by the independent School Teachers Review Body in UK (STRB) in 2012, called the government to link teachers pay more closely to performance. Under this policy, heads and governors are given freedom to reward their staff, in that head teachers at all state schools will be able to link teachers pay to performance allowing them to pay good teachers more. Heads can develop pay policies tailored to their schools needs; helping them attract and retain talented teachers in the subject areas they know they need (DES, 2013). Whereas this idea has been received with two hands by head teachers, there is no evidence that the same will be received by teachers. 38

40 In addition, Harvey-Beavis (2003), records comprehensive findings from different studies on the effect of performance-based rewards. He noted that performance-based rewards increase motivation of teachers and collegiality, among others, consequently, increased students performance. He further reports arguments by some researchers that while teachers are not motivated by money, financial reward must have some influence on career choices for at least some teachers (Richardson, 1999), but money is just one motivator among many (Odden and Kelley, 2002). Again, it is good to note that whereas one motivating system can fit one group, it may be rejected in other places. Where performance-based rewards were used, it was realised that team-based performance rewards were less common, and were normally associated with completing a particular task or project, or achieving a prescribed performance target. However, many opposed the idea of awarding an individual which is the current trend in many schools. As it is stated by Harvey-Beavis (2003), rewarding individual performance can be detrimental to teacher collaboration; thereby reducing overall school performance. Conversely, reward s ystems based entirely on whole school performance can result in free riders who reduce the overall reward of high performers by not contributing at the same level. In Uganda, employers in private secondary schools have not put up any standard measure upon which employees are rewarded. Some employers have used pecuniary rewards for high levels of performance, usually defined in terms of student outcomes or teacher skills and knowledge (Chamberlin, et.al, 2002). It has been evident in some schools that when students perform well, the concerned teachers in candidate classes are given some rewards which may not be the case with other teachers who teach in other classes yet they also play a role in preparing these candidates in lower classes for the final exams. Other individuals in private schools have also been rewarded on grounds of nepotism and other unclear grounds. It is upon such a background that some teachers have performed reluctantly while others continue to be promoted due to their pseudo performance. In this note, Kirunda (2004) notices inconsistencies in the reward systems in the private secondary schools of Kampala district and recommends that rewards should be based on performance considerations after a fair and accurate evaluation of its effects on the beneficiary. She further suggests that the nature of performance-based reward systems in schools should be based on the essence of ensuring that teachers are looked at as the prime components in the success of any school, administratively and academically. Administrators should also be trained and sensitized about the value of performance-based reward systems and also be made aware that pay motivates teachers to perform at their best. In other words, employers have the opportunity to leverage the value of their total rewards program to provide solutions to all the challenges affecting teachers; this would increase their motivation and their performance. On the other hand, some school employers realised that they could not merely mimic the rewards practices of other schools since each school differ from the other, especially economically. What is feasible in one school or situation may not apply in another. This study was based on the assumption that employers attitudes towards performance based rewards determines employees work performance, in other words, it motivates or de-motivates them. The value that the employers attach to the rewards that they give to their teachers determines the teachers perception of these rewards and their overall performance. The study also assumes that the effect of performance based rewards differ from one situation to another, from one socio-economic setup to another. The study therefore, sought to evaluate the effect of performance based rewards in school performance in African and sub-urban environment and relate it with such studies done in other places. The study aimed to answer the following questions: What are the types of performance-based rewards systems used in private secondary schools in Gayaza Township? What is the performance of teachers in secondary schools in Gayaza Township? Is there a relationship between performance based reward systems and teachers performance in private secondary schools in Gayaza Township? The objective of the study was to identify the types of performance-based rewards used, establish the performance of teachers and determine the relationship that exists between the rewards and the performance of teachers in private secondary schools of Gayaza Township in Uganda. Methodology The study used a cross-sectional survey and correlation design adopting qualitative and quantitative methodologies (adapted from Kirunda, 2004). The study population constituted mainly private secondary schools, head teachers and teachers. This population was chosen because it was assumed to have adequate knowledge of the subject under investigation and the research variables under investigation. There are 10 privately owned secondary schools in Gayaza Township, since they were few all of them were used for the 39

41 study. A sample size of 113 respondents was drawn from a population of 157 individuals using Yamane s formula (Israel, 2009), employing simple random sampling technique (Table 1). The study used a self-administered questionnaire with open and closed ended questions to collect data from the respondents. Specifically, the questionnaire was designed in a way that it limited the nature of responses provided on the close-ended part and allowed respondents to give in their feelings and opinions in the open-ended section. The questionnaire was constructed based on the objectives of the study. Content validity index (C.V.I) was ascertained before the questionnaire was administered, which generated an overall CVI of.811. On the other hand, reliability involved, quality control which was done by carrying out a pre-test of the questionnaire to test the reliability using Cronbach s alpha coefficient. The pre-test result was which was above Cronbach s alpha coefficient, 0.70; hence the tool was considered as reliable. An interview guide consisting of semi-structured questions was designed and administered to the head teachers. The choice of this instrument was made because it was considered a good method for producing data, which dealt with the topic in depth. Interviewing was also a good method for producing data based on informants priorities, opinions and ideas. The findings were analysed thematically. The unit of analysis was secondary schools teacher and head teachers who were in private secondary schools in Gayaza Township. The descriptive statistics such as the frequency, percentage and mean were used so as to ascertain types of performance-based rewards used and measuring the performance of teachers in private secondary schools. Furthermore, Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to assess the relationship between performance based reward and performance of teachers using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Table 1: Sample distribution School No of teachers Sample Kabanyolo S.S Katikamu S.S Atlas High Tender Talents Gayaza Junior Bulamu S.S Eden High School 13 9 Magnet Sec School Bafra Sec School Younani Bulaumu Total The Locale of the Study Gayaza is situated in North Kyaddondo Constituency, Kyaddondo County, Wakiso District, in Central Uganda. The township is located 16km northeast of Kampala, the capital city of Uganda. The coordinates of the township are: N, E (Latitude: ; Longitude: ) (Wikipedia, 2013). It is a sub-urban town situated about 16km north of Kampala. The accessibility of the town makes it possible for its fast development although the total population. It is a home of a prestigious all-girls boarding high school, Gayaza High School, established in 1905, three other government aided and ten private owned schools. Results and Discussion The study intended to establish the types of performance-based rewards used, the performance of teachers and the relationship that exists between performance-based rewards and the performance of teachers in private secondary schools in Gayaza Township in Uganda. Since the nature of the study called for maturity, it was pertinent to study the biographical structure of the respondents, to include sex, age, years of experience, and the academic qualification. As indicated in table 2, males (59.8%) appeared to dominate 40

42 the study although the females (40.2%) were substantively represented. It is also interesting to see that the schools are populated with young people below 40 as they accounted for 69.1% of the total sample. Concerning the years of the service of the respondents it was found out that 46.7% of the respondents had serviced their schools for 4-6 years then followed by those who had serviced their schools between 1-3 years (40.2%). This implies that majority of respondents had moderately serviced their schools as few had exceeded 6 years. This could be attributed to the fact that some of the schools in the area are new and it is easy to get jobs in private sector. It is good to note also that the respondents were mainly trained teachers, with degree (52.3%) and diploma (33.6%) dominating. Table 2: Respondents profile Frequency Percent Gender Male Female Age bracket Below 30 years Years years and above years Years of service 1-3 years years and above years Academic qualification Untrained Diploma Degree Post graduate n=113 Types of Performance-Based Rewards The study sought to establish the types of performance-based rewards used in private secondary schools in Gayaza Township in Uganda. In this aspect, the findings revealed that public appreciation was the common rewards provided (mean, 3.67). This was attributed to the fact that it had no or little financial implication costs to the school as it would have been for salary increment, duty allowances and pay checks. In an interview with head teachers it was pointed out that appreciation does well as it helps the teachers to feel more valued as compared to financial type of rewards. In addition, they noted that they preferred to use public appreciation as a type of reward because it is considered cheap. For example, good performing teachers could be appreciated during visiting days where teachers are recognised before parents and students. This finding is supported by Murnane and Cohen (1986) who note that teachers impressions of performance-evaluations systems play a crucial role in the success of performance-based pay programme. On the other hand, packages, presents or gifts were rated second as part of the rewards provided (mean, 3.44). This was a common type of practice as noted through interviews with head teachers. Such tokens were provided during the final release of results from Uganda National Examination Board. In this matter, a number of schools pointed out that the teachers were given presents or gifts and packages based on the performance of students. Packages, presents and gifts common to private schools in this area of study included giving out home utensils, clothes, Christmas gifts, organised performance parties and even checks. The findings in this study differs from that of Kirunda (2004) who reports public appreciation and promotions to be the common used rewards in Kampala private schools followed by packages, presents or gifts. In another study on performance-based rewards for teachers conducted in Australia (DEST, 2007), knowledge and skill based compensation were pointed out. It was suggested that in knowledge and skill-based compensation schemes, teachers are rewarded for the acquisition of a specific knowledge and skill required to meet higher expectations of performance. 41

43 Table 3: Performance-based rewards available in schools Rewards Mean Salary Increment 2.51 Overtime pay 2.98 Certificate of merit 3.21 Packages/presents/gifts 3.44 Duty allowance 3.41 Individual/group photograph 2.31 Public appreciation 3.67 Promotions 2.56 Average Mean 3.01 n=113 Duty allowance and overtime pay were also found popular in private secondary schools with mean of 3.41 and 2.98, respectively. With regard to these two, it was revealed during interview that they too had a cheaper financial implication to the school since they were dished out once in a while and minimally, yet they yielded high satisfaction to the performer. It was also noted, however that, duty allowance and overtime pay were common in well-established private secondary schools. In small schools, it was discovered that the school budget could not support it. In contrary, the most common practice in small private schools was to overload teachers which actually de-motivate them. One teacher could teach more than one subject and in most cases teaching almost all papers in the specified subjects. The certificate of merit (mean, 3.21) rated the fourth and above the average in this study. It is really surprising to see certificate of merit rated higher than salary increment (mean, 2.51), promotions (mean, 2.56) and overtime pay (mean, 2.98) because in African culture it is believed that Africans never eat flowers, neither do they eat papers. That is to say, you cannot give an African a bouquet of flowers, a card or letter of appreciation and value it as being given a valuable thing. But this could signal some change of trends or that the increments and pays that are given are not large enough to outweigh the paper (certificate) display. On the other hand, the salary increment, and promotions and memorial photographs were perceived to be rare. Although most teachers preferred salary increment to any other form of reward, they noted that promotions would be good but schools have put no proper yardstick upon which promotions are given. It was pointed out that some schools might have a mechanism of promotion but there is no salary increment attached equivalent to the position is given. At times, the promotions add on more responsibilities with no financial increment attached. According to Odden (2002), in most current systems of a salary scale, teachers are rewarded for the number of years spent teaching and the number of tertiary degrees, rather than their performance. In contrast the respondents noted that in the Ugandan context, rewards or promotions are given according to the number of distinctions scored by students in a given subject, one s relationship with the head teacher, directors. Odden (2002) suggests that on laying out an effective and workable system of performance pay in schools, one of the more crucial questions to be answered is that of whether the contributions of individual teachers can be measured in a way which will provide a valid, fair, and generally accepted basis for varying pay rates. Very often the yardstick the private schools have used to gauge the performance of individual teachers is the performance outcomes of students in a given subject without considering other circumstances that could contribute to failure in other subjects. Teaching is a process and a collective effort of many individuals; it is at times difficult to determine which teacher performed better than the other and be rewarded accordingly. Teachers Performance in Private Secondary Schools The study also sought to establish the performance of teachers in private secondary schools in Gayaza Township in Uganda using views of participants skills and expertise in teaching. A number of items upon which teachers were rated included possession of adequate problem solving skills, commitment to teamwork, understanding students problems, teachers level of enthusiasm for teaching in this school, willingness to help students learn, doing their job effectively without complaining, having good working practices, having 42

44 pride in their work and being consistently accurate in all aspects of their work. These were assessed purely on how the respondents viewed themselves. On average the respondents rated the performance of teachers above average. All items used to assess teachers performance were above average except teachers level of enthusiasm (mean, 2.51), doing their job without complaining (mean, 2.98) and having pride in their work (mean, 3.12). Otherwise, teachers on average expressed their commitment to their professionalism through understanding their clients (mean, 3.58) and possession of adequate problem solving skills (mean, 3.54). This implies that the teachers were competent enough in what they were doing which is reflected also through their academic qualification they possess (table 2). In other aspects of performance that were evaluated commitment to teamwork rated third (mean, 3.47), followed by willingness to helping students learn (mean, 3.32), striving for accuracy in their work (mean, 3.24) and having pride or loving in their work (mean, 3.12).In a an interview with the head teachers it was disclosed that schools encouraged working in teams (teamwork) for example, administrators would provide tasks such as ensuring punctuality among students, school cleaning, and enforcing discipline and other kinds of group work and in the process teamwork was enhanced. The fact that understanding students and willingness to help them rated above average, it is evidence that teachers loved their work and they possess necessary training and skills required to perform their work. However, the same teachers seriously lacked the spirit of work as reflected by their rating of enthusiasm towards teaching (mean, 2.51). This can be attributed to the low level of motivation and incentives as well as too much load; both teaching and non-teaching activities at school. Table 4: Performance of teachers Attributes Possession of adequate problem solving skills 3.54 Commitment to teamwork 3.47 Understanding students problems 3.58 Teachers level of enthusiasm for teaching in the school 2.51 Willingness to help students learn 3.32 Doing their job effectively without complaining 2.98 Having pride in their work 3.12 Strive to be consistently accurate in all aspects of their work 3.24 Average mean rating 3.22 n=113 Mean rating It is perplexing to see that teachers who lack enthusiasm are willing to help their students and are proud of their work. This is probably suggesting what OECD Paris (2005) indicated: that while people who have chosen teaching as a career are chiefly motivated by intrinsic rewards (such as wanting to make a difference), extrinsic factors such as remuneration are the most significant factors influencing people not to choose teaching as a career, and to leave the profession. It thus means that performance-based rewards play a significant role in the performance of teachers in secondary schools. So, performance-based rewards seem to be a plausible way both to motivate teachers to direct effort at performance goals and to attract and retain teachers who are high performers. Relationship between performance-based rewards and the performance of teachers: The study finally looked at the relationship that exists between performance-based rewards and the performance of teachers in private secondary schools of Gayaza Township in Uganda. The study used Pearson Product Moment Correlation in this aspect and it was found that there existed a significant relationship between performance-based rewards and performance of teachers (r-value=0.743 at p =0.05). 43

45 Table 5: Correlation between performance-based rewards and performance of teachers Performance of teachers Performance Based rewards r. value.743** p. value.012 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). n=113 This implies that performance-based rewards significantly affected the performance of teachers in private schools. In private schools, performance-based rewards were considered important because they motivate teachers, promote good performance, improve on administrator-teacher relations, demonstrate a fair and equal treatment and contribute to individual records. Since the performance-based rewards have got an impact on the performance of teachers, it is imperative for head teachers and proprietors to assess the treatments and rewards they give to their teachers. In this line, Stedman & McCallion (2011) assert that interest in performance-based pay for teachers rose, in part, from a basic dissatisfaction with the traditional salary schedule can therefore be approved. They maintain that many policy-makers believed that the traditional salary schedule provided no incentive for teachers to demonstrate subject matter competence, improve teaching, or increase academic performance by students. Findings of this study also indicated that teachers salaries in private school were not attractive, they could only be supplemented by other rewards such as bonuses, allowances, gifts just to mention a few. Proponents of pay-for-performance programmes believe they will attract and retain better teachers if they are able to offer increased salaries to the best teachers. They argue that paying teachers poorly in the same way as those who work longer hours, engage more effectively with their students and consistently produce improved academic outcomes, is unfair, inequitable and does little to improve the overall quality of teaching. This is also highlighted by Lavy (2007) who identified benefits of performance-based rewards as improved productivity; that is, if rewards are based on student performance, they provide teachers with powerful signals about what is valued and what is not. If these signals are absent, even well meaning teachers may emphasise materials that are generally not valued by parents or the labour market. However, Harvey-Beavis (2003) argued that performance-based compensation programmes encourage competition rather than collaboration among teachers. Many would argue that the concept of individual merit is at odds with the collegiate approach of effective schools, stifling collaboration and creating conflict and tension in the school environment. Nevertheless, Harvey-Beavis (2003) argument contradicts with the findings, realised that performance-based reward systems can increase collegiality by rewarding cooperation between teachers especially through administering group-based rewards. Opponents of pay-for-performance, on the other hand, argue that it is almost impossible to evaluate and measure teachers performance fairly. They point to the many variables involved in student academic outcomes, such as family support, socio-economic status, ethnicity, natural ability, location, and ask how teacher performance can be measured fairly. Another problem in relation to pay-for-performance is the fact that the true outcomes of education might not materialize for many years. If we accept that one of the key goals of education is to empower students with skills that they can use to enhance a productive career and sustain their economic well being (Lavy, 2007), it may be many years before we can measure whether or not a teacher has been successful. Nevertheless, it can then be concluded that performance-based rewards affect the performance of teachers in private schools. In conclusion, the most commonly used types of performance-based rewards were public appreciation, package or presents, and duty allowances and overtime pay. Salary increment was the least considered by many head teachers because it often constrains the school budget and it cannot easily be re-adjusted in case of any financial crisis. The fact that public appreciation rated highly among the rewards, it is clear that teachers valued more recognition than money which would look like selling and buying service. Conceptually, this study has empirically verified the influence of performance-based rewards on the performance of teachers in private secondary schools. It therefore, forms a basis for subsequent research to explore other factors that could affect teacher and students performance. Also, the study will help the government and employers to design and formulate future and feasible staff reward system strategies or mechanisms to increase the teachers performance. The study recommends that head teachers and proprietors should always think of being close to their teachers, sit on round table and negotiate what is best fit for them. These findings can be used to motivate teachers in our schools and thus increase teachers 44

46 performance, consequently improve schools and students performance. It is recommended that similar study be conducted explicitly in church-related and government schools to see if the same results will hold. Acknowledgement The researchers would wish to thank Bugema University for moral and financial support extended towards accomplishment of this work. Also special thanks and appreciations are extended to the management of the schools that participated in this study. References Afe, J.O. (2001). Reflections on Becoming a Teacher and the Challenges of Teacher Education. Inaugural Lecture Series 64. Benin City: University of Benin, Nigeria. Ajao, W. (2001). Cadbury is Determined to Move Education Forward. Vanguard, December 27, 2001, p.16. Azordegan, J., Byrnett, P., Campbell, K., Greenman, J., & Coulter, T. (2005). Diversifying Teacher Compensation (Issue Paper No. 1). Education Commission of the States (December 2005). Retrieved April 6, 2013 from, Boddy, D. (2008). Management: An introduction, fourth edition, New York: Prentice Hall. Chamberlin, R., Wragg, T., Haynes, G. & Wragg, C. (2002). Research Papers in Education, 17(1), Performance-related pay and the teaching profession: a review of the literature. Department for Education Schools (DES). (2013). School Teachers Review Body reports: 21st report (2012) and 22nd report (2013). Retrieved on November 6, 2013, from careers/payandpensions/a /strb-remit-21st-report Department of Education Science and Training (DEST). (2007). Performance-based rewards for teachers: Surveys and Workforce Analysis Section, Skills Analysis and Quality Systems Branch, Australia. Flynn, G. (1998). Is your recognition program understood? Workforce, 77(7), Harvey-Beavis, O. (2003). Performance-Based Rewards for Teachers: A Literature Review, Workshop of Participating Countries on OECD s Activity Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers 4-5 June 2003, Athens, Greece. Israel, G.D. (2009). Determining sample size. Program evaluation and organizational development, IFAS,University of Florida. James, B.S. and Gail, M. (2001). Performance-Based Pay for Teachers, paper for CRS Report for Congress. Jimenez, R. (1999). Managing Employee Retention Through Recognition. T+D, 53 (10) Keller, J. (1999). Motivational Systems. In H.D. Stolovitch & E.J. Keeps, (Eds.), Handbook of Human Performance Technology. ( ). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer. Kirunda, H.K. (2004). Performance-based rewards and the performance of teachers in private secondary schools in Kampala district. MA Dissertation, Makerere University. Lavy, V. (2007). Using Performance-Based Pay to Improve the Quality of Teachers. The Future of Children 17(1), Retrieved on August 19, 2013, from v017/17.1lavy.html Lawler, E.E. (2003). Treat people right. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Murnane, R.J., & Cohen, D.K. (1986). Merit pay and the evaluation problem: Why most merit pay plans fail and a few survive. Harvard Educational Review, 56(1), Nelson, B. (2004). Everything you thought you knew about recognition is wrong. Workplace Management. Retrieved on February 16, 2012, from Odden, A. and Kelley, C. (2002). Paying Teachers For What They Know And Do: New And Smarter, OECD, Retrieved on May 23, 2013, from Richardson, R. (1999) Performance Related Pay in Schools: An Assessment of the Green Papers, A report prepared for the National Union of Teachers, The London School of Economics and Political Science. Ryan, S. (n.d.). Rewards and Recognition. incentivesrewards_2.htm Solmon, L.C. and Podgursky, M. (no date). The Prons and cons of Performance-based Compensation. Acessed on 6 November 2013, from Stedman, J. B. and Mc Callion. G. (2011). Performance-Based Pay for Teachers, paper for CRS Report for Congress. 45

47 Uchefuna, M.C. (2001). A Study of Clinical Supervision and Teachers Effectiveness in Umuahia and Abia Educational Zones of Abia State. M.Ed Dissertation, Unpublished, Port Harcourt: University of Port. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. (2013). Gayaza. Retrieved on November 6, 2013, from org/wiki/gayaza. About the Authors Leonard Richard Mghweno is Corresponding Author in the School of Education at Bugema University, Uganda. leomghweno@yahoo.com; lmghweno@bugemauniv.ac.ug Mark Obboko and Stella Adongo are lecturers in the School of Education at Bugema University, Uganda. 46

48 Appendix 1 Questionnaire for Teachers Effects of Performance-based Rewards on the Performance of Teachers in Private Secondary Schools in Uganda This self-administered was given to 133 teachers who expressed their freedom of expression after being assured of confidentiality. SECTION A: Respondents Profile Respondents were asked to tick ( ) in the box corresponding to what fits them best. 1. Sex/gender: i) Male ii) Female 2. Age bracket: i) Below 30 years ii) years iii) years iv) 50 and above years 3. Years of service in the school: i) 1-3 years ii) 4-6 years iii) 7 and above years 4. Educational attainment: i) Untrained ii) Diploma iii) Degree iv) Post graduate SECTION B In this section, respondents were asked to rate the statements according to what they understand using the following scale: 1=Strongly disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Sometimes, 4=Agree and 5=Strongly agree. Types of performance based rewards The school provides salary increment regularly The school provides overtime pay for doing activities outside the normal periods The school gives certificate of merit once you excel There are packages/presents/gifts given to teachers for their good work done The school provides duty allowance for responsibilities accorded to teachers There is always individual/group photograph taken as a record of good work done The head-teacher always gives public appreciation for teachers who have done well There are promotions given to teachers due to their good performance Teachers performance: I possess adequate problem solving skills that I use at school I am committed to teamwork at school at any time Understanding students problems is part of my duty which I do honestly Willingness to help students learn is what I offer to students I do my job effectively without complaining for lack of school input I have good working practices with my colleagues I have pride in my work at school I strive to be consistently accurate in all aspects of their work at school In your opinion, are satisfied with performance based rewards system at school? Explain... 47

49 Appendix 2 Interview Guide This part was openly discussed with Head-teachers of each participating school. 1. Which type of performance rewards do you provide to your teachers? 2. Why does the school provide such rewards? 3. How often do the school provide rewards to teachers? 4. How can you rate your teacher performance? 5. Why do you think the teacher performance the way they do? 6. In your opinion what should be done to improve teachers performance? 48

50 Catalyst ISSN: , Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press 49 Primary and Lower Secondary School Teachers Attitudes toward English Language Learning: A Case Study of Teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang Districts, Saraburi Province Nakhon Kitjaroonchai [The following article was first presented as a paper at the 1 st International Scholars Conference held at Asia- Pacific International University, Thailand, on 3-4 October 2013.] Abstract This study surveyed the attitudes of primary and lower secondary school teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts of Basic Education Service Area Office 2, Saraburi province, toward the English language, and examined the significant difference between male and female teachers attitudes toward English and the significant difference between those with 1-4 years and those with more than 20 years of teaching experience. A modified 20-item attitude survey adapted from Gardner s (1985) Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) was administered to 203 primary and lower secondary school teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts, Saraburi province. The data was analysed using MINITAB version 16, and the significance of differences between means was analysed using Two-Sample T-test. The findings of the study revealed that the attitude of the primary and lower secondary school teachers toward the English language was slightly positive. The study also showed that there was no significant difference between male and female teachers attitudes, and no significant difference in the teachers attitudes between those with 1-4 years of teaching experience and those with more than 20 years of teaching experience. Keywords: attitudes, English language learning Introduction Over the past years, English language teaching and learning has not been successfully implemented in Thai schools. The results of students undertaking the Ordinary National Educational Test (O-NET) proved that Thai students performed poorly in the English subject (Kaewmala, 2012) and the trend showed the O-NET scores for the last three years were becoming worse (Phanphruek, cited in Kaewmala, 2012). Students should not be criticised alone for their failure, but teachers must also bear the responsibility because they are knowledge providers to this young generation. The University of Cambridge as part of a field trial launched a survey in February 2006 to gauge 400 Thai teachers English s language proficiency. The results showed that over 60% of the teachers had insufficient knowledge of English and teaching methodology and what they had was below the syllabus level they were teaching (Kaewmala, 2012). Many of the primary teachers in the government schools in Thailand admitted that they were forced to teach English although they had limited knowledge or no knowledge of the language at all. Many state schools in remote and sparsely populated areas lack qualified teachers, and in them one teacher ends up teaching all grade levels despite the fact that the teachers themselves lack skills and knowledge of those particular subjects. Such a situation has a strong impact on student learning ability in any educational system since teaching refers to the action of a real life teacher imparting learning to students (Patanathabutr, 2008). Teachers need to develop positive attitudes toward their teaching profession in order to strive for excellent teaching and expertise in the level they aspire to teach at as their positive attitudes and actions ultimately make a positive difference on the lives of their students (Gourneau, nd.) and their roles in the classroom play a crucial part in developing the personality of the students (Hussain et al., 2011).

51 Teachers are required to have a higher level of professionalism due to the rapid change of globalisation, and they must adjust to a new educational development system if such a change enhances their professionalism and benefits the students. After the presentation of Cebu Declaration on the Acceleration of the Establishment of an ASEAN Community by 2015, the Thai government has been actively gearing its commitment to achieve its roadmap for ASEAN 2015 (Kitjaroonchais, 2012). Over the past few years the Thai Ministry of Education has been promoting English as an international language, in which all educational institutions from basic to tertiary level must emphasise English to learners at their schools as Thailand is becoming part of the ASEAN Community in Thailand s English Speaking Year 2012 programme was launched in December 2011 by Former Education Minister Worawat Auapinyakul. This initiative encouraged teachers and students to use English inside and outside the classroom without being concerned about any grammatical errors in their conversation. In 2012, volunteer teachers from England were employed to train non-english speaking Thai teachers in public and private schools nationwide, and the Ministry of Education also allotted over USD 3 million to train 1,137 local Thai teachers in native English speaking countries (Searchlight Process, 2013). As can be seen, not only were the students urged to develop their English proficiency to get ready for the AEC 2015, but teachers also were encouraged to improve their language skills as they are the pillars of the education system in the nation. In such circumstances, it is important to know how teachers feel about the trend towards English language teaching. Thus, this study aims to investigate the primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward English language. Although a plethora of research in language attitudes has been conducted nationally and internationally over the past decades (Balcazar, 2003; Marley, 2004; Mee-ling, 2009; Mamun, et al., 2012), most of those studies aimed to investigate students or learners attitudes toward a foreign (FL), or second language (L2) they were acquiring. There are still limited studies that attempt to explore school teachers attitudes toward the English language, particularly in this part of the region. To the best of the researcher s knowledge, no other study has been conducted to investigate the attitudes of Thai primary school teachers toward the English language. As the country is approaching the ASEAN Community 2015, it is necessary to perceive the attitudes of the teachers (the basic knowledge providers) toward the English language, which is believed to be a language for communication in the ASEAN countries. To address this gap, the present investigation would contribute to the understanding of such issues with regard to the attitudes of the primary and lower secondary school teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts, Saraburi province, toward the English language. This could serve as a reference for responsible people who are committed to developing a Basic Education Curriculum in the region, and to improving the English language proficiency of the primary and lower secondary school teachers, and their attitudes toward the English language. Objective of this study This study aims to investigate the attitudes of primary and lower secondary school teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts, Saraburi province, toward the English language. Research Questions and Hypotheses This study endeavoured to answer the following questions: 1. What are the attitudes of the primary and lower secondary school teachers toward the English language? What are some of the problems of English language teaching in Thailand? 2. Is there any significant difference between male and female teachers attitudes toward the English language? 3. Is there any significant difference in the teachers attitudes toward English language between those with 1-4 years and those with more than 20 years of teaching experience? Ho1: There is no significant difference between male and female primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward English language. Ho2: There is no significant difference in the primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward English language between those with 1-4 years of teaching experience and those with more than 20 years of teaching experience. 50

52 Literature Review This section provides a review of literature relevant to the scope of the research objectives. The review includes a brief overview of the concepts of attitudes. Attitudes and Attitude Over the past years a plethora of studies on language attitudes have been conducted, such as attitudes toward the mother tongue, attitudes toward different languages (Balcazar, 2003; Marley, 2004) or attitudes toward a second or foreign language (Mee-ling, 2009). Some of these studies attempted to look into the attitudes of the people toward the languages, and what constructs, or changes people s attitudes toward the languages. According to Gardner (cited in Al- Tamimi & Shuib, 2009, p. 33), attitudes are a component of motivation, which refers to the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language, and one of the key predominant factors for success in the language learning process (Zainol, et al., 2012, p. 120). When learners construct positive attitudes through learning experiences, they will learn and accomplish their goals much easier than those with negative attitudes, because negative attitudes lead to decreased motivation as well as input and interaction (Brown, 1994). According to Montano and Kasprzyk (cited in Zainol, 2012, p. 120), attitude is the individual s beliefs about outcomes or attributes of performing the behaviour, weighted by evaluations of those outcomes and attributes, whereas Gardner (cited in Al-Tamimi & Shuib, 2009, p. 33) defines attitude as the sum total of a man s instincts and feelings, prejudice or bias, preconceived notions, fear, threats, and convictions about any specified topic. Gardner s definition of attitudes is in line with Papanastasiou (2002) who states that attitude is the emotional tendency of an individual in favour of or against any circumstances, events, objects, places or ideas. Thus, attitude is linked to a person s values and beliefs and promotes or discourages the choices made in all realms of activity an individual encounters. The Online Business Dictionary defines attitudes as a predisposition or a tendency to respond positively or negatively towards a certain idea, object, person, or situation, and it influences an individual s choice of action, and responses to challenges, incentives, and rewards. Individuals may develop a sense of positive or negative attitude depending on experience and challenge they encounter, and attitudes can be changed when stimulated by persuasion or surrounding phenomenon (Eagly & Chaiken, 1995) and this change can result from changes in a cognitive component such as receiving new information from other people (Triandis, cited in Khunasathitchai, 2009). Hogg and Vaughan (cited in Melhim & Rahman, 2009, p. 1) define attitude as a mental and neural state of readiness organised through experience exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual s response to all objects and situations with which it is related, while Eagly and Chaiken (cited in Melhim & Rahman, 2009, p. 2) state that attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor. Attitude forms a part of one s perception of self, of others, and of the culture in which one is living (Brown, 2000, p. 180) and it determines the personal and behavioural intention (Garcia-Santillan, et al., 2012). After exploring the various definitions of the term attitude defined by different educators and psychologists, it can be concluded that attitude is a feeling or perception or belief gained through past experience, and in that a person inclines to correspond through behavioural expression either favourably or unfavourably towards the persons, objects, situations or circumstance that the person is engaged with, and it can be changed through stimuli or persuasion. Components of Attitude Gardner (1985) describes the attitude concept in three components, namely the affective component (feelings about the attitude object); the behavioural component (predisposition to act towards the attitude object in a certain way); and the cognitive component (beliefs about the attitude object). a). The affective or emotional aspect of attitude can help learners to express whether they like or dislike the objects or surrounding situations and the inner feelings and emotions of foreign language learners influence their perspectives and their attitudes toward the target language (Zainol, et al., 2012). This is because learning a foreign language is an emotional process in which the teacher and his students engage in emotional activities in a classroom setting (Feng & Chen, 2009). Emotional expressions can be 51

53 identified through facial movements such as smiling or scowling or reactions through crying or laughing. b). The behavioural aspect of attitude deals with people s reaction and behaviour toward situations they encounter. Their reaction can be expressed either favourably or unfavourably. According to Kara (2009), positive attitudes lead to the exhibition of positive behaviours toward courses of study in that learners will absorb the acquired knowledge and put themselves into it and strive to learn more. These students will be more eager to solve problems and apply information and skills useful for daily life than those who have neutral or negative attitudes. Thus, the behavioural aspect might view any positive act toward a person or object as positive attitude. In contrast, it views any negative acts as negative attitude. c). The cognitive aspect of attitude is the beliefs of the language learners regarding their acquired knowledge and their comprehension and understanding toward the process of language acquisition. According to Zainol, et al., (2012) this aspect of attitude can be classified into four steps; namely, connecting the previous knowledge with the new one, creating new knowledge, checking new knowledge and applying the new knowledge in different situations. From a different angle, Van Els et al. (cited in Al-Tamimi & Shuib, 2009, p. 33), suggests that it does not really matter whether all or only one of the three components are measured; the relationship between the components is so close that sufficient information on an attitude can be obtained by measuring only one component, no matter which. Functions of Attitudes Attitudes may also express some important aspects of an individual s personality (Petty & Cacioppo, 1996, p. 8). Gardner (cited in Melhim & Rahman, 2009, p. 3) describes four functions of attitudes that may serve a person; namely, value-expressive, ego-defensive, knowledge and utilitarian functions. a). Value-expressive function may enable us to express who we are and what we believe in (Gardner, cited in Melhim & Rahman, 2009, p. 3). The value-expressive function will occur when a person holds a certain attitude towards someone or something and that attitude allows that person to express an important value (Petty & Cacioppo, 1996, p. 8). This can be illustrated by a person who likes solar panels for power energy provision in a remote area where state-funded electricity is inaccessible because he values the energy conservation, and in that his attitude will serve a value-expressive function. Values vary from one person to another and they are important as they form, shape and change the attitudes of individuals toward different circumstances (Bektas & Nalcaci, 2012, p. 1244). b). Ego-defensive function helps protect individuals from unflattering truth about themselves or about others who are important to them (Petty & Cacioppo, 1996, p. 8) and sometimes this ego-defensive attitude acts to resolve inner conflict and minimize or obliterate certain aspects of emotional life (Sarnoff & Katz, 1954, p. 118). Eagly & Chaiken, (cited in Lapinski & Boster, 2001, p. 315) state that ego-defensive attitudes are generally not accessible directly to those who hold them and that they are highly resistant to change as they serve as a means of projecting a person s self-concept from inconsistencies and disconfirming information. The ego-defensive attitudes can be illustrated by a person who sees himself as fine-looking and persevering with a promising future, yet his inner self, reminds him of his roots as an ethnic minority in his society. When the person is confronted with a message that threatens the consistency of the cognition, he may put forth cognitive effort in order to cope with the internal conflict within his conscience. c). Knowledge function will enable us to know the world (Gardner, 1985). The attitudes that serve a knowledge function will allow individuals to better understand situations and people who they associate with or people around them. Such attitudes also help people ascribe causes to events and direct attention towards features of people or situations, and in consequence, they help make the world more understandable, predicable, and knowledgeable, as well as increasing the efficiency of information processing (Sammons, nd). The attitudes that serve as knowledge function can be illustrated by a group of environmentalists which finds all means to oppose the construction of a 52

54 modern poultry farm intended to offer local residents career opportunity and generate revenue, claiming that the new project will rather jeopardise the surrounding environment where these residents inhabit than bring it goodwill as claimed. Their opposition is grounded with convincing evidence or scientific knowledge which has been professionally researched. Their claims may gradually sway other people s perception. Such attitudes of knowledge function help simplify our perception of the world around us so that it becomes more manageable and understandable (Petty & Cacioppo, 1996, p. 8). d). Utilitarian function helps us to gain rewards and avoid punishment (Gardner, 1985). The attitudes that serve a utilitarian function may enable us to avoid unpleasant circumstances but obtain things that look more pleasurable. In other words, such attitudes will maximise rewards and minimise punishment. Sammons (nd) states that people who express other attitudes may help them avoid negative circumstances. The attitudes which serve a utilitarian function can be demonstrated by an employee in a well-established company who has perfectly adopted his manager s policies as well as his attitudes prior to asking for an increase in salary, and it is obvious that the employee s new attitudes are for a utilitarian function. Katz s functional view of attitudes (cited in Petty & Cacioppo, 1996, p. 8) avers that different people may hold the same attitudes, but the attitudes may serve very different purposes for them. It is obvious to us that attitudes can serve in different but useful functions. According to Zainol, et al., (2012) language attitudes could enhance the learner s language acquisition and influence the nature of their behaviours and beliefs towards the language, culture, and community, and this will identify learners propensity to acquire that particular language. From the above literature review it is apparent that individuals may have different attitudes toward languages and their attitudes may serve in different useful functions. However, the attitudes of the primary and lower secondary school teachers toward English language learning have not been explored yet. Thus, the present study intends to fill up this identified research gap by investigating the attitudes of primary and lower secondary school teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts, Saraburi province, toward the English language learning. Research Methodology Participants The participants were 203 primary and lower secondary school teachers from 52 different schools in Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts of Saraburi province, Thailand, who attended the workshop entitled Basic English Communication Skills for ASEAN Community 2015 organised by the Interdisciplinary Schools of Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts, at Asia-Pacific International University, on Sunday, March 24, The respondents were 50 male and 153 female teachers, with different years of teaching experience ranging from 1 to more than 20 years. These teachers teach different subjects defined in Basic Education Core Curriculum 2008, such as Thai language, Mathematics, Science, English, Social studies, Religion and Culture, History, Health and Physical Education, Arts and Occupations and Technology. The participating teachers came from different backgrounds of English language knowledge and many of whom never or hardly ever use English at school to communicate with their colleagues due to the environmental and cultural context. Design The design of this study was quantitative in nature. Therefore, the adapted questionnaire items were employed as a measuring instrument. We assumed that the subjects answered all the items in the questionnaire honestly, giving their own perceptions about their attitudes toward English language. They were asked to respond to the questionnaire after they had participated in the workshop, and data were collected for further analysis. 53

55 Instrument The measuring instrument used in this study was an attitude questionnaire which focused on the attitudes toward the English language. The questionnaire items were adapted from the Attitude and Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) developed by Gardner (1985). However, some statements were compiled by the researcher based on his teaching experience in order to select those most suitable for the participants and the reality of their cultural context. There were 20 five-point Likert (1932) scale items on a scale of 1 5, ranging from strongly disagree = 1 to strongly agree = 5 (for positive statements), and 5 1 from strongly agree = 1 to strongly disagree = 5 (for negative statements). There were 11 positive statements and 9 negative statements decoded by odd and even numbers respectively on the questionnaire (see Appendix 1). The open-ended question was used to obtain supplementary information concerning the respondent s attitudes toward English language teaching and learning in Thailand. Their comments in this section could express barriers or difficulties of English language teaching and learning which they perceive through their teaching experiences in their schools. This would help the researcher to better perceive their attitudes toward English language teaching problems. The questionnaire consisted of the following parts: Part I: Demographic profile of the respondent: gender, teaching class level, years of teaching experience and responsible subject. Some of these demographic data in this study would be partially used for analysis. Part II: Twenty closed-ended attitude questionnaire items; items 1-16 are examining attitudes of the respondents toward English in general, and items are investigating their attitudes toward the adequacy of English materials and quality of English teachers at their respective schools. The 20 statements were divided into 11 positive attitude statements and 9 negative attitude statements respectively. The positive statements are defined in odd numbers, whereas the negative ones are defined in even numbers, except item 16. These questionnaire items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree for positive statements, and vice versa for the negative statements). Part III: Two closed-ended questions concerning the respondent s frequency of using English and level of English communication skills. One open-ended question was to investigate the respondent s attitudes toward English language teaching and learning in Thailand. It should be noted that the questionnaire items were translated into Thai in order to ensure that all the participants would be able to understand the statements clearly. Data Analysis Procedure The first section of the questionnaire was analysed through percentages to explore the participants demographical profile. The second section was analysed through statistical analysis in terms of percentage, means, and standard deviations by using MINITAB version 16, to explore the primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward English and any significant differences between male and female teachers, and their years of teaching experience. The Two-Sample T-test was conducted to answer the third and fourth question. The additional open-ended question in Part III of this questionnaire was analysed quantitatively aiming to examine the teachers attitudes toward problems of English language teaching and learning. To interpret the mean score, the researcher adopted the interpreting procedure developed by Chaihiranwattana & Nookua (2010) as shown in Table 1 below. Table 1: Interpretation of mean score of primary school teachers attitude Mean levels: Score Range very positive positive neutral negative very negative

56 The mean score for each item indicated the level of the teachers attitude: the higher score indicated that they had positive attitude, while the lower score indicated negative attitude toward English language. Results and Discussion The demographic characteristics of the participants are summarised in Table 2. Two hundred and three people participated in this study. Of these, 50 were male and 153 were female. They were teaching in different grades ranging from nursery to lower secondary levels (grades 7-9). Six of these (3%) were school administrators. These teachers varied in years of experience ranging from 1 year to more than 20 years of teaching. Of these, 36.9% stated that they had more than 20 years of teaching experience, while 33% only had 1-4 years of teaching experience. Others had taught between 5-8 years (10.3%), 9-12 years (7.9%), years (4.9%) and years (6.9%) respectively. Interestingly, as shown in Table 2, 22.2% of the respondents stated that they teach all levels of students from grades 1-6, while 28.1% said they teach all subjects defined in Basic Education Core Curriculum Such a finding corresponds with Permanent Secretary of the Office of Basic Education Commission, Chinnapat Bhumirat s response to the interview on the topic Ministry of Education on Rural Schools in which he claimed that in rural schools, one teacher has to teach classes from kindergarten to grade six due to the shortage of teachers (Sea, 2011), and a lack of teachers in some subject areas means they were taught by teachers in schools who were occasionally unqualified to teach the subject (Srisa-Ard, et al., nd). Table 2: Frequency of subjects divided according to gender, level of teaching, years of teaching experience, subject area of teaching, frequency of using English, and level of English proficiency (N = 203) Gender Frequency Percentage Male % Female % Level of Teaching Frequency Percentage Grade % Grade % Grade % Grade % Grade % Grade % Low secondary % Nursery % Multi-grades % Administration 6 3.0% Years of Teaching Experience Frequency Percentage 1-4 years % 5-8 years % 9-12 years % years % years % More than 20 years % Subject Area of Teaching Frequency Percentage Thai % Mathematics % Science 9 4.4% Sociology and Culture 8 3.9% Art 7 3.4% Occupation and Technology % English % Health Studies 5 2.5% Physical Education 6 3.0% All Subjects % Nursery Education % Administration 6 3.0% 55

57 Figure A: Percentage of frequency of using English (N = 203) Figure A shows the frequency of the participants using English for communication. Of these 203 respondents, 59 or 29% stated they never used English to communicate with others in daily life, whereas 12% said they only used English about once a month. Fifty two of the participants (26%) stated they used English less than 1-2 hours a week, and 15% said they spent 1-2 hours a week to communicate in English with other people. Some 11% used English daily, while 7% of the respondents stated that they used English only once in a while or when it is necessary or on a particular occasion such as travelling abroad, taking exams or meeting with foreigners. From the findings, it can be concluded that the majority of the primary and lower secondary school teachers participating in this study hardly ever used English to communicate with their colleagues or other people in their community due to an unsupportive atmosphere and cultural context. As Punthumasen (2007) stated in her research findings that the environment in school and outside school does not facilitate learners in practising their English daily. In addition, a number of the respondents stated in the open-ended question that they felt shy to speak English with other people and they did not realise the importance of English for they hardly ever used it in daily life and they live in a community surrounded by their Thai fellow citizens by whom the national language (Thai) is proudly and widely spoken. Figure B: Percentage level of English proficiency (N = 203) As seen in Figure B, none of the respondents admitted that their English proficiency is very good. Of the 203 participants, 1% or only 2 of them admitted that their English is good, whereas 27% said their language proficiency is about average, while 57 % admitted that their language proficiency needs improvement, and 15% of them stated that their English is unacceptable. Many of these teachers do not use English in daily life and it is hardly possible for them to practise the language with their colleagues at workplace. Language skills cannot be developed if learners neglect to use it regularly as part of their daily communication. As seen from Table 2, about 8% of the respondents teach English and they might as well use the language only in classroom when they instruct the lessons. Once the language lesson is over, they would resume to habitual routine where colleagues and students speak to them in the mother tongue. To verify the teachers attitudes towards English language learning, the respondents were asked to scale a 56

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