Viral Marketing, Web 2.0 and Social Media - A Review

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1 International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark. 17: (2012) Published online 18 April 2012 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com).1420 Creating buzz : opportunities and limitations of social media for arts institutions and their viral marketing Andrea Hausmann* Arts Management, European University Viadrina, Frankfurt/Oder, Germany According to empirical studies, two thirds of the people worldwide who surf the Internet use Web 2.0 applications (i.e. social media such as YouTube, Facebook or Twitter). The rate of growth is especially impressive in Germany, where the reluctance to publish personal information has traditionally been greater than in other countries. Accordingly, more and more German cultural suppliers seek to explore the possibilities of Web 2.0 and social media for their marketing objectives. In times of a general information overflow, declining credibility of traditional communication tools and a continued shortage of resources in the cultural sector, the fact that these web-based applications can facilitate viral marketing and stimulate word-of-mouth is of special interest to arts institutions. However, until now, arts marketing has seen hardly any research on this topic. Therefore, the objective of this paper was to analyse the opportunities and limitations of Web 2.0 and social media for the viral marketing of arts institutions, especially with regard to their impact on quality and/or behavioural uncertainty on the part of visitors. The task setting will be carried out under consideration of the economics of information approach and explorative data. Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Keywords: social media, Web 2.0, viral marketing, arts marketing, arts institutions, economics of information Introduction Adoption of Web 2.0 applications that is, social media such as YouTube, Facebook or Twitter has increased at an impressive pace since their market launch. According to empirical studies (e.g. Nielsen, 2010a), in 2010, three fourths of the people worldwide who surf the Internet use social media. The rate of growth is especially impressive in Germany, where the reluctance to publish personal *Correspondence to: Dr. Andrea Hausmann, Associate Professor for Arts Management, European University Viadrina, Frankfurt/ Oder, Germany. hausmann@euv-frankfurt-o.de information has traditionally been greater than in other countries (Adams and Willems, 2010; Moore, 2010). Although only 39% of Germans used social media on the Internet in 2007, their number had risen to 51% in 2008 and 63% in 2009 (Nielsen, 2009 and 2010b). Accordingly, people in Germany spend more and more time on the web to search news, use multimedia technology and explore social media applications (Table 1). With regard to this development, German cultural suppliers both in the performing arts (e.g. Bavarian State Opera Munich, State Ballet Berlin or Duisburg Philharmonic Orchestra) and in the fine arts (e.g. Städel Museum Frankfurt, Museum Folkwang Essen, NRW-Forum Duesseldorf) increasingly seek

2 174 Andrea Hausmann Table 1. Average online session length in Germany 2003 to 2010 (n = 1125) Session length per day (in min) Average days per week Source: ARD/ZDF to explore the possibilities of Web 2.0 and social media for their marketing objectives. In times of a general information overflow, declining credibility of traditional communication tools and a continued shortage of resources in the cultural sector, the fact that these web-based applications can facilitate viral marketing and stimulate word-of-mouth is of special interest to arts institutions. However, until now, arts marketing has seen hardly any research on this topic. Against this background, this paper aims to address the following questions: What is the connection between viral marketing, Web 2.0 and social media and in what way can the economics of information approach explain the importance of these phenomena for arts institutions? What applications are predominantly used by German arts institutions to exploit the benefits of social media for viral marketing? What are the limitations for arts institutions to the use of social media? To answer these questions, relevant terms will be defined, the state of research in literature will be outlined and the theoretical framework will be discussed. This is followed by the presentation of suitable social media applications and an analysis of the limitations to their use in the arts sector. The paper will be rounded off by a short conclusion and an outlook on the necessary research steps. The objective of this paper was to analyse the opportunities and limitations of Web 2.0 and social media for the viral marketing of arts institutions, especially with regard to their impact on the reduction of quality and/or behavioural uncertainty on the part of visitors. To achieve this purpose, a comprehensive literature analysis will be undertaken and complemented by exploratory empirical research on three German art institutions. Definition of terms and literature review Although Web 2.0 and social media are very recent phenomena, an increasing body of marketing literature (albeit not in arts marketing) has already focused on these topics. But even if there is an ever-growing number of manuals, guidelines and well-founded studies (e.g. Bauer et al. 2007b; Hass et al., 2008; Renker, 2008; Miller and Lammas, 2010), disagreement exists regarding the definition and use of the terms (e.g. Alby, 2007; Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010; Scott and Jacka, 2011). With regard to Web 2.0, O Reilly (2005) is seen as the originator of the term, and although his agenda was actually not the pursuit of academic knowledge, the concept has quickly gained interest in academia. Generally spoken, Web 2.0 comprises technologies and applications, which all have in common that they integrate users into the value chain of organisations and help people to network (e.g. O Reilly, 2005; Bauer et al., 2007a; Hass et al., 2008). In conjunction with the release name 2.0 and its symbolic power, special emphasis is placed on the transformation from the passive consumer into an active (co-)producer, a prosumer. But the fact that this transformation of the consumer is not new (see, for example, Kotler 1986; Hyman 1986) and that, in general, Web 2.0 is not a new, revolutionary version of the traditional Internet (i.e. Web 1.0) but rather the result of an ongoing development process of existing technologies, standards and applications, has caused some criticism (e.g. Blättel-Mink and Hellmann, 2010; Blumauer and Pellegrini, 2006; Maaß and Pietsch, 2007). Nevertheless, most authors acknowledge a high potential for Web 2.0 in the future, especially for social media (e.g. Miller and Lammas, 2010). Social media are understood to be applications of Web 2.0 that enable and support the communication, interaction and the creation of relationships between users (e.g. Scott, 2010; Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010).

3 Creating buzz Typical social media instruments include social networks (e.g. Facebook), Wikis (e.g. Wikipedia), video portals (e.g. Youtube.com), photo collections (e.g. MySpace), weblogs (blogs), microblogs (e.g. Twitter) and bookmark collections (e.g. Mister Wong). Research into viral marketing also known as buzz marketing (e.g. Dye, 2000; Miller and Lammas, 2010) is at a more advanced stage, as this term has been explored in marketing literature since its introduction by Jurvetson and Draper, 1998 (albeit, again, not in specific literature on arts institutions). But even so, disagreement about its definition still exists, and the concept is likely to be confused with other marketing tools (e.g. Phelps et al., 2004). Whereas some narrow it down to, for example, word-of-mouth advertising (e.g. Donovan and Henley, 2010), others prefer a broader perspective (e.g. Phelps, 2004; Dobele et al., 2005). From this comprehensive point of view, which is shared by the author of this paper, viral marketing is the process of encouraging individuals (i.e. customers, users, visitors etc.) to pass along favourable or compelling marketing information they receive in a hypermedia environment. Whereas in the early days of viral marketing this information was primarily transmitted by (e.g. Helm, 2001; Phelps, 2004), social media applications such as Facebook or Twitter offer by now a variety of computermediated, web-based ways to spread the word (e.g. Allen, 2008; Hollensen, 2008; Thorne, 2008; Renker, 2008). Customers play a vital role in this process: In viral marketing, an exchange between supplier and customer only takes place indirectly; customers take the function of intermediaries, and the supplying firm only contacts the first few adaptors (Helm, 2001, p. 159). With viral marketing, arts institutions try to make use of visitors networks and to stimulate word-of-mouth to promote and distribute their services. Word-of-mouth refers to informal, positive, neutral or negative communication between consumers about organisations and their services (e.g. Bayus, 1985; Buttle, 1998; Wilson, 1991; Helm, 2000; Bauer et al., 2007b) that can happen both offline and online ( word-of-mouse ). With regard to the typical features of the Internet, the attractiveness of online word-of-mouth is primarily based on its capacity for high information diffusion, as news spread on the Internet at extreme speed and the cost of this distribution is low in relation to the awareness it creates, and on its credibility, as the sender and the recipient often know each other personally. Especially, when transmitting news in communities and social networks, it is safe to assume that the word will be spread to the right target groups and that the recipients have great interest in the content (e.g. Schulz et al., 2008; Miller and Lammas, 2010). In summary, the first research question can be answered by saying that social media are one of several Web 2.0 applications that may be used for viral marketing and the stimulation of word-of-mouth (as research in other sectors has shown; e.g. Trusov et al., 2009; Cao et al., 2009). Several empirical studies (e.g. Helm 1997; Hausmann, 2001 Geissler et al., 2006) have indicated that word-of-mouth is a very important and relatively inexpensive instrument for the arts sector. This importance is not least due to the fact that arts institutions usually offer intangible services or services with a high degree of immateriality (Colbert, 2007; Kotler et al., 2008), which leads to quality and behavioural uncertainty among users of these services (Müller, 2008; Helm and Kuhl, 2006; Blömeke et al., 2008). As uncertainty is usually analysed by taking the findings of the economics of information approach (e.g. Akerlof, 1970; Nelson, 1970; Stiglitz, 2000) into account, this theory will be used here to analyse the importance of wordof-mouth (and therefore the need for viral marketing) in the arts sector. Theoretical framework 175 The economics of information approach is a branch of microeconomic theory that is also used by marketers to analyse how uncertainty and information asymmetries affect consumer behaviour and marketing decisions (e.g. Helm, 2000; Voeth et al., 2005; Blömeke et al., 2008). It distinguishes between search, experience and trust characteristics (Nelson, 1970; Adler, 1996), as these have a substantial impact on the assessment possibilities and the information behaviour of potential users of service providers such as arts institutions (Adler, 1996; Kaas, 1991). Whereas search characteristics can relatively easily and accurately be assessed before the purchase or

4 176 Andrea Hausmann use of a service (e.g. price for a ticket, the theme of an exhibition or the kind of music the musicians will perform), experience characteristics can be judged only during or after using a service or participating in an activity (for instance, the signage of exhibits in museums, the acoustics of a concert hall or the comprehensibility of the introduction to a theatre performance). If, however, not even an ex post assessment of services is (fully) possible, there is a high share of trust characteristics (e.g. Karns, 2002; Roth et al., 2004; Meffert and Bruhn, 2006). Customers then have to rely on the promised properties (e.g. authenticity of exhibits, faithfulness to the original in concerts, educational experiences in general) to actually exist. This means that the greater the share of experience and trust characteristics, the greater the uncertainty of potential customers prior to the use of a service, the higher their perceived risk of making the wrong choice and the higher their information requirements. Although arts institutions such as museums, theatres or orchestras involve all three characteristics, experience and trust characteristics dominate (e.g. Karns, 2002; Helm and Kuhl, 2006). It is supported in the relevant literature (e.g. Karns, 2002; Helm and Kuhl, 2006; Müller, 2008; Blömeke et al., 2008; Kilian et al., 2008) that this high share of experience and trust characteristics of cultural services leads to high-quality uncertainty (e.g. about the quality of a museum and its services) and/or behavioural uncertainty (e.g. whether to search for more reviews on a play, whether to book a ticket in an expensive seat category etc.) on the part of the visitor. Especially for first-time visitors (but also for infrequent visitors who have rather little experience with arts institutions), the risk of making the wrong choice is high, and they will feel unconfident about their decision. From the point of view of the arts institution, it makes sense to take signalling measures (Adler 1996) and to transmit appropriate information to reduce this uncertainty. Signals substitute or bundle a number of other information which the prospective visitor would otherwise use to assess the quality. These socalled information chunks stand as indicators for other information and are particularly relevant for the judgment of services. The price of a ticket, the reputation and branding (and hence the trustworthiness) of an arts institution or reviews mainly from expert critics but in the Web 2.0 era also from ordinary consumers on reviews online services can be such information chunks, for instance. Also, where experience and trust characteristics are in place, word-ofmouth among users are considered particularly effective (e.g. Karns, 2002; Helm and Kuhl, 2006; Kilian et al., 2008): In this context, the abovementioned credibility and trustworthiness of the sender of the recommendation, the homogeneity and similarity between the sender and the recipient, the possibility for the recipient to obtain feedback and ask questions, the absence of (financial) selling interests on the part of the sender and the social control of the exchange situation play a highly critical role (Helm, 2000). Against this background, the use of viral marketing to stimulate word-of-mouth is regarded as suitable to reduce quality and/or behavioural uncertainty on the part of users of cultural services. Unlike traditional word-of-mouth communication, which happens offline and whose reach is limited by nature, online word-of-mouth via social media can spread like a biological virus or like an epidemic (Renker, 2008), especially in social networks, where some members have hundreds of so-called friends unfolding even greater communication effects. Bearing this in mind, it will be explored in the next section what social media applications are suited for arts institutions with regard to the distribution of messages about the organisation as a whole or its services and the reduction of quality and/or behavioural uncertainty. Viral marketing through social media: applications and exploratory case studies Methodology All in all, this paper is largely based on a comprehensive review of the relevant literature in order to give, for the first time in arts marketing research, an adequate overview of the status quo on this topic with regard to arts institutions. However, in this section, the theoretical discussion will be complemented by exploratory empirical research. Although this qualitative approach has some limits with regard to

5 Creating buzz the reliability and validity of findings (e.g. Hussy et al., 2010, S. 65ff.), it will nevertheless help to examine a contemporary phenomenon in its real life context, contribute to the enhancement of the current exploratory state of research and help to generate a broader understanding on the possibilities of Web 2.0 and social media for the viral marketing of arts institutions and encourage further research in Germany and elsewhere (e.g. Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009). In the following analysis, only those applications will be considered that are primarily used by German arts institutions in practice. These are as is broadly discussed in literature (e.g. Tentler, 2010; Wach and Lachermeier, 2011; Hartmann, 2011a) and verified by first empirical research (e.g. Schmid, 2011) social networks (especially Facebook), blogs and microblogs (especially Twitter). All three will be cursorily discussed in the succeeding texts (for a detailed discussion, see e.g. Weinberg, 2009; Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010; Miller and Lammas, 2010). The theoretical presentation will be complemented by exploratory empirical research of three renowned German arts institutions: a theatre (Bavarian State Opera), an orchestra (Duisburg Philharmonic Orchestra) and a museum (NRW- Forum Duesseldorf). All of them are early adopters and heavy users with regard to social media, all of them have an ever-growing community (of friends, fans or followers) and all of them have their social media success either discussed in literature or documented on the web (e.g. Tentler, 2010; Wach and Lachermeier, 2011; Hartmann, 2011b; Visitatio, 2011). The analysis took place between1and31july2011(i.e.beforethesummer break of German theatres and orchestras). Applications and results from the case studies Social networks: Social networking sites are especially suited for arts institutions to create viral effects (e.g. Trusov et al., 2009) and to reduce quality and/ or behavioural uncertainty on the part of the visitor. Apart from the fact that countless users are networked in these communities and that the sender and the recipient of messages can generally be assumed to share the same interests, these platforms additionally provide a (relatively inexpensive) possibility for visualising otherwise intangible services (e.g. performances, concerts) of arts institutions. In particular, short videos or online clips can be used to materialise the intangible acoustic and/ or visual cultural experience and to emotionally activate the user before actually using a cultural service and to support their decision in favour of a real visit. Bavarian State Opera on Facebook 177 How does the Bavarian State Opera the internationally renowned opera based in Munich that is currently conducted by Kent Nagano use Facebook for the creation of viral marketing? The Bayerische Staatsoper has an ever-growing community on Facebook (October 2010, 2500 fans; March 2011, 4000 fans; August 2011, 5600 fans), which is good with regard to viral marketing and the potential reach of word-of-mouth. A first look at its profile shows that video, podcasts, images and stories are heavily used to activate fans and to initiate viral communication. A content analysis of its wall ( during the four-week period showed that the opera posted 54 contributions (i.e. 1.7 posts per day), which were exclusively on the opera and its various activities, and generated an impressive number of 316 comments by fans (i.e. 5.9 comments per post) and an even more impressive number of 2047 likes (i.e likes per post). But the site not only generates heavy traffic in numbers, the author has also found larger discussions between people (on ticket prices, quality of performances, health of artists, etc.) as well as active complaint management from the opera (e.g. on questions concerning late ticket delivery, reduction of number of visits with a season ticket). All in all, it can be concluded at this stage of analysis that the Bavarian State Opera is quite successful with regard to the stimulation of word-of-mouth. Weblogs: A weblog (blog) is a regularly updated website on which contributions are published in chronological orders. The primary objective is the topic-specific information and communication between the blogger and the readers (e.g. Weinberg, 2009; Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010). Blogs are the ideal breeding ground for viral communication, as

6 178 Andrea Hausmann their comment function and the possibility to link individual blogs make them especially well suited to encouraging the exchange of experience and knowledge about individual providers and their services. Duisburg Philharmonic Orchestra and its blog dacapo How does the Duisburg Philharmonic Orchestra the accompanying orchestra of the Duisburg Opera Deutsche Oper am Rhein founded in 1877 and conducted by Jonathan Darlington make use of its blog for viral marketing? A content analysis of the blog ( revealed that the orchestra posted (only) three contributions during the four-week period. One post was about the orchestra itself (no one commented to this post), one post was about the (solved) problems with its Facebook fanpage (again no visitor left a footprint) and one post was about a project called Blogparade (i.e. blog carnival). All in all, the impression gained was that the blog is used to publish press releases rather than to elicit dialogue with users. On the other hand, the installation of a blog carnival, that is, a blog article that contains links to other articles covering a specific topic (here, the future of the concert) and is hosted by a rotating list of contributors, created some buzz : The topic generated seven comments and 11 retweets and was linked to several individual blogs. It can be concluded, therefore, that if the orchestra wants to use its blog for viral marketing, it needs to set up more and more compelling content such as the blog carnival. Microblogs: Microblogs such as Twitter are seen as a hybrid of blogging, instant messaging and status notifications (e.g. Weinberg, 2009; Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010). They allow people to publish short text messages (restricted to 140 to 200 characters) by using a multitude of various communication channels such as cell phones, instant messaging, and the Web. To be successful on Twitter, it is necessary to gain a critical mass of followers (i.e. people who subscribe to the updates of, for example, a performing arts organisation). The more valuable the content of a message is, the more likely people retweet it (i.e. share it with their followers) and trigger viral marketing. NRW-Forum Duesseldorf on Twitter How does the NRW-Forum Duesseldorf a contemporary art museum that includes themes of photography, media, fashion, communication, mobility or lifestyle ( use Twitter for its viral marketing? At the end of August 2011, the museum had followers (plus 613 lists) and 2336 tweets have been sent out. The content analysis of its tweets ( during the four-week period revealed that the museum is impressively active on Twitter and posted 109 tweets (i.e. 3.5 tweets per day). The content of the tweets was quite diverse: Whereas most tweets were on the exhibitions and activities of the museum, some tweets were also on general topics (e.g. introduction of the new Ipad, benefits of the new Google+). With regard to viral marketing, how many tweets by the museum were retweeted by followers was of interest. The analysis revealed that only 20% of tweets (n = 23) were retweeted (by 1.8 followers). In fact, the only tweet that seemed to generate some considerable buzz (6 retweets) was about the German journalist Kathrin Passig and her critical remarks on the quality of comments on the web and it is rather the question whether this creates viral marketing for the museum or for the journalist. It can be concluded at this stage that although the museum is impressively active on Twitter in fact, the museum is the leader in the ranking of 111 German museums who use Twitter (Visitatio, 2011) the viral marketing effects are considered to be rather low. Limitations to the use of social media for arts institutions Until now, the possibilities of social media for the viral marketing of arts institutions have been explored. Coming to an end, the limitations to the use of social media shall be cursorily discussed in the following: (a) Shortage of resources: German arts institutions are heavily reliant on government funding (Federal Statistical Office, 2010). At present, more and more institutions are forced to cut their spending as a result of the global economic crisis and its effects on government budgets. Although

7 Creating buzz the use of social media basically requires a laptop computer and Internet access and is therefore relatively inexpensive, it also ties up human resources, for example, because of the need to constantly maintain and update content, to be active in reputation management and to develop new concepts. Given that many arts institutions in Germany already have only limited staff (and most of them usually working on several projects), the use of social media can lead to an over-utilisation of the available (human) resources. (b) Cost benefit ratio: Smaller arts institutions, in particular, are unable to hire additional staff to implement new projects such as social media. In many cases, they therefore use their existing employees many of whom are not sufficiently qualified to perform such additional tasks. If further training measures are required, (directly attributable) costs for training courses, seminars and so on and the respective safety programmes will be incurred in addition to the opportunity costs of the staff deployment for social media mentioned under (a) above, which are possibly not easy to quantify. Although this means that at least part of the costs can be easily quantified, the benefit is much more difficult to specify, as it is not possible to directly measure the actual viral effects and, hence, the effectiveness of social media (Godes and Mayzlin, 2004). (c) Difficulty of success measurement: The abovementioned problem will most definitely lead to discussions whether the resources spent on social media would not be better spent on the arts itself. And although the Internet generally affords easy access to quantifiable parameters (such as visits, page impressions, downloads or clicks), these figures do not allow organisations to draw any direct conclusion as to the actual effectiveness of viral measures, which means that their usefulness is limited (e.g. the number of visits does not tell anything about the perceived quality of a weblog). In addition, a qualitative analysis is possible in conjunction with social media, for example, by checking, grouping and evaluating comments (e.g. Renker, 2008; Kilian et al., 2008). But users of corporate blogs, in particular, usually leave only few comments, which means that the results are not representative. Moreover, many comments are very brief or not consistently related to the topic (a problem that arts institutions should know only too well from the guest books or visitor books displayed in their foyers). (d) Structure and hierarchy of arts institutions: Whereas social media are characterised by upto-dateness, spontaneity and interactivity, most (public sector) arts institutions in Germany (especially in the performing arts and in music) are marked by relatively rigid hierarchies (e.g. Börner, 2002; Klein, 2009). Strict communication lines and lengthy decision-making processes are typical features of the preferred top-down hierarchy. Against this background, the effectiveness of social media will be limited whenever the existing communication and decision-making lines are not aligned with the new requirements. Finally, it should be noted that there are not only limitations to the use of social media but even risks for the arts institution. On the one hand, the technologies (Ajax) used by social media and the existing security gaps mean that viruses may enter an arts institution s system, where they may access data, take over accounts or install malicious codes. Moreover, the Internet has an extremely good memory, which may have an especially adverse impact in the event of negative or (wilfully) damaging comments that may be impossible to prevent and maybe even impossible to remove. Conclusion and implications for further research 179 In terms of the bottom line, the following can be said with regard to the research questions: Social media are Web 2.0 applications that support and facilitate viral marketing. Viral marketing helps to stimulate word-of-mouth among customers which is considered particularly effective with regard to experience and trust characteristics of service providers such as museums, theatres or orchestras. Taking the findings of the economics of information approach into account, social media can help arts institutions to reduce quality and/or behavioural uncertainty on the part of (potential) visitors. The

8 180 Andrea Hausmann social media applications predominantly used by German arts institutions are social networks (especially Facebook), blogs and microblogs (especially Twitter). It has become clear, however, from the explorative data analysis that viral marketing and the creation of buzz require certain preconditions (e.g. compelling content, regular content update). Generally spoken, although it is undisputed that the use of social media has potentially positive effects on word-of-mouth, there are also limitations to their use, especially for smaller arts institutions (e.g. shortage of resources, unclear cost benefit ratio). Given, however, that the developments of Web 2.0 are irreversible and will have a strong impact on the information and communication behaviour of (future) visitors, it is indispensable even for these institutions to participate in them. Constant monitoring of the further progress of Web 2.0 applications is therefore recommended. This is an initial description of the importance of using social media for viral marketing in Germany. As a next step, empirical studies should be conducted on the basis of more comprehensive case studies (or even quantitative analysis by using survey data) to explore which measures have already been implemented on what scale and how successfully by arts institutions. Apart from such a more provider-oriented examination, it would be important to analyse what types of users make use of the social media offerings of arts institutions and to what extent including the use of online referrals for the reduction of quality and/or behavioural uncertainty. Finally, it would be interesting to compare the situation in Germany with other countries so as to develop best practices. References Adams M, Willems R Social media tendencies around the world: Germany. Available at: mediadelivered.com/2010/06/21/social-media-tendenciesaround-the-world-germany/ [Accessed on August 2011]. Adler J Informationsökonomische Fundierung von Austauschprozessen. Wiesbaden: Gabler. Alby T Web 2.0. Konzepte, Anwendungen, Technologien, 2nd edn. Hanser: München. Allen K Viral Marketing. Emereo: Newstead. Akerlof GA The market for lemons : quality uncertainty and the market mechanism. Quarterly Journal of Economics 84: ARD/ZDF ARD/ZDF-Onlinestudie Available at: [Accessed on March 2011]. Bauer HH, Martin I, Albrecht CM. 2007a. Virales Marketing als Weiterentwicklung des Empfehlungsmarketing. In Interactive Marketing im Web 2.0+, Konzepte und Anwendungen für ein erfolgreiches Marketingmanagement im Internet, Bauer HH, Große- Leege D, Rösger J (eds.). Springer: München; Bauer H, Große-Leege D, Rösger J. 2007b. Interactive Marketing im Web Vahlen: München. Bayus BL Word of mouth: the indirect effects of marketing efforts. Journal of Advertising Research 25(3): Buttle F Word of mouth: understanding and managing referral marketing. Journal of Strategic Marketing 6(3): Blättel-Mink B, Hellmann KU Prosumer Revisited. VS Verlag: Wiesbaden. Blömeke E, Braun A, Clement M Kundenintegration in die Wertschöpfung am Beispiel des Buchmarkts. In Web 2.0 Neue Perspektiven für Marketing und Medien, Hass B, Walsh G, Kilian T (eds.). Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg; Blumauer A, Pellegrini T Semantic Web und semantische Technologien: Zentrale Begriffe und Unterscheidungen. In Semantic Web Wege zur vernetzten Wissensgesellschaft, Pellegrini T, Blumauer A (eds.). Springer: Berlin; Börner S Führungsverhalten und Führungserfolg. Gabler: Wiesbaden. Cao J, Knotts T, Xu J, Chau M Word of Mouth Marketing through Online Social Networks. AMCIS 2009 Proceedings, Paper 291. Colbert F Marketing Culture and the Arts. HEC: Montreal. Dobele A, Toleman D, Beverland M Controlled infection! Spreading the brand message through viral marketing. Business Horizons 48: Donovan R, Henley N Principles and Practice of Social Marketing: An International Perspective. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Dye R The buzz on buzz. Harvard Business Review 78(6):

9 Creating buzz Federal Statistical Office Kulturfinanzbericht Available at: kulturfinanzbericht_2010.pdf [Accessed on March 2011]. Geissler GL, Rucks CT, Edison SW Understanding the role of service convenience in art museum marketing: an exploratory study. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management 14(4): Godes D, Mayzlin D Using online conversations to study word-of-mouth communication. Marketing Science 23: Hartmann S. 2011a. Neanderweb 2.0 Evolution als Konzept für das Neanderthal Museum im Social Web. In Social Media im Kulturmanagement, Janner K, Holst C, Kopp A (eds.). mitp: Heidelberg; Hartmann S. 2011b. Ranking: Deutsche Museen und Ausstellungshäuser bei Facebook. Available at: museumsreif.posterous.com/ranking-deutsche-museenund-ausstellungshause (retrieved July 2011). Hass B, Walsh G, Kilian T Web 2.0 Neue Perspektiven für Marketing und Medien. Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg. Hausmann A Besucherorientierung im Museum unter Anwendung des Benchmarking, Transcript Verlag: Bielefeld. Helm S Besucherforschung und Museumspraxis. Dr. Müller Verlag: München. Helm S Kundenempfehlungen als Marketinginstrument. DUV: Wiesbaden. Helm S Viral marketing establishing customer relationships by word-of-mouse, Electronic Markets 10(3): Helm S, Kuhl M Empfehlungsmarketing: Wirkungsweise und Einsatzmöglichkeiten in Kulturbetrieben am Beispiel von Museen. In Kundenorientierung im Kulturbetrieb, Hausmann A, Helm S (eds.). VS Verlag: Wiesbaden; Hollensen S The Essentials of Global Marketing. Pearson: Harlow. Hussy W, Schreier M, Echterhoff G Forschungsmethoden in Psychologie und Sozialwissenschaften. Springer: Heidelberg. Hyman D Prosuming, participation, consumer education and the deregulation of telecommunications. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 15: Jurvetson S, Draper T Viral Marketing, Business 2.0, 1, p 11. Kaas KP Marktinformationen: Screening und Signaling unter Partnern und Rivalen. Zeitschrift für Betriebswirtschaft 61: Kotler P The prosumer movement: a new challenge for marketers. Advances in Consumer Research 13: Kotler N, Kotler P, Kotler W Museums Marketing and Strategy, 2nd edn. Wiley: San Francisco. Kaplan AM, Haenlein M Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media. Business Horizons 53(1): Kilian Th, Walsh G, Zenz R Word-of-Mouth im Web 2.0 am Beispiel von Kinofilmen. In Web 2.0 Neue Perspektiven für Marketing und Medien,HassB,Walsh G, Kilian T (eds.). Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg; Klein A Leadership. VS Verlag: Wiesbaden. Maaß C, Pietsch G Web 2.0 als Mythos, Symbol und Erwartung, Diskussionsbeitrag der Fakultät für Wirtschaftswissenschaft, Nr FernUniversität: Hagen. Meffert H, Bruhn M Dienstleistungsmarketing, 5th edn. Wiesbaden: Gabler. Miller R, Lammas N Social media and its implications for viral marketing. Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal 11(1): 1 9. Moore T Facebook under attack in Germany over privacy. Available at: world/article/0,8599, ,00.html [Accessed on August, 2011]. Müller U Informationsverhalten beim Kauf von Unterhaltungsdienstleistungen. Eine Analyse am Beispiel von Circusunternehmen. Marburg:Tectum. Nelson P Information and Consumer Behaviour. Journal of Political Economy 78: Nielsen Global faces and networked places. A Nielsen report on social networking s new global footprint. Available at: wp-content/uploads/2009/03/nielsen_globalfaces_ mar09.pdf [Accessed on June, 2010]. Nielsen 2010a. Social networks/blogs now account for one in every four and a half minutes online. Available at: social-media-accounts-for-22-percent-of-time-online/? utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_ campaign=feed3a+nielsenwiremediaentertainment +28Nielsen+Wire+C2BB+Media+26+Entertainment 29&utm_content=Google+Reader [Accessed on March, 2011]. Nielsen 2010b. Social networks/blogs now account for one in every four and a half minutes online. Available at: [Accessed on August, 2011].

10 182 Andrea Hausmann O Reilly T What is Web 2.0: design patterns and business models for the next generation of software. Available at: [Accessed on June, 2010]. Phelps JE, Lewis R, Mobilio L, Perry D, Raman N Viral marketing or electronic word-of-mouth advertising: examining consumer responses and motivations to pass along . Journal of Advertising Research December, Renker LC Virales Marketing im Web 2.0. Innovative Ansätze einer interaktiven Kommunikation mit dem Konsumenten IFME: München. Roth MS, Money BR, Madden TJ Purchasing processes and characteristics of industrial service buyers in the U.S. and Japan. Journal of World Business 39(2): Schmid U Den Anschluss nicht verpassen!. das orchester 2: Scott DM The New Rules of Marketing and PR: How to Use Social Media, Blogs, News Releases, Online Video, and Viral Marketing to Reach Buyers Directly, (2nd edn.) Wiley: San Francisco. Scott PR, Jacka JM Social Media. A Governance and Risk Guide. Wiley: Hoboken, N.J. Stake RE The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Stiglitz G The contributions of the economics of information to twentieth century economics. Quarterly Journal of Economics 115(2): Schulz S, Mau G, Löffler S Motive und Wirkungen im viralen Marketing. In Web 2.0 Neue Perspektiven für Marketing und Medien, Hass B, Walsh G, Kilian T (eds.). Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg; Tentler F Classic goes Web 2.0 Ein Jahr Philharmonie 2.0. In Kultur 2.0. Neue Web-Strategien für das Kulturmanagement im Zeitalter von Social Media, Scheurer H, Spiller R (eds.). Transcript: Bielefeld; Thorne L Word-of-Mouth Advertising Online and Off: How to Spark Buzz, Excitement, and Free Publicity for Your Business or Organization. Atlantic Publishing: Ocala. Trusov M, Bucklin R, Pauwels K Effects of word-ofmouth versus traditional marketing: findings from an internet social networking site. Journal of Marketing 73: Visitatio Twitternde Museen7/2011. Available at: Deutschland-juli-2011.html, [Accessed on August 2011]. Voeth M, Sichtmann C, Weißbacher R Search, experience and credence properties in the economics of information theory: a dynamic framework for relationship marketing. In Proceedings of the World Marketing Congress, DeMoranville C (ed.). Münster. Wach A, Lachermeier J Zielsetzungen, Maßnahmen und Erfolgsmessungen im Web 2.0: Strategisches Vorgehen am Beispiel der Bayerischen Staatsoper. In Social Media im Kulturmanagement, Janner K, Holst C, Kopp A (eds.). mitp: Heidelberg; Weinberg T The New Community Rules: Marketing on the Social Web. Sebastopol: CA. Wilson JR Word-of-Mouth Marketing. McGraw- Hill/Irvin: New York. Yin RK Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 4th ed., Thousand Oaks: Sage.

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