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1 Security Council Bishop Allen M.U.N Conference April 2, 2015

2 ARMS, DRUG AND HUMAN TRAFFICKING Introduction Trafficking is the illegal movement of arms, illicit substances or persons between countries or regions and an activity widely regarded as illegal by most governments and international organizations. Historically, smuggling has a long history dating back to classical times. With the rise of greater government regulation and tighter international security trafficking has become all the more valuable and remains a significant source of criminal revenue totaling over $400 USD annually 1. Trafficking poses significant threats to the stability of national governments and international cooperation. As money flows to criminal syndicates, corruption (particularly in undeveloped countries) becomes a major problem and local authorities spend countless time and money combatting this threat. Furthermore, arms and drug trafficking bypass numerous U.N resolutions and embargoes while frequently igniting tensions between countries or ethnic groups while human trafficking violates the universal declaration of human rights and numerous other treaties guarantying each human a minimum standard of living 2 Arms Trafficking The illegal arms trade is perhaps one of the greatest threats to regional security existing today. The arms trade is estimated to be worth over $60 billion USD annually 3 most of which funds terrorist organizations such as Al-Shabaab and criminal syndicates such as the Sicilian Mafia. The arms trade is particularly rampant in regions with porous borders such as the Balkans, Africa 4 and Southeast Asia where trades in large volume can be made with little risk of capture and great reward. Most commonly traded are the ubiquitous AK-47, portable explosives and easily concealable handguns. While arms running is most often done by small groups or sometimes even individuals, historically some nations have been directly involved in circumnavigating U.N embargoes and illegally sell weapons to sanctioned countries (such as the United States in the Iran-Contra scandal). The true danger in arms trading comes in the form of the instability it brings to the regions where it occurs. Illicit arms trafficking fuels civil wars and dramatically increases crime rates. Of particular note is the trade in small arms and light weapons which last year accounted for an estimated 60-90% of 100,000 plus conflict deaths 5 and tens of thousands of additional deaths outside of war zones. Arms trading also supports international terrorism. The U.S state department estimates that of the roughly 175 terrorist attacks identified last year, approximately half were committed with small arms or light weapons. Drug Trafficking Drug trafficking is by far the most lucrative path for traffickers to pursue. In 2009, total drug sales worldwide were estimated to be in excess of $345 billion USD 6. This sum was equivalent to about 1% of total worldwide GDP. Drug trafficking is requires much more coordination than arms trading. As such the most prominent perpetrators are large groups such as the Sineloan cartel in Mexico 7 and Russian led gangs operating out of Baltic countries such as Bulgaria and Albania

3 The major issue with drug trafficking is that due to both high demand and decentralized distribution it is extremely difficult to effectively curb drug trafficking. Furthermore as a byproduct the drug trade breeds inter gang violence as well as antigovernment violence often catching civilians in the process. One notable example of this is the Mexican war on drugs which to date has claimed over 100,000 lives 9 Human Trafficking Human trafficking is defined as the act of compelling or coercing a person's labor, services, or commercial sex acts. The coercion can be subtle or overt, but it must be used to coerce a victim into preforming any of the three aforementioned acts. Human trafficking may be considered to be the most worrisome form of trafficking as victims are often difficult to track once they enter the trade and are victimized by their own cultures (in undeveloped countries) should they be recovered. Furthermore human trade violates the universal declaration of human rights, particularly articles 3, 4 and 5 which state 10 ; Article 3. Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person, Article 4. No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms, Article 5. No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, The exploitation of humans for labour or sex also constitutes a major moral issue which must be addressed so as to help citizens from countries suffering (Asian and Middle-Eastern states in particular) be able to reintegrate into their societies and work towards a better future. Combating Trafficking - Trafficking relies heavily on its logistics, as such strengthening borders and increasing customs control significantly reduces the incidence of smuggling. - Funding of security forces and better training helps combat active sources of trafficking. - Cultural outreach programs offered by the United Nations office on drugs and crime 11 (UNODC) help victims recover and education meant to help locals be vigilant for signs of trafficking. - Offering financial assistance to areas stricken by poverty in order to offer an alternative to a life of crime

4 OWNERSHIP OF OIL IN THE ARCTIC Overview of Oil in the Arctic The Arctic is defined as being the region that is above an imaginary line that circles the globe at N. This region around the North Pole has one of the most hostile climates in the world. With average January temperatures below -40 degrees Celsius and metres of snow every year (on top of the pre-existing permafrost), it remains one of the Worlds least populated places 1. For example, Canada s arctic region covers 40% of its total landmass, but only 0.3% of its population, most of which identify as being members of First Nations 2 According to the United States Geological Survey, the arctic is estimated to hold more than 30% of the world s undiscovered natural gas and another 13% of undiscovered oil 3. This amounts to around 400 billion barrels of oil, 10 times more than the oil and gas produced to date in the North Sea 4. History of Arctic Drilling The first oil in the arctic region was discovered at Norman Wells, in the Canadian Northwest Territories in In the 1960 s, the first oil exploration in the U.S. and Russian arctic regions began. In 1975, five offshore oil drills were built in Greenland, and in 1977, oil started flowing through the Alaska pipeline. The Snøhvit natural gas field in Norway was discovered in 1984, and exploration began in The site contains an estimated recoverable of 193 billion cubic metres of natural gas and 113 million barrels of light oil. In 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil spill took place. The tanker struck Prince William Sound s Bligh Reef, in Alaska. It spilled 55 million gallons of crude oil over the next few days. Due to its extremely remote location, access to the site was made very difficult, which resulted in a slow response on the behalf of the government and of industry. The spill had a devastating effect on local wildlife and water quality, costing an estimated 7.2 billion dollars US 5. In 1994, another critical arctic oil spill occurred, this time in Russia. In 2008, Shell bid $2.1 billion for drilling rights in the Chukchi Sea. In the same year, the U.S. Geological Survey published a survey reporting that 22% of the undiscovered, retrievable hydrocarbons in the world would be found in the Arctic. In September 2010, the first-ever Russian tanker of hydrocarbons navigated the Northern Sea Route, and reached China in 22 days half the time it would usually take going through the Suez Canal. In the last 5 years, many oil companies, such as Rosnef, Eni, Statoil and Exxonmobil have signed Arctic exploration partnerships 6. History of Territorial Claims in the Arctic http://

5 In 1925 Canada became the first country to extend its maritime boundaries northward, a claim that is not universally recognized. In 1926, the USSR fixed its claim in Soviet law. Norway made similar sector claims and so did the United States. Denmark s sovereignty over all of Greenland was recognized internationally in During the Cold War, Canada sent Inuit families to live in the far North and establish territory, claiming the waters within its Arctic archipelago 7. In 1926, the USSR declared two lines extending from Murmansk to the North Pole and Chukchi Peninsula to the North Pole to be Soviet territory. In 1996, the United Nations adopted the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which prompted many countries to file extended territorial claims, as will be described in the next section. In 2007, Russia planted its flag at the North Pole ocean bottom through its Arktika expedition with an MIR Deep Submergence Vehicle. This expedition, said to be necessary in order to chart the seabed of this area and to collect evidence for Russia s territorial claim, sparked worry in the other countries surrounding the Arctic and internationally. Canada and the United States made it clear that planting a flag has no legal implications on territorial appropriation. From 2006 to today, Denmark has been carrying out the LORITA project which includes tectonic research and other geological studies on the arctic seabed. It involves some technical support from Sweden and Russia 8. Current territorial distribution of the arctic territories and spread of oil and gas resources Geopolitical Situation As the global population grows and the middle class in many developing countries is growing larger, the planet is witnessing a steep increase in the use of hydrocarbons, most notably by cars and in the production and transportation of goods. The demand for oil and gas is growing every day and so is their value and rareness. This has caused a renewed interest in Arctic territory by many countries in the recent years due to its high reserves of these resources. Below, the territory separation process is outlined, according to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), signed on December 12, The UNCLOS defines a country s maritime territory. It states that a country`s continental shelf extends 200 nautical miles. The area contained within these boundaries is the country`s exclusive economic zone (EEZ). A country can however extend its jurisdiction up to a maximum of 350 nautical miles by submitting geological evidence to the UN Commission on the Limits of Continental Shelves. Extension of the continental shelf by a country gives it exclusive rights to resources on or below the seabed of these areas

6 The sea bottom beyond the EEZ and continental shelf of any country is considered to be heritage of all mankind and administered by the UN International Seabed Authority. The waters beyond these territories are considered to be international waters. Upon the ratification of UNCLOS, a country has a ten-year period to make claims to an extended continental shelf. Below is a table of the countries that have ratified the convention 9. Country Date of ratification Norway 1996 Russia 1997 Canada 2003 Denmark 2004 United Sates Not yet ratified The major countries involved in this process are Denmark, Canada, Russia, the US and Norway. Each of these countries have Arctic shorelines and National waters that extend into the Arctic. This being said, many other countries, such as France, South Korea, China, India, Singapore and Germany are all also interested in the outcome of the separation of the Arctic Territory, as this could have a great economical impact in their own countries 10. Country Claims to the Arctic Canada: In 2013, confirmed it would file a claim to extended continental shelf, which would include the North Pole. Denmark: This country has claimed the Danish straits including the Great Belt, Little Belt and the Danish part of Øresund as part of Danish Territory. On December , Denmark claimed an area of km 2 extending from Greenland past the North Pole to the Russian continental shelf. Norway: Made a submission in 2006 to extend the continental shelf in the Loop Hole of the Barents Sea, the Western Nansen Basin in the Arctic Ocean and the Banana Hole in the Norwegian Sea. Further claims may be posted later according to the original submission. Russia: Made a submission in 2001 to extend its continental shelf as far as the North Pole based on the Lomonosov Ridge within their Arctic sector. Russia believes that this ridge is an extension of the Siberian continental shelf. In 2002, the UN Commission recommended Russia to perform additional research to support its claim. United States: Having not ratified UNCLOS, the United States has not made any claims to extend its continental shelf, but has done some mapping work to determine the continental shelf north of Alaska 11. Global Warming Implications 9http://

7 With average Arctic temperatures rising by up 4 C in the period compared to the period, permafrost melt has led some experts to say that the Arctic could be ice-free by mid-century 12. The rapid melt of Arctic ice and snow has made much of the Arctic oil and gas that was once unattainable available for exploration. Furthermore, the melting of the Arctic ice will overcome one of the greatest obstacles previously encountered in the exploitation of these oil and gas resources. Many new sea routes have been freed of the ice that once made them inaccessible to ships. Naval transport is one of the most practical ways of accessing and transporting the Arctic oil and gas. Some examples of these include the northern sea route and the Northwest Passage 13. Environmental Dangers As witnessed with the recent confrontations between Greenpeace activists and Russian military forces, the exploration of Arctic oil and gas has caused an outcry on the part of many environmental protection groups and biologists 14. They argue that there is no proven method for containing and cleaning up oil spills in icy waters. The difficulty of access to oil spill areas in the Arctic would also be make it very difficult to clean up due to the harsh conditions and remoteness of the region. Furthermore, in the case of an oil spill, recovery on the part of the ecosystem would be slow due to the short reproductive seasons, low temperatures and limited sunshine resulting in a slower rate of life on the behalf of the organisms living within it. Arctic drilling would also put many important species that live in the region under strain. This would further strain indigenous peoples way of life, notably due to pollution, potential spills, and changes in geography and increases in noise levels 15. Future Implications The implications of oil and gas development in the Arctic will be great. The exploitation of these resources could have huge economic impacts, for the countries with Arctic shorelines, but also for the whole world. Countries like Russia and Norway derive much of their revenues from oil and gas exportations. As the oil resources from both these countries will soon be exhausted, and especially for Norway, who s North and Norwegian Sea wells have been in production decline, they depend greatly on these potentially exploitable fields. Furthermore, the extraction of these resources could have great effect on the prices of oil and gas, which would have great implications for countries that depend on their manufacturing sectors, such as China. Development of these resources could, however, mean greater energetic security and stability for the world, and less dependence on oil and gas from the Middle East, and any other one source. Depending on how the Arctic territory is divided, this could have great political and diplomatic impacts. Conflicts could arise based on how the resources are divided and new alliances created between countries. For example, if Russia gets a large part of the Arctic territory, this will likely result in a strengthening of its ties with many other countries, especially China, but also give it a significant amount of clout over countries that depend on these resources for their survival. Finally, the outcome of Arctic oil and gas will have an effect on the environment. Exploitation of these resources would likely mean more CO 2 and other greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere and the 12http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/aboutcc/problems/impacts/polar_melting http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/arctic/what_we_do/oil_gas/

8 possibility of oil spills with devastating effects on the local environments. This could have very negative effects on the biodiversity and wildlife survival. The further development of the far North will also have implications on indigenous peoples and their way of life. This would possibly result in the loss of cultural traditions, but could bring prosperity to these populations. Cooperation Many oil companies have already undertaken cooperative efforts to explore the Arctic, most notably the Russian state owned Rosnef with ExxonMobil, Statoil of Norway and Eni of Italy. There has also been some cooperation between countries on scientific data and techniques, but there is still room for improvement here. Further cooperation between countries would, according to most experts, be the best way to develop and extract Arctic oil and gas resources. Especially in the fields of environmental regulations, rescue operations, transportation and movement of resources and response in case of an oil spill. Transnational efforts The following considerations and efforts should be undertaken by the international community in the exploration and exploitation of oil and gas in the Arctic: Cooperation in the fair division of Arctic territory in order to benefit the majority and that all countries entitled to a section of Arctic resources be awarded them in a fair and peaceful manner Cooperation in the establishment of universal and appropriately stringent ecological laws and regulations to assure the most responsible and less damaging development of these resources for the environment Cooperation in the development of technology for the safe and ecologically responsible exploration and extraction of these resources Cooperation to assure the patrol and enforcement of laws and regulations in the development of Arctic oil and gas Cooperation in the development of Arctic oil in gas that assures that the rights and traditions of indigenous people living in areas where this development is undertaken to be preserved and respected Cooperation the fair taxation and royalties distribution in Arctic oil and gas exploration Cooperation in making the administration and allocation of Arctic oil and gas transparent and accessible to all