NASULGC. Challenges of Higher Education in Africa and Lessons of Experience for the Africa - U.S. Higher Education Collaboration Initiative

Transcription

1 National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges NASULGC Challenges of Higher Education in Africa and Lessons of Experience for the Africa - U.S. Higher Education Collaboration Initiative A synthesis report based on consultations made between March- April, 2008 and review of literature related to higher education and development in Africa April, 2008 Washington D.C. Prepared by Teshome Yizengaw Research Fellow NASULGC [DRAFT WORKING PAPER - 1/2008]

2 Challenges of Higher Education in Africa and Lessons of Experience for the Africa - U.S. Higher Education Collaboration Initiative 1 Executive Summary Higher education is critical to economic success and long-term development of Africa, a continent facing several challenges of growth and development on many fronts. Higher education provides economic and social benefits, both to the individual and the public, produces qualified human capital, adapts and generates knowledge, promotes international cooperation and improves competitiveness in the global knowledge based economy. In July 2007 the Africa-U.S. Higher Education Collaboration Initiative was developed by a group of partners from Africa and the U.S, with the goal of strengthening African higher education capacity in science and technology through partnerships between African and U.S. institutions of higher education. The Initiative has identified several broad goals and capacity building priorities based on initial research and stakeholder. The primary goals of the Initiative are to enhance and empower higher education institutions in Africa and the U.S. to contribute more effectively to African development and transformation and to increase the competency of U.S. higher education institutions in global affairs related to Africa. A literature review study was conducted to synthesize available information to better understand the roles of higher education in development and specifically in Africa s transformation, to clearly outline the major challenges of higher education institutions and systems in Africa, to identify new paradigms and opportunities for higher education development and contribution to Africa s development and to identify lessons of experience for effective implementation of the Africa U.S. Higher Education Collaboration Initiative, The documents consulted include those generated by the World Bank, the Blair Africa Commission, African Union, Maxwell School of Syracuse University and Center for Global Development. In addition, documents from the African Network of Scientific and Technological Institutions (ANSTI), Global Education Digest, Africa Development Indicators were consulted for statistics and data. The higher education sector in Africa faces challenges related to critical shortage of quality faculty; limited capacity of governance, leadership and management; inadequate financial support and problems of diversify funding; inadequate facilities and infrastructures; problems of quality and relevance of teaching and research; limited capacity of research, knowledge generation and adaptation capabilities; and problems in meeting increasing demand for equitable access. Across Africa and disciplines, on average, only 70% of the required faculty positions are filled, and in some departments this is only about 30-40%. Not less than 40% of the faculty in many universities in Africa is near retirement age, and over 30% of faculty sent overseas for training fail to return. 1 A synthesis report based on consultations made between March - April, 2008 and review of literature related to higher education and development in Africa 1

3 Leadership and management face many challenges, as expressed by inability to retain and attract faculty, underutilized facilities, duplication of programs, high drop out and uneconomical procurement and large allocation of scarce finance to non-instructional expenditures. Academic leaders have little preparation, orientation and training in skills required for the positions. In the face of increasing enrollment in higher education - over four fold between 1985 and 2005 in sub-saharan Africa - quality of education and research is declining, relevance of teaching and research is not maintained, and institutional quality assurance and enhancement mechanisms are either not in place or are very weak and inefficient. Research capacities are generally poor- given the shortage of senior faculty, poor infrastructure and facilities, lack of funding and strategic leadership. Though most research skills are acquired during graduate training masters and doctorate levels sub-saharan African universities have a tiny proportion of their student enrolment in graduate studies programs. Less than 30% of students are enrolled in the fields of agriculture, engineering and technology, basic and applied sciences, and health sciences fields required for innovation and problem solving. The situation calls for focus and urgent intervention by governments, institution leaders and development partners. The importance of higher education as a driver of sustainable development has become one of the core development agenda items by policy makers, scholars and international development partners. There is a changing perception and understanding that higher education plays a pivotal role in development and transformation and should be given priority. There is a general consensus that neglect to higher education can not and should not continue. African governments have started to show commitment and international donors are gearing their support to the sector realizing it as an engine of development producing the qualified human capital, generating knowledge, ensuring participation in the global knowledge economy and building the necessary institutions and leadership capabilities in Africa. It is repeatedly asserted that investment and interventions in higher education have to be long term and encompass the many challenges faced by the systems and institutions. Isolated efforts have to give way to more comprehensive, sequenced, well-funded, focused and inclusive interventions. A new kind of partnership based on listening to voices, on mutual benefit and respect, sense of ownership, urgency and purpose is required. Partnership that recognizes the diversity of Africa and specific circumstances of each country will have lasting sustainable effect and impact Collaborations between African and U.S. higher education institutions that focus on science and technology fields of study is essential to address the challenges faculty development, leadership and management development, institution and facility development, curriculum redevelopment and quality and relevance assurance and enhancement, research capability improvement, etc. Efforts to mobilize and utilize the African Diaspora are also critical. Resource allocation for partnership collaborations based on transparent and well designed competitive grants program would stimulate performance, improves quality and encourages innovation, The synthesis from the several documents has reaffirmed and confirmed the relevance and appropriateness of the challenges identified, the goals and objectives developed, the fields of emphasis proposed and the need for partnership identified and prioritized by the Africa - U.S. Higher Education Collaboration Initiative. Although in a 2

4 formative stage, the Initiative has a potential and capability to effectively advocate and facilitate for bringing higher education to a higher priority and a critical element of development and transformation in Africa. In the further development of its program the Initiative needs to embed lessons learned from this synthesis. These include: a) Strengthen and widen participation and garner support from the African governments and institutions, the U.S. partners, and other international development partners, such as the World Bank, through focused consultations, engagement and inclusiveness. b) Forge closer and official cooperation agreements with potential partners both in the U.S. and Africa. These include private sector and foundations, civic societies, Africa-based regional and sub-regional organizations. c) Ensure that African voices are heard and Africans are actively participating in program development and preparation of grant proposals for partnership building. Engage African higher education leaders in developing programs, governance and management structures, and implementation process. d) Ensure that partnerships are long term, appropriately sequenced and comprehensive in meeting the objectives of the Initiative and particularly addressing challenges of higher education institutions and systems, and built on principles of mutual benefit and respect, transparency and accountability.. e) Encourage South-South pairing with U.S. higher education institutions to encourage regional cooperation, innovation and capacity building. f) While taking full account of Africa s diversity, it is essential to focus on country specificity in developing and implementing intervention programs. g) In addition to faculty development and overall institutional capacity building efforts, mobilization of the African Diaspora has to be given sufficient emphasis. h) Sufficient focus has to be given to development and strengthening of centers of excellence in partner institutions in Africa, depending on competitive advantages, experience and expertise, to Improve research capacity and share in global scientific outputs. i) Develop a detailed, well articulated and informed broad based program document outlining goals of the Initiative and mechanisms of implementing its activities for maximum positive effect and impact. This includes the preparation of clear guidelines for competitive grants application, review and grants award process, monitoring and evaluation of collaborations, mechanisms of sustaining support for partnerships, roles and responsibilities of actors, partners and stakeholders, and overall collaborations program implementation framework. j) Competitive grants have to ensure equal representation of women and other disadvantaged groups of society in the allocation of resources and sharing of benefits accrued from a collaboration program. The selection and award process of competitive grants has to be transparent and inclusive (both African and U.S.) and address issues with sense of urgency and long term commitment and impact. k) Develop lean but effective, professional and high-caliber governance, leadership and management structures and procedures for effective implementation of the programs of the Initiative. 3

5 1. Introduction There is a wealth of information on the importance of higher education for development documented through several years of studies and research by universities, international organizations such as the World Bank and UNESCO, foundations and individual researchers. In July 2007, an Africa - U.S. Higher Education Collaboration Initiative was established by group of partners from the U.S and Africa, as a basis to strengthen African higher education capacity in science end technology for development in partnership with U.S. institutions of higher education. It has identified several broad goals and capacity building priorities based on initial research and stakeholder consultations with leaders in Africa and the United States. The primary goals of the Initiative are to enhance and empower higher education institutions in Africa and the U.S. to contribute more effectively to African development and transformation and to increase the competency of U.S. higher education institutions in global affairs related to Africa. This literature review was done to inform the development of the Initiative. The Initiative envisions: Higher education institutions in Africa with vibrant, diverse intellectual environments that advance Africa s human resource needs, increase the development of new knowledge and technology, provide opportunities for historically disadvantaged populations, and develop programs of public engagement that will become a driving force for Africa s transformation and economic, social and political development. U.S. higher education institutions knowledgeable about African affairs and deeply engaged in Africa, with strong relationships, involving both students and faculty, with African institutions of higher education. A well-funded program that provides competitively determined resources for mutually beneficial African- U.S. higher education collaboration within a time-frame consistent with successful institutional capacity development. A literature review study was conducted to synthesize available information to better understand the roles of higher education in development and specifically in Africa s transformation, to clearly outline the major challenges of higher education institutions and systems in Africa, to identify new paradigms and opportunities for higher education development and contribution to Africa s development and to identify lessons of experience for effective implementation of the Initiative,. The documents consulted include those generated by the World Bank, the Blair Africa Commission, African Union, Maxwell School of Syracuse University and Center for Global Development. In addition, statistics and data from the African Network of Scientific and Technological Institutions (ANSTI), Global Education Digest, Africa Development Indicators were consulted. 4

6 Thus, the major objective of the synthesis is to inform the Initiative in the design and development of programs and implementation of collaborations through reviewing contemporary literature on African higher education capacity development for development in Africa in the 21 st century. The paper outlines the role of higher education for Africa s development, including social, economic and political benefits, development of critically needed human capital, provision of equitable access to the young and life long learners, support to other levels of education, and linkage to the world of work and the international community and knowledge society. It also identifies the most important challenges of higher education, including faculty and staff shortage, problems of governance, leadership and management, problems of quality and relevance, weak research and innovation and problem-solving capacity, financial austerity and lack of capacity to diversify funding sources, poor physical facilities and infrastructure and inability to meet increasing demand for access and equity. New paradigms are observed, including that both the African governments and the international community have started to give focus to higher education stressing that higher education can and should not be neglected anymore, Africa s ownership of interventions would lead to successful development of higher education as a crucial contributor to development, and that long-term, well-sequenced and comprehensive partnerships will bring the necessary results with reasonable impact on transformation agenda of Africa in the 21 st century. The Initiative has to focus on sustainable partnerships that take account of country specificity, focus on faculty development and institutional capacity building priorities, address brain drain and ensure involvement of African institutions in generating proposals and in leading and implementing collaborations through competitive grants. These issues are addressed in the following sections. 5

7 2. Importance of higher education for Africa s development Africa has serious challenges in terms of social progress, technological advancement and economic development. Thus there is a widespread and legitimate concern about Africa, both by Africans themselves and the international community. Africa is the only continent in the world where, in the two decades 2 between mid s and mid-1990 s (annex 1), income per capita has been in the decline. At the time when the rest of the World- has experienced rapid economic growth- most of the people of Africa have been left behind, with nearly half its people living on less than US$1 a day (2). Higher education is essential for Africa s development. East Asia and India have shown that higher education with good governance and sound infrastructures have been critical to their economic success (4). Potential impact of higher education in the strengthening of institutions, governance, social development, scientific innovation and technological advancement is clear. The most important roles of higher education are briefly described below. 2.1 Economic benefits In terms of economic benefits, higher education facilitates employment, increases salaries and savings, improves working conditions and mobility for the individual; and brings about greater productivity, national development, increased consumption and transformation of low skills industry to knowledge based economies for the public. It is a critical element of competitiveness and prosperity in an increasingly knowledge based global economy. Tertiary education exercises a direct influence on national productivity, which largely determines levels of living and a country s ability to compete in a global economy (1, 6). 2.2 Social and political benefits Social improvements accrued to higher education include improved quality of life for self and family, better decision making, increased personal status and opportunity for the individual; and developed leadership, social mobility, greater cohesion and reduced crime rates. Higher education enhances the political context by contributing to building civil society, enlightened citizenship, self-reliance, equal opportunity and skills and 2 In the decades between mid-1970 s to mid-1990 s while the global growth was significant, Africa and in particular Sub Saharan Africa has seen a decline in overall growth (annex 1), with GDP growth either zero or negative. Extreme poverty has increased from 35% of the population in 1970 to around 50% in 2000, whereas South East Asia has seen dramatic decrease in poverty (World Bank-Africa Development Indicator, 2007). 6

8 values of argumentative dialogue and reasoning, tolerance and respect (4). It facilitates national development by promoting democratic ideals, as well as intellectual and industrial competitiveness; by promoting greater social cohesion, peace, trust in social institutions, democratic participation, and appreciation of diversity in gender, ethnicity, religion and social class (6). It also improves the accountability of governments and generates independent research and analysis that supports the vibrant debate that can greatly improve the effectiveness of government policy and other services. 2.3 Human capital and professional development Higher education is critical to build human capital (for example, accountants, doctors, engineers, lawyers, teachers, leaders, administrators, entrepreneurs, critical thinkers, etc.) that in turn builds the very institutions that are regarded as an indispensable factor for development (3, 6). It is these educated individuals who develop the capacity and analytical skills that drive local economies, support civil society, teach children, lead effective governments, and make important decisions which affect entire societies (2, 6). Highly educated human capital is necessary to compete in an increasingly knowledge based global economy. 2.4 Knowledge generation and adaptation through research and innovation Tertiary education institutions support knowledge driven economic growth strategies and poverty reduction by generating new knowledge, building the capacity to access existing stores of global knowledge and to adapt that knowledge to local use (6). Technical innovations and their diffusion lead to higher productivity, and most of these innovations are products of basic and applied research undertaken in universities (2). Progress in the agriculture, health and environment sectors, science, engineering and technology is heavily dependent on the application of such innovations. 2.5 Equitable opportunity and access provision Access to tertiary education can open better employment and income opportunities to underprivileged students, thereby decreasing inequity (6). Higher education improves participation of individuals from relatively underrepresented segments of the society, including women and specific ethnic groups, in the overall socioeconomic and political life of nations. 2.6 Support other levels of education Tertiary education supports the rest of the education system and it is doubtful that any developing country could make significant progress towards achieving Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and poverty 7

9 alleviation, without strong tertiary education systems (6). Tertiary education is necessary for sustainable progress in basic and secondary education, through the training of teachers, school leaders and administrators, and through research providing direction for policies and strategies of a country s education system. 2.7 Promote linkage to the world of work Higher education institutions are a country s skill base, knowledge source, and public space facilitating exchange of information and transforming the economy through university-industry linkages (3). Through their curriculum, research and community services, higher education institutions serve as a platform to integrate the demand from industry or the world of work and provide educated workforce with relevant training and meaningful contribution to progress and development. 2.8 Promote international cooperation In an increasingly knowledge based global economy, linkage and cooperation between nations and institutions has become indispensable (2, 6). The most relevant and plausible points of entry for such exchanges towards knowledge adaptation, generation and dissemination are the higher education institutions. Thus higher education promotes cooperation and collaborative works with development partners, regional counterparts and communities, as well as teaching and research institutions locally, regionally and globally. 8

10 3. Major challenges of higher education in Africa Higher education in Africa faces several challenges which can be grouped under seven headings, as discussed below. 3.1 Faculty shortage and development The shortage of skilled professionals in Africa has its roots in tertiary education systems that are in crisis (2). Although Africa s universities ought to be the breeding grounds for the skilled individuals whom the continent need, they are plagued by critical shortage of teaching faculty and research scholars 3. The situation is more serious with respect to the shortage of senior faculty at levels of PhD 4. Higher education institutions in almost all African countries are largely unable to retain qualified faculty and research scholars (4). They also face shortage of technical, administrative and management staff. The situation is crippling not only the higher education institutions but also affects the other levels of education services, health care systems and overall economic activities (3). Shortage of faculty and other staff is further amplified by brain drain 5, retirements 6, unattractive working conditions and the attrition of HIV/AIDS (2, 3, 6). 3 Across Africa and disciplines, on average, only 70% of the required faculty are at post, in some universities departments having only 30 to 40% of the total faculty requirements (ANSTI, 2003). 4 A study indicated that the percentage of staff with PhD in the sciences and engineering departments in the universities of Nairobi, Addis Ababa, Malawi, Lagos, Ahmado Belo, Kwame Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta, Dar es Salaam, Botswana, Ibadan and Cape Coast, was just about 50%, majority being in lecturer and assistant lecturer levels (ANSTI, 2005). This, generally, indicates poor capacity to undertake research, provide quality education and leadership. 5 International Organization for Migration, in 2003, noted that Africa lost a third of its professionals to the developed countries between 1960 and An estimated 23,000 academics and 50,000 middle and senior management personnel leave the continent each year. More than 40,000 Africans with a Ph.D. now live outside the continent. About 10,000 Nigerian academics are employed in the United States alone. There reportedly are more Sierra Leonean doctors living in the Chicago area than in Sierra Leone. An estimated 600 Ghanaian doctors work in New York City, about 20 percent of the Ghanian requirements. For every 100 professionals sent overseas for training between 1982 and 1997, 35 failed to return to the continent. The largest migratory flows are from Egypt, South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, Ghana and Ethiopia. About 10% of African university graduates (doctors, nurses and other professionals) emigrate every year out of the continent, with an estimated education cost to Sub-Saharan African governments of $1.5 billion a year, and estimated losses including 30% of doctors from Ghana and Ethiopia, 30% of PhD recipients from University of Cape Town, 90% of doctors trained in Zambia, etc. ( 6 Some 43% of faculty at the University of Nairobi and 50% at the University of Ghana are over 50 years of age and nearing retirement (Tetty Wisdom, 2006). 9

11 3.2 Governance, leadership and management Weak leadership, management and governance exacerbate the challenges faced by higher education institutions in Africa (4, 6). Management inefficiencies drain scarce resources away from the fundamental objectives of increasing access, quality and relevance and thinly spread human and financial resources. Underutilized facilities, duplicative program offerings, low student-staff ratios, high drop out and repetition rates, uneconomical procurement procedures, and allocation of a large share of the budget to non-educational expenditures are largely related to management and leadership inefficiencies and capacity limitations (2, 6). Academic leaders are rarely trained in the management of higher education institutions. Generally institution leaders at all levels are poor in strategic planning, market research and advocacy, research management, financial planning and management, human resource management, performance management and partnership building and networking skills. 3.3 Problems of quality and relevance Africa s higher education institutions face a decline in quality of education, learning and research (4, 6). Universities operate with overcrowded and deteriorating physical facilities, limited and obsolete library resources, insufficient equipment and instructional materials, outdated curricula, unqualified teaching staff, poorly prepared secondary students, and an absence of academic rigor and systematic evaluation of performance. Lack of access to the global knowledge pool and the international academic environment has a big contribution. There is a widespread concern in the relevance of curricula, as expressed by the overall mismatch between programs of study and labor market requirements (1, 4). Institutions are generally ineffective at preparing students with applicable skills and reflecting the needs of the employment market. For example, agricultural education and training is often out of synch with labor market demands in terms of knowledge and practical competencies, especially in agribusiness, basic management and problem solving (5). Education and training curricula tend to be obsolete and disassociated from the economy. Practical instruction receives insufficient emphasis, and students have little opportunity to develop technical competencies, problem solving experience or communication and organizational skills. Absence or lack of effective regional, national and institutional quality assurance and enhancement systems and agencies in African countries and universities further exacerbate the problems of quality and relevance. Structured quality assurance processes in higher education at the national level are a very recent phenomenon in most African countries but the situation is changing rapidly. Technical capacity is the most pressing constraint in national quality assurance agencies and institutional systems. 10

12 3.4 Weak research and innovation capacities Higher education institutions in Africa do not yet posses adequate research capabilities, infrastructure and facilities and funding needed to make them active beneficiaries of global knowledge and/or to generate or adapt knowledge, innovation and problem solving 7. Higher education institutions in Africa face critical shortage of staff to adapt and generate knowledge and innovate. There is little investment in research and innovation, particularly in high priority areas, such as agriculture and natural resources, applied sciences, health sciences, engineering and technology, limiting their capacity to meaningfully contribute to Africa s development and integrate themselves to the global knowledge networks 8. Expansion and development of postgraduate education in many countries is very slow (5, 6), except in South Africa. These circumstances seriously constrain the building up of those elements of national innovation systems that are so essential for increasing national productivity- research capacity, university trained researchers and professionals, graduates with advanced technical and managerial skills, and dynamic university-industry linkages. 3.5 Financial austerity and lack of capacity for diversification Higher education institutions in Sub Saharan Africa are critically constrained by lack of adequate finance, due mainly to poor economic conditions, competing public service priorities, and weak support of the international community (2, 4). Financial austerities have led to inability to retain quality faculty and staff, minimizing staff student ratio, and poor learning and research facilities and resources (3). Institutions are increasingly forced to diversify revenues, but usually with very limited experience, expertise and capacity in managing these challenges of financial diversification and resource mobilization. The lack of adequate funding has constrained research capacities across Africa, influencing their competitiveness in knowledge generation and adaptation, as well as integration in the global knowledge society. 7 Africa s share of global scientific outputs has fallen from 0.5% in mid-1980 s to 0.3% in the mid-1990 s ( ); 8 Research skills are most commonly acquired during masters and doctoral training, but Sub-Saharan African universities have minimal graduate output. Research has often been neglected du to increased teaching workload generated by enormous undergraduate enrolment expansions. 11

13 3.6 Poor physical facilities and infrastructure Higher education institutions in Africa have seen little or no infrastructure improvements for the last few decades (4). Learning infrastructure is widely deficient due to insufficient budget and overdependence on public financing. Infrastructure, such as internet access, library, textbooks, equipment, laboratories and classroom space are critical bottlenecks resulting in deterioration of quality of education and learning (2, 5). The poor state of facilities also affects the quality of research and its ability to contribute to societal development and progress. 3.7 Inability to meet increasing demands for access and equity Institutions in Africa are increasingly unable to absorb the increasing demand 9 of students for higher education (annex 3). Increasing number of students graduating from secondary schools led to corresponding pressures in the demand for higher education (3, 4). The current rate of increase in higher education enrollment is doubling in five years ( - a growth of 15% a year - the fastest in the world. Among the unresolved challenges are the need to expand tertiary education coverage in a sustainable and equitable way, as well as inequalities of access and outcomes, in relation to gender 10, ethnic groups and geographic coverage (6). Graduate level (MSc and PhD) student enrollments are small. The great concern is also in the small enrollment figures in sciences, engineering and technology, and health fields, which are critically needed for innovation, knowledge generation and adaptation and overall national competitiveness. Less than 30% of students in higher education institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa are enrolled in the fields of agriculture, health sciences, engineering and technology and basic and applied sciences. 9 In sub-saharan African countries higher education student enrollment has increased from 660 thousand in 1985 to over 3.4 million (over four-fold!) in 2005 (annex 2). The increase in some countries, such as Cameroon (from 21 to 99 thousand), Kenya (from 21 to 108 thousand), Ghana (from 8 thousand to 110 thousand), Nigeria (from 266 thousand to 1.3 million), Ethiopia (from 27 thousand to 191 thousand) and Uganda (from 10 thousand to 88 thousand) has been significant (Global Education Digest, 2003; 2004; 2006; 2007; UNESCO/World Bank Higher education in developing countries: Peril and promise). In spite of rapid enrollment growth in the higher education sector, Africa s higher education gross enrollment ratio (GER) participation of the years age-cohort - remains the lowest in the world around 5%, trailing South Asia (10%), East Asia (19%), and North Africa and Middle East (23%). 10 In sub-saharan Africa, female student gross enrollment ratio remained around 2% between 1995 and 2004, compared to 5% and above for male students. In 2004 of the 3.4 million total tertiary education student enrollment the proportion of female students was only 38% and the proportion of female teaching staff just 4%. In math, science and engineering, female student enrollment is particularly low. 12

14 4. Lessons of experience The state of health and the contribution of Africa s higher education institutions occupy a central role in any discussion about the revitalization of Africa and its people. Social and economic progress is achieved principally through the advancement and application of knowledge and tertiary education is necessary for that. African higher education has several challenges but opportunities are also emerging from these challenges (6). The major lessons that are important for the Initiative as explained in the several study reports and documents are explained below. 4.1 A changing perception about Africa s development needs A growing number of policy makers, scholars and practitioners have been reaffirming the importance of higher education to overall socio-economic development. International donors, including the World Bank and several large foundations have started to support investment to rebuild and strengthen universities as crucial national assets towards nourishing transformation in Africa. There is a growing consensus that higher education institutions of all kinds (universities, community colleges, polytechnics, two-year colleges, etc.) are important for Africa s development and the demand for higher education in Africa is growing rapidly (1, 2, 4). The need for producing leaders for better governance and the building of the capacity of African states to deliver rests on higher education institutions. For renewed effort to strengthen Africa s knowledge institutions, centrality of the generation, management and application of knowledge and special role of intellectual leadership, are acknowledged. Sustainable transformation and growth throughout the economy are not possible without the capacity building contribution of an innovative tertiary education system, especially in low-income countries with weak institutional capacity and limited human capital (6). Africa has the potential to be transformed from a place of privation to one of opportunity. By contrast, if Africa persists in a state of insecurity and economic stagnation that will not just be bad for Africans, it will be bad for the rest of the world (2). It will lead to still more powerful pressures for migration, legal or illegal. The time is ripe for change (1, 2). To do something is not enough. To do everything is not only a requirement, it is a clear duty. Now is the time to act. 4.2 The neglect and lack of investment on higher education in Africa must be reversed Africa faces development challenges on many fronts, but providing support to improve higher education is critical component and can not continue to be ignored (4, 6). African countries are at risk of being further marginalized in a highly competitive world economy because their tertiary education systems are not adequately prepared (6). Africa s development partners or donors have to make a major investment to improve 13

15 Africa s capacity, starting with its system of higher education 11, particularly in science and technology. The cost of insufficient investment in tertiary education can be enormous (6): reduced ability of a country to compete effectively in global and regional economies; a widening of economic and social disparities; declines in the quality of life, in health status and in life expectancy; an increase in unavoidable public expenditures on social welfare programs; a deterioration of social cohesion. Neglecting higher education in Africa is not an option, as it could seriously jeopardize longer term growth prospects of the countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. 4.3 Africa s commitment and ownership with focused international support leads to success African governments have started to show increased commitment to investing in higher education, as expressed in their poverty reduction strategy papers. A growing number of international organizations have started to show interest and commitment to invest in higher education and African development. Investment in Africa s development is beneficial to the developed world in terms of peace, security and moral self- interest. Investments would work if they ensure that Africa s development is shaped by Africans. Africa has to choose its own research priorities. The International community should support Africa s efforts to increase innovation in agriculture and other areas (2). Africa requires a comprehensive big push on many fronts at once, including (6) the improvement of institutional capacities and faculty development, strengthening sciences and technology research and development capacity, improving relevance and quality of education and research, establishing sustainable financing mechanisms, strengthening management capacities and introducing MIS, evaluating and improving programs and developing quality enhancement mechanisms, and curriculum redevelopment and examining labor market to identify applicable skills and knowledge that tertiary students could be better build. 4.4 Awareness and engagement of Africans and development partners is critical Launching and implementing tertiary education reforms has been more successful when African governments, decision makers and institution leaders have managed to build a consensus among the various constituents of the tertiary education community. It is critically important to provide information and insights that reflect current knowledge about successful reforms and effective implementation and that are applicable, and engage stakeholders and international community in a dialogue on the role of tertiary education in the context of overall strategies for investing in the sector and ways of minimizing the negative political impact of reforms (6). 11 In spite of rapid enrollment growth, Africa s higher education gross enrollment ratio (GER) remained the lowest in the world, trailing South Asia (10%), East Asia (19%), and North Africa and Middle East (23%). Average tertiary enrollment in sub-saharan Africa is only about 5% and the number of students is about 3.4 million. The current rate of increase in higher education enrollment is doubling in five years, i.e. a growth of 15% a year- the fastest in the world ( ; Peter Materu, 2006). This requires about $10 billion in additional funding. ( 14

16 There is a strong push to more effectively connect higher education institutions with industry, the private sector, NGOs, foundations and the society, to make them relevant and produce graduates that could bring a change in the livelihood of people. Higher education institutions should be integrated into the national innovation system by establishing better institutional and market linkages. 4.5 The interventions in African higher education institutions have to be long term and comprehensive Long term programs of investment are needed (4, 6), both to revitalize African higher education and to support the development of centers of excellence in sciences, engineering and technology (2). Comprehensive interventions are more likely to bear fruit than isolated efforts. Tertiary education projects which were piecemeal, with narrow focus on the establishment of new programs or on discrete quality improvement measures for existing teaching and research activities have shown little success and impact (6). There should be a long term comprehensive support for reform and effective institution building. Interventions need to be sequenced, with time horizon consistent with the long-term nature of capacity building and enhancement efforts. Sequencing provides the tools for responding to and adjusting to evolving challenges. 4.6 Partnership has a great promise to build Africa s capacity A new kind of partnership is needed, based on listening to the African voice, on mutual respect and solidarity, and rooted in a ground analysis of what actually works. In order for Africa to end poverty it requires a partnership between Africa and the developed world which takes full account of Africa s diversity and particular circumstances (1, 2). There is a strong interest in Africa to form partnerships with U.S. higher education institutions- genuine partnerships that are long-term and sustainable. U.S. universities have a long and productive history in international development, their effectiveness largely as a result of their role as problem solving institutions responsive to society s needs. African higher education institutions could be supported to improve their poor capacity in conducting development-oriented research- through mentoring programs and joint research projects between American and African researchers with the goal of developing locally appropriate technologies aimed at increasing labor productivity and market competitiveness (4). Africa is at a cross roads and can not and should not wait; action is needed now and delay can not be an option. U.S. universities have proved effective in building world class institutions in developing countries, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and Indian State Agricultural Universities. 4.7 Interventions need to be country specific There is a critical need to recognize Africa s huge diversity (1, 2): the second largest continent in the world, containing more than 50 countries which hold an enormously rich mix of peoples, cultures, economies, history 15

17 and geographies. Thus there can be no "one size fits all" solutions. The relative emphasis and mix of interventions appropriate for any given country are linked to its specific political and economic circumstances at both the macroeconomic and the tertiary education levels (4). Support to countries should be appropriate to a country s specific circumstances, focused on promoting autonomy and ownership, have lasting sustainable effects or result, and sensitive to local political considerations affecting tertiary education reform. 4.8 Faculty development and institutional capacity building are major priorities Higher education institutions in Africa are not in a position to provide the large number of qualified professionals and educated work force needed for social progress and economic transformation in the continent in the near term future. The root cause of these problems lies in the lack of faculty, and debilitated institutional capacities of the higher education institutions. Thus, priority in the intervention to revitalize the institutions has to focus on developing faculty, improving management and leadership, redeveloping curriculum, and enhancing physical facilities and infrastructure. Interventions to establish centers of excellence in science and technology, development and strengthening of graduate (MSc and PhD) programs, and improving research and innovation capacities are also critical. 4.9 Necessary to address brain drain and mobilization of the Diaspora Higher education institutions in Africa are severely affected by brain drain. Mechanisms to reverse and benefit from brain drain need to be put in place urgently. Measures include increased use of joint degrees and sandwich programs, incentives for returnees, south-south training of individuals, creation of local favorable environment for national researchers and specialists, and mobilization of the Diaspora and Friends of Africa (6), as well as improving work environments, respecting faculty and autonomy. In the face of critical shortage of faculty and staff in higher education institutions, and the overall economy, most African countries have not yet found a way to develop strong ties to their Diaspora, an untapped resource which could provide much needed capital to the region and countries (2, 3). The African Diaspora has to be mobilized and better use made of their enormous potential Competitive grants encourage innovation and stimulate performance Well designed competitive funds can greatly stimulate the performance of tertiary education institutions and can be powerful vehicles for transformation and innovation. Such grants encourage strategic planning, encourage cooperation between staff across departments, stimulate ownerships, introduce competitive bidding and peer evaluation, and create transparent systems, etc. (6). Project selection and grant award have to focus 16

18 on principles of transparency and inclusiveness, and address requirements on the basis of need for urgency of change, based on the gravity of the issues faced by the country s tertiary education system, and willingness to reform, as reflected by government s commitment to implementing reforms and its ability to mobilize major stakeholders in support of the reform agenda. Competitive grants have to ensure equal representation of women and other disadvantaged groups of society in the allocation of resources and sharing of benefits accrued from collaboration programs. 17

19 5. Conclusions This synthesis from the several documents reviewed has informed, confirmed or reaffirmed the relevance and appropriateness of the challenges identified, the objectives developed, the fields of emphasis proposed and the need for partnership identified and prioritized by the Initiative. Although in its formative stage, the Initiative highlights the importance of higher education to Africa s development and is in a position to effectively advocate and facilitate the cause of bringing higher education as a priority and a critical element of development and transformation landscape in Africa. The focus of the Initiative on faculty development, institutional capacity building, improvement of quality and relevance of teaching-learning and research, improvement of management and leadership, as well as building capacity in financial diversification, linkages and advocacy and marketing, with a priority in the fields of agriculture, natural resources and environment, applied and basic sciences, engineering and technology, health sciences, business, economics and management, as well as education and teacher training is in line with the findings of most scholars and literatures consulted. The Initiative has rightly set out its program to address the issue of neglect to higher education investment, both by Africans and the international community, and plans to tackle the major challenges faced by higher education institutions in Africa through a competitive grants program. As clearly indicated by the literatures, the Initiative need to garner support for its effectiveness through building consensus among African policy makers, scholars and institutions in Africa, as well as building a coalition of partners in the U.S and elsewhere. Continuous engagements, creation of awareness and building ownership of African states and agencies, as well as higher education institutions is crucial for the success of the Initiative. Facilitation of regional and sub-regional and continent wide interaction and collective work is essential. The Initiative may need to seek and build collaboration with Africa-based institutions such as the African Union, Association of African Universities (AAU), Southern African Regional Universities Association (SARUA), Inter- University Council for East Africa (IUCEA), and Conseil Africaine et Malgasche pour Ensignement Superieure (CAMES). Some of this partnership building has begun. In the areas of agriculture and natural resources the Regional Universities forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM), and the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) could serve as partners. Engagement and building coalition of partners in the U.S. is equally important and crucial. Collaborations between U.S. and African higher education institutions need to ensure that African voices are heard and integrated in all partnership programs. As strongly planned by the Initiative, partnerships between U.S. and African higher education institutions need to be long-term and comprehensive, sustainability and 18

20 institutional ownership and capacity building embedded in each program component. Country specificity is important for effectiveness of the Initiative, to ensure ownership and deliver meaningful results and impacts. Within the major goals of the Initiative, emphasis needs to be put on mobilizing the African Diaspora and Friends of Africa- possibly in partnership with the World Bank and other agencies. The Initiative needs to develop a lean but effective focal point/unit with expertise to facilitate exchange of information, manage advocacy, consultations and engagements with partners both in the U.S. and Africa, mobilize resources for collaborations and develop framework and processes for competitive grants, develop coalition of partners and manage implementation of activities of the Initiative. 6. References (1) African Union (2006). The second decade of education for Africa ( ). Addis Ababa, (2) Commission for Africa (2004). Our Common Interest: Report of the commission for Africa. 450 pp. (3) Devesh Kapur and Megan Crowley (2008). Beyond the ABCs: Higher Education and Developing Countries. Working Paper Number 139. Center for Global Development. 109 pp. (4) Ginette Azcona, Rachel Chute, Farah Dib, Loveena Dookhony, Heather Klein, Daniel Loyacano-Perl, Dominic Randazzo and Vanessa Reilly (2008). Harvesting the Future: The Case for Tertiary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Maxwell School of Syracuse University, 229 pp. (5) Richard Johanson and William Saint (2007). Cultivating Knowledge and Skills to Grow African Agriculture. A Synthesis of Research Commissioned by the World Bank. 116 pp. (6) World Bank (2002). Constructing knowledge societies. New challenges for tertiary education. 236 pp. Washington D.C., the World Bank. Additional References i. African Network of Scientific and Technological Institutions (ANSTI) (2005). State of science and technology training institutions in Africa. ii. Global Education Digest (2003; 2004; 2006; 2007). iii. Peter Materu (2007). Higher Education Quality Assurance in Sub-Saharan Africa: Status, Challenges, Opportunities, and Promising Practices, World Bank. iv. Peter Materu (2006). Re-Visioning Africa s tertiary education in the transition to a knowledge economy. Talking Notes, South Africa. v. Tetty, Wisdom (2006). Staff retention in African universities: Elements of a sustainable strategy. Washington D.C., the World Bank. vi. UNESCO/World Bank (2000). Higher education in developing countries: Peril and promise. The Task force on higher education and society. World Bank vii. World Bank-Africa Development Indicators (2007); viii. ix. 19