The Role of Human Resources and Their Management in the Establishment of Sustainable Competitive Advantage

Transcription

1 ISSN ENGINEERING ECONOMICS No 5 (60) WORK HUMANISM The Role of Human Resources and Their Management in the Establishment of Sustainable Competitive Advantage Rūta Kazlauskait, Ilona Bučiūnien ISM Vadybos ir ekonomikos universitetas E. Ožeškien s g. 18, LT-44254, Kaunas There is an ongoing debate in research over the source of organisational competitive advantage. Strategy theorists have looked for it in both external and internal environments of business. However, given such challenges of the global business world as the need to increase productivity, expand into global markets, implement new technologies, attract and retain high-performing workforce (Burke, 2005), and the fact that traditional sources of competitive advantage (e.g. natural resources, access to financial resources, economies of scale, etc.) no longer suffice (Pfeffer, 1994), growing relevance has recently been attributed by both researchers and practitioners to human resources and their management. However, there is no consensus in scientific literature as to what in particular serves as a source of competitive advantage the possession of unique and valuable human resources, or their effective management. Drawing on prior research, this paper is aimed at further developing the dispute by looking into the role of human resources and their management in the enhancement of organisational effectiveness. First, to unravel the centrality of human resources in the organisation, this paper draws mainly on the propositions of the resource-based view, which, contrary to the external environment approach, suggests that organisational resources and capabilities serve as a strategic foundation for the organisation (Barney, 1991; Grant, 1998). The paper also looks into the features of human resources which make them of strategic value for an organisation: human resources qualify for a source of competitive advantage, for they possess specific features which make them valuable, rare, inimitable, dynamic, etc. To better disclose the role of human resources in the organisation, the paper also juxtaposes different approaches to the very concept of human resources. Respectively two strands of the concept definitions are discussed: generalist (Wright et al, 1994; Fisher et al, 2006; etc.), and distinctive (Barney, 1995; Grant, 1998; Kamoche, 1999). Next, the paper provides some insights on the high relevance of human resource management in the enhancement of organisational effectiveness. Drawing on the above analysis of the relevance of human resources and their management, the paper supports a unifying approach, i.e. acquiring and sustaining of competitive advantage necessitates both a pool of unique, valuable, and inimitable employees and effective people management practices. Finally, in addition to the resource-based view, the paper provides an overview of a number of other theories that look into the source of competitive advantage by comparing and contrasting the role they ascribe to human resources and their management in the creation of competitive advantage. Respectively internal, interactional and external sources of competitive advantage are analysed and discussed in the paper. Keywords: human resources, human resource management, resource-based view, competitive advantage. Introduction The world of business becoming more and more global and demanding, nowadays organizations are forced to seek for new means to withstand fierce competition and succeed in their operations. Among the challenges they have to face, the following ones are viewed as the most critical ones: the need to increase productivity, enhance organisational capabilities, expand into global markets, develop and implement new technologies, respond to more demanding customer needs and changes in the highly volatile marketplace, increase revenue and decrease costs, attract and retain high-performing and flexible workforce, introduce and manage relevant organisational change, etc. (Burke, 2005). In response to the above demands, businesses have persistently been searching for new means to improve their performance, while researchers have been putting effort in an attempt to determine such possible sources of competitive advantage (CA) at both conceptual and empirical levels. It is now generally believed that human resources and their management serve as a strategic asset to the organisation. However, there is an ongoing debate in scholarly publications, as to what in particular leads to the development and sustainability of competitive advantage in the organisation human resources, or the way they are managed? Therefore, this paper will look into the ways that different approaches to the development of competitive advantage perceive the contribution of human resources and their management in the enhancement of organisational effectiveness. Research object is human resources and human resource management, as well as their role in the creation and sustainability of competitive advantage

2 Research question. What role do human resources and their management play in the establishment of sustained competitive advantage? Research method. The paper is built on the analysis and synthesis of scientific literature on strategic management and human resource management. Organisational resources as a source of competitive advantage Strategy researchers and practitioners have been putting persistent effort in an attempt to understand and unravel potential sources of competitive advantage. In their search for an answer, they have been looking into both external and internal environments of the organization. Though both, external and internal perspectives are undoubtedly relevant to the development of business success, until the 1990s, a considerably greater attention was given to the external environment approach, and the strategic analysis mainly focused on the industry environment and competitive positioning of the organization (Barney, 1991, 1995; Grant, 1991, 1998). Human resource management was viewed under this perspective merely as a tool for reinforcing the organization s generic strategy (Schuler, Jackson, 1999; Boxall, 1999), or support activity in the value creation chain (Porter, 1998). In the 1990s, however, having realized that traditional sources of competitive advantage, such as natural resources, access to financial resources, technology, protected or regulated markets and economies of scale had become increasingly easier to imitate and thus lost their strategic power, strategy researchers and practitioners started searching for new strategic possibilities (Pfeffer, 1994; Becker, Gerhart, 1996). As a result a resource-based view (RBV) of the firm was developed, in which the focus of strategy specialists shifted from the external environment to the internal context of the organization, and the greatest emphasis was laid on the crucial role of organizational resources and capabilities, which were viewed as a strategic foundation of the organization and the primary source of competitive advantage (Barney, 1991; Grant, 1991, 1998). Proponents of this view argued that organisations should focus on acquiring, deploying, developing, and retaining their resources rather than the competitive position in the market (Colbert, 2004). Following the resource-based view, rapid changes in technologies and customer preferences make the marketfocused strategy too unstable for building a long-term strategy; instead, business strategy should be based on the deployment and development of the unique features of organisational resources and capabilities (Grant, 1991, 1998). To avoid any possible terminological confusion, it should be said that organisational resources are defined as organisational assets such as, for example, human resources, intellectual capital, capital equipment, which, however, do not have the potential of establishing a competitive advantage in isolation (Grant, 1998). Accordingly, resources have to be utilized in bundles, or combinations, which then lead to the development of organizational capabilities that can be viewed as a source of competitive advantage. Similarly Prahalad and Hamel (1990) maintain that the establishment and sustainability of a competitive advantage rests on the organization s ability to determine, develop and nurture core competences, which they define as collective learning in an organization, while Lado and Wilson (1994) propose that the creation of competitive advantage necessitates organisational competencies which include all firmspecific resources and capabilities that enable the organization to develop, choose, and implement valueenhancing strategies. It is also noteworthy that a distinction is made between a competitive advantage and a sustained competitive advantage. Barney (1991) argues that the first means the implementation of a strategy that is not followed by current or potential competitors, while the latter means not only the possession of such a strategy, but its non-duplicability as well. To act as a potential source of a sustained competitive advantage, a resource has to posses the following attributes: be valuable, rare, inimitable, and nonsubstitutable (Barney, 1991). Besides it is also argued that resources have to be relevant (Grant, 1998) and dynamic (Johnson, Scholes, Whittington, 2005). These additional features are emphasised taking into consideration such circumstances of the contemporary business world as hyper-competition, rapidly changing environment and volatile customer needs and expectations, which clearly necessitate dynamic core competencies, i.e. organizational ability to adjust and develop competencies to meet the needs of the fast altering environment. Among other classifications of organisational resources (e.g. Barney, 1995; de Wit, Meyer, 2004), Grant s (1998) typology comprises three major kinds of resources: tangible (financial and physical), intangible (culture, reputation and technology), and human. Though all the above types of resources are essential for organizational success, human resources and their management have recently been viewed crucial in the attainment of organisational success (Ulrich, Lake, 1991; Pfeffer, 1994; Wright, McMahan, McWilliams, 1994; Becker, Gerhart, 1996; Kamoche, 1999; Wright, Dunford, Snell, 2001; Doorewaard, Benschop, 2003). The relevance of human resources in the enhancement of organisational effectiveness The centrality of human resources is usually accounted for by the fact that nowadays organizations are facing such challenges as a need to increase productivity, expand into global markets, develop new technologies, respond to changes in the highly volatile marketplace, increase revenue and decrease costs, develop skilled and flexible workforce, and introduce changes (Burke, 2005), which, of course, emphasises the significance of human resources and capabilities. What makes human resources a valuable, rare, inimitable resource having no substitutes that may lead to the establishment and sustainability of a competitive advantage? To respond to the above question, it is necessary to first clarify what is meant under the concept of human resources. As seen from Table 1, definitions of human resources can be categorised under two broad strands: generalist and distinctive

3 The first category mainly comprises concepts offered by the HRM perspective, where human resources comprise all people under employment at a particular organisation. The second category, though, lays emphasis on employee abilities, knowledge, attitudes and experience. This strand of definitions has its roots in the resource-based view, and considers human resources a strategic asset of an organisation. Juxtaposition of human resource concept definitions Table 1 Approach Emphasis Author Definition Distinctive approach (RBV) Skills Knowledge Abilities Attitudes Experience Wisdom Grant (1998) Productive services that human beings offer to the firm in terms of their skills, knowledge, and reasoning and decision-making abilities. Kamoche (1999) Accumulated stock of knowledge, skills, and abilities that the individuals possess, which the firm has built up over time into an identifiable expertise. Barney (1995) All the experience, knowledge, judgement, risk taking propensity, and wisdom of individuals associated with a firm. Generalist approach (HRM) People Wright et al (1994) Gómez-Mejía et al (2007) Fisher et al (2006) The pool of human capital under the firm s control in a direct employment relationship. People who work in an organization. (Also called personnel). People who work for an organisation. It should be taken into consideration, though, that the HRM approach does not reject or aim to minimize the centrality of human resources in the organisation. What is covered by the distinctive approach to human resources is reflected in the HRM definition of human capital. For instance, Dessler (2005) defines human capital as the knowledge, education, training, skills, and expertise of a firm s workers, which is parallel to the RBV definitions of human resources. As a discipline, HRM is more focused on the ways of effective people management, thus it views human resources in a broader sense. Besides, it should be taken into account that the HRM approach is not unyielding or undivided. It comprises a number of attitudes to HRM conceptualisation ( hard vs soft ). And it is specifically the view to human resources, or the body of employees, that distinguishes the above two HRM approaches. Under the hard approach, employees are considered one of the organisation s resources and should thus be managed in the same ways as any other resources in the organization, while HRM effectiveness is associated with cost minimisation rather than investment in human capital (Kane, Crawford, Grant, 1999). The soft model of HRM acknowledges the importance of taking into consideration multiple stakeholder interests. A particular focus is laid on employees as an important group of stakeholders (Beardwell, Clark, 2007) and a distinct resource that cannot be managed as any other resource and whose interests and needs have to be taken into account (Price, 2007). So what makes human resources a source of competitive advantage? According to Wright, McMahan, McWilliams (1994), human resources can be considered rare, as value for the organization is usually created by individuals with high cognitive ability, which is distributed throughout the total labour population and is rare by definition. Furthermore, historical differences among organizations, causal ambiguity of the linkage between human resources and competitive advantage, and social complexity of human interactions make human resources inimitable. Finally, human resources can be viewed as nonsubstitutable due to their potential to withstand the time test of becoming obsolete and ability to be transferred across technologies, products, or markets. Centrality of human resource management The resource-based view has undoubtedly highlighted the critical role of human resources in establishing and sustaining competitive advantage. However, there is an ongoing debate as to what in particular provides value to the organization human resources, or their management. As discussed earlier in the paper, some authors maintain that sustained competitive advantage lies in the human resources and not in HR practices per se, as the latter are well known and hence not rare and easily imitable and substitutable (Wright, McMahan, McWilliams, 1994). Other authors, though, provide counterarguments and maintain that competitive advantage is created through HRM practises and not human resources, as it does not suffice to hire best people to surpass the competition. To build an organizational capability, employee competences need to be developed and retained through effective HR management (Ulrich, Lake, 1991; Pfeffer, 1994; Becker, Gerhart, 1996; Boxall, Purcell, 2003). Pfeffer (1994) proposes that sustained competitive advantage can be achieved through HRM and organizational culture, as in this case its source is less visible. Besides, being a complex system, HRM is difficult to imitate. The author also maintains that the achievement of organisational success through people requires an attitudinal change of managers towards their workforce and employment relations, i.e. employees should be viewed upon as a strategic asset, and not a means of cost minimisation. Becker and Gerhart (1996) provide two arguments in support of the above idea. They second Pfeffer s (1994) proposition that human resource strategies make a complex system, which inhibits the understanding of the interplay

4 between its mechanisms and value generation. Secondly, HR policy and system development is path dependent, i.e. it is a lengthy process and is resistant to immediate replication. Huselid et al (1997) maintain that to achieve competitive advantage through human capital organizations need to be in possession of human capital that is value adding, unique, inimitable and non-substitutable, while to meet these conditions a set of HRM practices is required. Batt (2002) distinguishes three dimensions of HRM systems that lead to the acquisition and retention of the relevant human capital: first, recruitment of people with respective skills and investment in their initial training; second, work design that fosters discretion and continuous learning through cooperation with co-workers; third, performance-based incentives. A unifying approach to the critical role of human resources and their management In the debate over what constitutes the source of competitive advantage human resources, or their effective management, a third group of authors proposes a unifying attitude to the critical role of both human resources and HRM in the enhancement of organisational effectiveness and competitiveness, and argue that both human resources and their management are essential in the development and sustaining of competitive advantage. For instance, Kamoche (1999) maintains that, on the one hand, human resources contribute to the development of competitive advantage through behavioural manifestation of expertise, and on the other hand, HRM leads to the possession of organisational ability to align human resources with strategy, as well as retaining such human resources. Given the propositions of Lado and Wilson (1994), Grant (1998), Prahalad and Hamel (1990), and Kamoche (1999), it can be argued that a mere possession of individual resources does not lead to the establishment and sustainability of a competitive advantage; the latter calls for building resources into a core competence, or organisational capability. Hence, high quality human capital needs to be supported by effective HRM to be of competitive value for the organisation. In his evolutionary approach to human resources, Mueller (1996) takes the dispute further still by maintaining that managerial practices alone cannot turn human resources into a valuable strategic asset. Instead, it is a result of social architecture, i.e. social patterns of a developmental process, which due to its lengthy and undefined evolutionary nature is difficult to replicate for competition. Besides the author argues that human resources alone cannot qualify for a resource mobility barrier that would inhibit a resource imitation. Respectively human resources may lead to sustained competitive advantage when used in combination with other organisational strategic assets. Mueller (1996) also emphasises the relevant role of tacit knowledge, thus proposing that explicitly defined and formalised HRM practices do not form basis for the development and sustainability of competitive advantage. Boxall (1999) proposes that a distinction should be made between human capital advantage and human, or organizational process advantage, where the first embraces hiring and retaining high quality people with tacit knowledge, and the latter refers to processes, which are history sensitive, socially complex, and causally ambiguous. Each of these two advantages may lead to value creation; however, according to Boxall and Purcell (2003), they work best in combination with each other. Besides the authors maintain that though human resources may be viewed as a source of competitive value, they have to be managed to lead to the establishment of a sustained competitive advantage, which in turn necessitates an HRM system, for it, in contrast to single HR policies and practices, is inimitable (Boxall, Purcell, 2003). Ulrich and Brockbank (2005) build their HR value proposition on the following five elements: knowledge of external environment, meeting needs of external and internal stakeholders, development of HR practices, organising human resources, and effective HR function. These criteria point to the significance of both human resources and their effective management, and support the idea that to create value for the organization the two have to work in close combination. Lawler (2005) maintains that though the value of HR function is undoubted, it could be further enhanced by assuming a business partner role in the organisation and offering the following three lines of products: administrative services (e.g. hiring, training, etc.), business partner services (e.g. HR system development), and strategic partner services (e.g. strategic differentiation of HR practices). Wright, Dunford and Snell (2001) propose that in order to acquire a sustainable competitive advantage an organization has to be superior in all areas of strategic HRM: human capital pool (knowledge, skill, ability), employee relationships and behaviour (psychological contract and organizational citizenship), and people management practices (staffing, training, rewards, appraisal, work design, participation, recognition, and communication). Different approaches to HR and HRM value perception Having briefly discussed the resource-based view to strategy formulation, it should be mentioned, however, that though this perspective has undoubtedly highlighted the critical role of human resources in the obtaining and sustaining of competitive advantage, it is not the only or the best strategic perspective that organizations should follow in an attempt to enhance their effectiveness and excel rivals. It is noteworthy that in their propositions on human resources, the resource-based view has been criticised for the neglect of the context specifics and human side of employees, i.e. their demographic characteristics and physical and psychological conditions, as all of these factors may have an impact on employee skills and competences (Doorewaard, Benschop, 2003). Therefore, the paper will attempt to consider these critical considerations and will incorporate context and people specifics into the HRM-performance analysis. In addition to the resource-based view, the critical role of human resources and their management in the

5 development of a sustained competitive advantage is supported by other theories, such as, for instance, the knowledge-based view (Price, 2007) that emphasises the critical role of unique knowledge ownership; the role behaviour theory, which maintains the necessity of different role behaviours for different means of strategy implementation and views HRM as a primary means of behaviour management; and the human capital theory, which assumes that the value of human resources, just as any other type of capital, lies in their ability to contribute to organizational productivity (Schuler, Jackson, 2005). Stavrou and Brewster (2005) point out to the following four perspectives that acknowledge the significance of human resource management in the establishment of sustained competitive advantage: 1) organizational learning, i.e. creation of competitive advantage through innovation, change and rapid renewal; 2) external and internal fit of organizational practices, resources, and capabilities; 3) engagement in change processes, identification of threats and opportunities, and acting as an intermediary between stakeholders and the business; 4) core competency development and deployment. To a certain extent, the above views can be considered extensions of the resourcebased view, or at least closely interrelated and overlapping perspectives; therefore, they will not be discussed in more detail in this paper. It should be mentioned, however, that the critical role of human resources and their management is mainly supported by the proponents of the internal source of competitive advantage, such as resource-based, competency-based, and knowledge-based views (see Table 2). The role of human resources and their management in the creation of competitive advantage Table 2 CA source INTERNAL INTERACTIONAL EXTERNAL Approach Author HR value HRM role CA basis Resource-based view Barney (1991, 1995) Grant (1991, 1998) Kamoche (1999) Competencybased view Lado & Wilson (1994) Knowledgebased view Business network view Behavioural perspective Horizontal & vertical fit approach (SHRM) Competitive positioning view, Country/ industry view Grant (1996, 1998) Strandskov (2006) Schuler & Jackson (1999) Wright & McMahan (1999) Delery (1998) Ferris (1999) Porter (1990, 1998) HR as a resource (viewed critical by some authors) Input-based competency contributing to valuable product/service development Core employee knowhow as a strategic resource HR as relationship builders & cultivators HR role behaviours as a mediator between strategy and organisational outcomes Human capital as a mediator between HRM and performance Not valuable per se, activity implementers HR value optimisation Competency development and deployment HR value maximisation through their deployment & development HR capability development Means of stimulating role behaviours required by competitive strategy Performance enhancement Support activity Valuable, rare, inimitable & non-substitutable bundles of resources and capabilities Managerial, input-based, transformational & output-based competencies Integration of specialised knowledge into organisational capabilities Resources & capabilities gained/developed outside the firm boundaries Role behaviours required by competitive strategy Horizontally & vertically aligned HRM systems Firm s ability to perform activities at a lower price or in a distinct way Industry/nation specific key success factors Followers of the interactional approach to the CA source see human resources as a mediator between strategy and performance outcomes, or relationship builders in business networks and human resource management as an HR capability developer and performance stimulator (see Table 2). The least significance to both human resources and their management is attributed by the competitive positioning view which supports the idea that the source of competitive advantage lies outside the organisation and views human resources not valuable per se, and their management as a support activity (see Table 2). However, as already mentioned, current challenges of the business environment can no longer be met merely by the use of traditional, or external, sources, and emphasises the need of searching for new effective combinations. Conclusions By way of conclusion, it can be said that both human resources and their management, especially when used in combination, may be viewed as value adding to the organisation in its attempts to meet the challenges of highly volatile global business environment. This assumption is supported by most contemporary approaches to sources of competitive advantage, a summary of which is provided in Table 2. As seen from the overview of these approaches and as already discussed in this paper, the highest relevance to human resources is attributed by approaches supporting the idea that the source of organisational competitiveness resides within the firm, i.e. views of internal sources of competitive advantage, such as resource-based view, knowledge-based view, or competency-based view

6 Consistent with the above perspectives, human resources play a critical role in the creation and sustaining of competitive advantage. It is noteworthy, however, that though the interaction and external views to competitiveness do not emphasise the critical role of human resources in the attainment and sustaining of competitive advantage, human contribution is nevertheless evident and undeniable, for people make an integral and indispensable part of the organisation no matter in what way they are viewed a strategic asset, relationship builder and cultivator, or strategy implementer. It is also noteworthy that the value of human resources is dependent not only on the organisation or industry, but certain national factors such as political, economical and educational systems, etc. (Boxall, Purcell, 2003), for states differ in the provision of the levels of human capital quality. 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7 Rūta Kazlauskait, Ilona Bučiūnien Žmogiškųjų išteklių ir jų valdymo vaidmuo kuriant ilgalaikį konkurencinį pranašumą Santrauka Mokslin je literatūroje egzistuoja daugyb požiūrių į organizacijos konkurencinio pranašumo kūrimą ir išlaikymą. M gindami įvardyti konkurencinio pranašumo šaltinį, strateginių sprendimų pri mimo požiūriai remiasi tiek išorin s, tiek vidin s organizacijos aplinkos analize. Tačiau iki šiol nei teorijoje, nei praktikoje vis dar n ra vieningos nuomon s šiuo klausimu, t. y. kas iš tiesų kuria konkurencinį organizacijos pranašumą. Verslo pasauliui tampant vis globalesniu, šiuolaikin s organizacijos susiduria su tokiais naujais iššūkiais: našumo didinimo būtinybe, naujų technologijų diegimu ir naudojimu, gerai dirbančių darbuotojų pritraukimu bei išlaikymu. D l to organizacijos suvokia, jog tradiciniai konkurencinio pranašumo šaltiniai: gamtiniai ištekliai, pri jimas prie finansinių šaltinių, masto ekonomija ir t. t. tampa vis lengviau nukopijuojami ir praranda savo strateginę galią. Tod l organizacijos yra priverstos ieškoti naujų būdų, kaip atsilaikyti prieš sparčiai augančią konkurenciją ir s kmingai vykdyti savo veiklą nuolat besikeičiančioje aplinkoje. Pastarąjį dešimtmetį vadybos literatūroje ir praktikoje, vis dažniau pl tojant organizacijos pasiekimus, svarbiausi yra žmogiškieji ištekliai ir jų valdymas. Taip pat pažym tina, jog strateginio valdymo literatūroje vis dar plačiai diskutuojama, kas iš tiesų sudaro ilgalaikio konkurencinio pranašumo pagrindą žmogiškieji ištekliai ar efektyvus jų valdymas. Straipsnio tikslas atskleisti žmogiškųjų išteklių ir jų valdymo vaidmenį, kuriant ilgalaikį konkurencinį pranašumą. Tyrimo metodas mokslin s literatūros analiz ir sintez. Žmogiškųjų išteklių svarba organizacijoje. Dešimtajame pra jusio amžiaus dešimtmetyje strateginio valdymo literatūroje susiformavo ištekliais pagrįstas strateginių sprendimų pri mimo požiūris (angl. resource-based view). Šio požiūrio šalininkai teigia, jog esminį vaidmenį, kuriant konkurencinį pranašumą, vaidina ne konkurencin pozicija rinkoje, o organizacijos ištekliai ir geb jimai (Barney, 1991; Grant, 1991, 1998). Remiantis Grant (1998) tipologija, pastarieji yra skirstomi į materialius (finansiniai bei fiziniai), nematerialius (organizacijos kultūra, reputacija ir technologijos) ir žmogiškuosius. Nors visos šios išteklių grup s yra svarbios užtikrinant organizacijos veiklos s kmę, didžiausias d mesys pastaruoju metu tiek praktikoje, tiek teorijoje yra skiriamas žmogiškiesiems ištekliams (Ulrich ir Lake, 1991; Pfeffer, 1994; Wright ir kt., 1994, t. t.). Kuo ypatinga ši išteklių grup ir kokiomis savyb mis ji pasižymi, kad atitiktų ilgalaikio konkurencinio pranašumo sąlygas, t. y. kad būtų vertinga, reta, nenukopijuojama ir pakaitalų neturinti išteklių grup? Norint atsakyti į šį, pirmiausia reikia apibr žti žmogiškųjų išteklių sąvoką. Pažym tina, jog literatūroje galima išskirti du pagrindinius požiūrius į šios sąvokos esmę, t. y. bendrinį, kuris žmogiškuosius išteklius suvokia kaip visus organizacijos darbuotojus (Wright ir kt., 1994; Fisher ir kt., 2006), bei išskirtinį, kurio šalininkai akcentuoja darbuotojų geb jimų, žinių, požiūrių ir patirties svarbą (Grant, 1998; Kamoche, 1999). Žmogiškieji ištekliai gali būti laikomi retais ištekliais, nes didžiausią vertę organizacijai kuria darbuotojai, kuriems būdingi dideli kognityviniai geb jimai, vien jau pagal nutyl jimą esantys reti. D l organizacijų patirties skirtumų, priežastinio ryšio tarp žmogiškųjų išteklių ir konkurencinio pranašumo neapibr žtumo ir socialin s žmonių tarpusavio sąveikos sud tingumo ši išteklių grup tampa sunkiai nukopijuojama, o žmon s d l savo geb jimo išlaikyti laiko testą bei būti perkeliamiems iš vienos technologin s, produktų ar rinkos aplinkos į kitą, tampa nepakeičiami (Wright ir kt., 1994). Žmogiškųjų išteklių valdymo vaidmuo kuriant konkurencinį pranašą. Siekiant, kad darbuotojų kompetencijos taptų esmin mis organizacijos kompetencijomis, jos turi būti ugdomos ir išlaikomos organizacijoje remiantis efektyviu žmogiškujų išteklių valdymu (Ulrich ir Lake, 1994; Becker ir Gerhart, 1996, t. t.). Be to, personalo valdymas yra sud tinga sistema, kuriai įdiegti reikia daug laiko, tod l yra sunkiai konkurentų identifikuojama bei nukopijuojama (Pfeffer, 1994; Becker ir Gerhart, 1996). Batt (2002) išskiria tris kritines žmogiškųjų išteklių valdymo funkcijas, prisidedančias prie organizacijos konkurencingumo didinimo: 1) atitinkamus geb jimus turinčių darbuotojų pritraukimą ir jų apmokymą; 2) darbo pobūdį, skatinantį darbuotojų veiksmų laisvę ir nuolatinį darbuotojų ugdymą bendradarbiaujant su kolegomis; 3) į rezultatais pagrįstą skatinimą. Sujungiantis požiūris į žmogiškujų išteklių ir jų valdymo kritinę svarbą. Kaip min ta, mokslin je literatūroje n ra vieningos nuomon s d l žmogiškųjų išteklių ir jų valdymo vaidmens kuriant konkurencinį pranašumą. Apibendrinant skirtingus egzistuojančius požiūrius, galima išskirti tris pagrindines požiūrių grupes. Vieni autoriai d l jau min tų priežasčių konkurencinio pranašumo šaltiniu laiko žmogiškuosius išteklius. Kiti autoriai teigia, kad geriausių darbuotojų pritraukimas n ra pakankama konkurencinio pranašumo sąlyga ir išskiria žmogiškujų išteklių valdymo svarbą. Trečioji autorių grup siūlo sujungiantį požiūrį į žmogiškųjų išteklių bei jų valdymo kritinę svarbą. Kamoche (1999) teigia, jog žmogiškieji ištekliai prisideda prie konkurencinio pranašumo kūrimo demonstruodami savo ekspertinę elgseną, o žmogiškųjų išteklių valdymas leidžia sukurti organizacinį geb jimą priderinti žmogiškuosius išteklius prie verslo strategijos ir juos išlaikyti. Žmogiškųjų išteklių bei jų valdymo vert s suvokimas. Straipsnio pabaigoje, be ištekliais grįsto strateginių sprendimų pri mimo požiūrio, kuris neabejotinai skiria didžiausią d mesį žmogiškiesiems ištekliams ir jų valdymui kuriant konkurencinį pranašumą, analizuojami ir kiti strateginių sprendimų pri mimo požiūriai. Straipsnyje aptariama, kokią svarbą kuriant konkurencinį pranašumą, jie skiria žmogiškiesiems ištekliams ir jų valdymui. Išskiriamos trys pagrindin s šių požiūrių grup s: 1) požiūriai, pagal kuriuos konkurencinio pranašumo šaltinis yra vidin je organizacijos aplinkoje (ištekliais, kompetencijomis ir žiniomis pagrįsti požiūriai); 2) interaktyvūs požiūriai į konkurencinio pranašumo kūrimą (verslo tinklo požiūris, bihevioristin perspektyva, horizontalaus ir vertikalaus atitikimo požiūris); 3) požiūriai, pagal kuriuos konkurencinio pranašumo šaltinis yra išorin je organizacijos aplinkoje (konkurencin s pozicijos, šalies ir šakos požiūris). Pažym tina, kad kritinis žmogiškųjų išteklių ir jų valdymo vaidmuo, kuriant konkurencinį pranašumą, palaikomas tik pirmosios požiūrių grup s. Remiantis ištekliais, kompetencijomis ir žiniomis pagrįstais požiūriais, straipsnyje pateikiami argumentai, leidžiantys teigti, jog žmogiškieji ištekliai vaidina kritinį vaidmenį kuriant ir išlaikant ilgalaikį konkurencinį pranašumą, tačiau vien tokių išteklių tur jimas n ra pakankama ilgalaikio konkurencinio pranašumo sukūrimo ir išlaikymo sąlyga. Žmogiškieji ištekliai kuria vertę organizacijai, kai jie yra naudojami drauge su kitais jos ištekliais ir efektyviai valdomi, o tai pabr žia žmogiškųjų išteklių valdymo sistemos svarbą. Antrosios požiūrių grup s šalininkai žmogiškuosius išteklius laiko tarpininku tarp strategijos ir organizacijos pasiekimų, ar santykių užmezg jais verslo tinkluose, o žmogiškųjų išteklių valdymą traktuoja kaip priemonę ugdyti darbuotojų geb jimus ir skatinti jų veiklą (Strandskov, 2006; Schuler ir Jackson, 1999; Delery, 1998, ir kt.). Mažiausią svarbą žmogiškiesiems ištekliams skiria trečiosios požiūrių grup s šalininkai, kurių manymu konkurencinio pranašumo šaltinis yra organizacijos išorin je aplinkoje, tod l žmogiškieji ištekliai n ra vertingi kaip tokie, o jų valdymas t ra palaikanti organizacijos veikla (Porter, 1990, 1998). Visgi, apibendrinus išorin s aplinkos ir interaktyvųjį požiūrius, galima daryti išvadą, kad žmogiškieji ištekliai yra integrali ir būtina organizacijos dalis, tod l jų valdymas atlieka svarbią funkciją organizacijoje. Straipsnio pabaigoje formuluojama išvada, jog tiek žmogiškieji ištekliai, tiek jų valdymas kuria organizacinę vertę ir padeda spręsti itin greitai kintančios globalios verslo aplinkos problemas. Taip pat pažym tina, jog žmogiškųjų išteklių vert priklauso ne tik nuo organizacijos ar verslo šakos, bet ir nuo tam tikrų nacionalinių veiksnių: politin s, ekonomin s bei švietimo sistemos. Tod l žmogiškųjų išteklių valdymas tur tų būti traktuojamas kaip strategin organizacijos veikla, derinama su bendra verslo ar korporatyvine strategija. Be to, pažym tina, jog vienas konkurencinio pranašumo šaltinis n ra pakankama organizacijos ilgalaik s s km s sąlyga, tod l organizacijoms patartina derinti skirtingus šaltinius. Raktažodžiai: žmogiškieji ištekliai, žmogiškųjų išteklių valdymas, ištekliais pagrįstas požiūris, konkurencinis pranašumas. The article has been reviewed. Received in September, 2008; accepted in December,