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2 Making the instructional curriculum: Case studies of seven teachers of adult ESOL Rosemary Jane Wette A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education The University of Auckland 2005

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4 ABSTRACT Joseph Schwab claimed that only teachers are capable of translating scholarly theory into curriculum, as only they have knowledge of and are able to co-ordinate its four cornerstones of subject matter, learners, context and the teacher. Organised around Schwab s heuristic, this thesis explores from an ecological perspective the curriculum making practices of seven experienced, effective teachers of adult ESOL over the trajectory of a course that each one taught. While normative advice in second language teacher education texts encourages a more systems-based approach to curriculum development, there is increasing awareness in research-based literature that the instructional curriculum is in fact an interactive construction played out in a dynamic, non-linear process and particularised to a certain context and group of learners. This evidencebased study aims to illustrate how teachers engage with written curriculum sources, classroom and cultural contexts, their own theories of practice and the developing understandings and wishes of learners as they make the instructional curriculum. Data were collected from guided pre-course and post-course interviews with teachers as well as persistent, debriefing-type interviews throughout the courses, supported by course documentation and teaching materials. Themes emerging from the data and from relevant literature were coded and analysed qualitatively. Findings of this study illuminate significant aspects of teachers curriculum making practices, including the weaving of conceptual content onto the timeframe of the courses, teachers efforts to achieve coherence, balance and variety in the instructional curriculum, and the importance of time and process. They emphasise the central role of the teacher as synthesiser of a variety of considerations, and provide evidence of the rich and complex understandings of teachers professional knowledge in action. They also show the fundamental importance of good cognitive and affective rapport between teacher and learners, and the need for teachers to constantly monitor and adjust the instructional curriculum according to learners developmental needs, while at the same time taking into account a unique constellation of influences from its micro- and macro- context. Implications for ESOL teachers and teacher educators of this more detailed understanding of the instructional curriculum and of teachers professional knowledge bases are also explored. i

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisors: Associate Professor Roger Peddie and Dr. Richard Hamilton from the Faculty of Education and Professor Rod Ellis from the Department of Applied Language Studies and Linguistics, for their patient support and expert guidance throughout the preparation of this thesis. I am deeply grateful to the seven teachers who agreed to take part in the study for the professionalism and commitment they showed over each long data collection period. I would also like to acknowledge the support of friends and colleagues, particularly the seven teachers who took part in pilot interviews and the three who checked part of the coding of interview data. Special thanks are due to my family for their forbearance, encouragement and support. This thesis is dedicated to my paternal grandmother: Caroline Agnes Williams, née Coughlan. ii

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract Acknowledgements Table of Contents List of Figures List of Tables Glossary of Terms i ii iii ix ix xi PART I BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Cornerstones of the instructional curriculum Curriculum making processes Aims and rationale Approach and structure 11 CHAPTER 2 TEACHERS AND THE INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM The teacher-curriculum interface Psychological studies Evolving conceptualisations Teachers beliefs and professional knowledge Teachers beliefs Teachers professional knowledge Professional knowledge and classroom practices Curriculum development models Technical-rational models Non-technical models Ecological perspectives Dimensions of the ESOL curriculum Curriculum philosophies Communicative language teaching Soft versions of communicative approaches 44 iii

7 2.4.4 Integrated soft versions Hard versions of communicative approaches 49 Conclusion 53 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH APPROACH AND PROCEDURES Research design Research purpose Selection of the interpretive paradigm Selection of case studies as a research strategy Selection of qualitative methods Case study participants and courses Selection and characteristics of participants Selection and characteristics of courses Instrumentation The guided interview instrument Curriculum documents and diary data Data management and analysis Data collection Data storage and preparation Data analysis Evaluation of methodology Truth value (internal validity) Applicability (external validity) Consistency (reliability) Neutrality (objectivity) 86 Conclusion 88 PART II CURRICULUM MAKING PROCESSES 89 CHAPTER 4 PRE-COURSE AND INITIAL PHASES Influences on pre-course planning Curriculum specifications Assumptions about learners Pre-course conceptualisations 99 iv

8 4.2.1 Teachers goals and intentions Conceptual overviews Pre-course planning procedures Planning procedures in high-medium structure contexts Planning procedures in medium structure contexts Planning procedures in a low structure context Conceptualisations of course trajectories The initial phase of the instructional curriculum Orientation to the institution, course content and methodology Class atmosphere and dynamic Needs assessment 113 Conclusion 115 CHAPTER 5 WRITTEN AND INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULA Conceptual frameworks Dimensions and levels of conceptual content Examination of specific course components Sample conceptual frameworks from courses taught by Chris and Bill Mapping of conceptual and chronological frameworks Chronological frameworks in curriculum making Mapping longer and shorter chronological units The mapping process Course taught by Ana Course taught by Gay Pre-specifications of the written curriculum Syllabus and assessment prescriptions Materials and resources Course orientations and post-course reflections Process-product orientations Pre-course and post-course conceptualisations The influence of the four cornerstones 153 Conclusion 156 v

9 PART III INFLUENCES ON CURRICULUM MAKING PROCESSES 159 CHAPTER 6 TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE Presage factors and general pedagogic knowledge Presage factors General pedagogic knowledge Teachers knowledge and curriculum making practices Realising course goals Organising content to achieve coherence Organising content to achieve balance, variety and coherent pattern Sequencing content Revision and recycling Specific curriculum issues and concerns Focus on accuracy and fluency Approaches to teaching grammar Contextualisation of course content Working through particular issues and concerns 192 Conclusion 194 CHAPTER 7 LEARNERS INVOLVEMENT Influence of learners developmental needs Monitoring of developmental needs Effects of monitoring on course content Effects of monitoring on pace of instruction Learners involvement in curriculum making Strength and type of involvement Tensions and reservations Supporting learners motivation Learners self-confidence Motivation in the classroom context Fostering autonomy Learning styles Learning strategies Language use and task strategies 226 Conclusion 228 vi

10 CHAPTER 8 MACRO- AND MICRO- CONTEXTS Policy context influences Immigration and education policies Departmental and micro-context policies Micro- and macro-context influences throughout the courses Sociocultural context Relations with the host community Language choices Empowering learners 249 Conclusion 251 PART IV CONCLUSION 253 CHAPTER 9 REVIEW AND CONCLUDING COMMENTS Review of the study Priorities and processes in curriculum making Influences of the teacher, learners and the teaching context Limitations of the study Relevance of the study and further inquiries Relevance to investigations of TESOL practice Relevance to investigations of teachers' professional knowledge Relevance to second language teacher education Possible future inquiries 271 APPENDICES AND REFERENCES 275 Appendix Contents 277 List of Appendix Tables (A1-A35) 278 Appendices I XVI 279 LIST OF REFERENCES 355 vii

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12 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Title Page 1 Cornerstones of the instructional curriculum 4 2 Developing conceptualisations of the teacher-curriculum interface 14 3 Dimensions and levels of the content cornerstone Mapping of conceptual and chronological frameworks Mapping frameworks in cycles of planning, teaching and reflecting Possibilities for learner involvement in the curriculum making process 229 LIST OF TABLES Table Title Page 1 Curriculum development models, their creators and/or main exponents 31 2 Philosophical perspectives on curriculum 41 3 Profiles of case study participants 64 4 Profiles of the seven courses 66 5 Curriculum documents and diary data for each course 75 6 Sources of curriculum information and the instructional curriculum 96 7 Chris: upper (topic block) level of the conceptual framework Chris: upper (competency) level of conceptual framework for the Health 126 topic 9 Chris: development of conceptual content dimensions in the Health topic Bill: upper (topic block) level of the conceptual framework Bill: upper (competency) level of conceptual framework for the Debating 130 topic 12 Process-product orientations of courses in the study Teachers evaluations of shaping influences A comparison of curriculum making principles and strategies 263 ix

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14 GLOSSARY OF TERMS This section defines specific terms that have been used in the thesis. Sometimes a number of terms can be used to describe the same concept, while some other concepts require more detailed explanation. Acronyms and terms that may not be understood outside the New Zealand context are also explained. 1. Curriculum A number of writers have noted that this term has more than one meaning and a tangled definitional history (Clandinnin & Connelly, 1992:364). These meanings range from the broad dictionary definition of the subjects that are studied or prescribed for study in a school / any programme of activities (OED, 1995) to the more precise content and purpose of an educational program together with their organization (Walker, 2003:5). Definitions also change along with the concepts they refer to, and a term such as curriculum in respect of ESOL certainly refers to a quite different entity or phenomenon now from its referent of fifty years ago. One description of curriculum distinguishes six levels, classified according to their distance from learners (Goodlad & Su, 1992), and these terms are used in this thesis. The societal level curriculum describes what is mandated for study at national level. No such national curriculum exists for post-secondary courses of study in New Zealand. Nationally mandated unit standards (see 6) are used to assess a range of adult ESOL competencies (New Zealand Qualifications Authority, 2004) and these would undoubtedly have a washback effect on instructional curricula, however none of the courses in this study were working towards achievement of ESOL unit standards. The intended or written curriculum is a normative statement of intent for a course or whole programme. It may be explicated in a detailed and comprehensive document or in less detailed guidelines, and is often referred to as the syllabus. The written curriculum may be implicit in the contents of a prescribed course text or in the prescription for an external or internal examination. It may exist only in the shared perceptions of programme curriculum advisors, teachers and learners. It is inert and its purpose prescriptive or advisory. It usually emphasises subject matter or content. xi

15 The planned curriculum results from teachers interactions with the written curriculum, their own theories of practice and contextual opportunities and constraints. It can describe the plans and intentions made by the teacher for the whole course, a unit of work, a week or a sequence of lessons, as well as those taken into the classroom for each lesson. This curriculum is also a statement of intent, but one based on detailed, ongoing practical knowledge and experience of the instructional curriculum as it unfolds lesson by lesson, and in this way it is jointly constructed. All the levels of curriculum described so far relate to intention; however the instructional or implemented curriculum is the one that teachers take in to the classroom to negotiate and construct with learners, working with various dynamic constraints and opportunities. One dictionary definition of curriculum (vitae) is the course of one s life, and it is at this level that the curriculum is lived out in time in the experiences of the language classroom. This is the curriculum that students have the opportunity to experience and so to learn from (McCutcheon, 1988:197f) and it is where curriculum content interfaces with pedagogy, therefore it is dynamic, experiential and transformative. The instructional curriculum has been defined as contextualised social practice (Cornbleth, 1990:25) which encompasses the interrelated components of content, pedagogy and context. It is locally produced and jointly constructed as teachers and students go about enacting and accomplishing tasks (Doyle, 1992:508). Learners are the central figures in the received or experiential curriculum, the one that they experience and from which they construct their understandings. The learned or achieved curriculum describes that portion of the received curriculum that learners actually take up and learn. xii

16 2. Curriculum makers/making This term reflects both the active, creative, shaping role of ESOL teachers and their independence, responsibility for and control of the instructional curriculum of courses in the study. As such, the term make seems appropriately practical, organic and moderate in connotation. This choice of term also follows Schwab s view of the role of the teacher: Teachers are not assembly line operators Teachers practice an art. Moments of choice about what to do, how to do it, with whom and at what pace, arise hundreds of times a school day, and arise differently every day with every group of students. No command or instruction can be so formulated as to control that kind of artistic judgment and behaviour, with its demand for frequent, instant choices of ways to meet an evervarying situation. (Schwab, 1983:245). 3. Syllabus The term syllabus can be used either as a synonym of curriculum or, in a more narrow and localised sense, to describe only the written and planned levels. A number of definitions of the term syllabus (Breen 1987a:82; Brumfit 1984:75ff; Candlin 1984:30f; Littlewood, 1991:11; Newby, 2000; Nunan 1988b:14; Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992: 94, 368; Stern 1984:5ff; White 1988:3f; Yalden, 1987a:19) resemble this one by Widdowson (1990a:127): the specification of a teaching programme or pedagogic agenda which defines a particular subject for a particular group of learners an idealized schematic construct which serves as reference for teaching. The term most commonly refers to the planned curriculum, or to what happens when the written curriculum is applied by teachers to their own classroom situation in a practical way (Brumfit 1984:77; Candlin: 1984:33). Brumfit (1981:90) describes a syllabus as goal-directed, and intentional, contextualised, grounded in generalisations about learning in order to facilitate teaching and coherently organised. It is also answerable to a view of how language is learnt. These definitions of syllabus all exclude methodology, assessment and evaluation of a taught curriculum. xiii

17 4. Syllabus and Curriculum In British applied language studies literature, curriculum has tended to have a broader frame of reference than syllabus. It includes methodology and assessment, and is the term used to refer to the societal, written and planned levels of curriculum. In North American usage curriculum covers both syllabus and methodology, therefore can be used to refer to the instructional curriculum, and the term syllabus is seldom used (Candlin & Rodgers 1985:101; Nunan 1988a:14; Richards, 1984:2; Stern 1984:5;Yalden 1987a:18). Changing curriculum realities in TESOL in Australasia, including the widespread use of competency-based curriculum frameworks, mean that the term curriculum is now used more frequently than syllabus in Australasian applied language studies literature. In the British usage, syllabus refers to the planned and written levels of the curriculum only, while the term curriculum has a broader meaning. In North America, the term syllabus is not widely used. This thesis follows the practice of using the term curriculum to include syllabus. Sometimes, however, the term syllabus is used to refer to the planned curriculum, or in reviewing particular past conceptualisations of the ESOL curriculum. 5. Acronyms: ESOL / ESL / EFL / EAP Principally following Richards et al (1992: 123ff) and Nayar (1997), these terms are used: ESOL and TESOL: (Teaching) English to Speakers of Other Languages are used as general terms with broad coverage. They include other more specific terms such as ESL, EFL and EAP, as well as the currently popular and more politically correct term EAL (English as an Additional Language). The term ESL (English as a Second Language) is used for ESOL taught within the English-speaking host community to new migrants who will, for the most part, need to interact with native speakers of English. xiv

18 EFL (English as a Foreign Language) in the New Zealand context refers to study undertaken by international students and other non-permanent residents. EAP is used to refer to courses in English for Academic Purposes. ESP is used to refer to courses in English for Specific Purposes. 6. Unit standards The National Qualifications Framework in New Zealand provides a framework of quality assured and nationally recognised qualifications in a variety of subject areas. More than 18,000 unit standards are currently registered, and they cover a number of work and learning areas. Unit standards are developed by experts in particular fields and are divided into 10 levels, based on complexity. Most ESOL unit standards are at levels 1-4, which is the level of senior secondary education and basic trades training. Each unit standard describes what a learner needs to know or what they must be able to achieve. Organisations need to be accredited in order to be able to assess unit standards, and assessments are externally moderated. A wide range of assessment evidence is used across different standards. xv

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