Beyond Change Management: Tool Kit October 1-3, 2013

Transcription

1 CENTER FOR EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATIONS Beyond Change Management: Tool Kit October 1-3, 2013 Prepared by: Chris Worley Sue Mohrman University of Southern California Marshall School of Business Los Angeles, CA (213)

2 Table of Contents Defining the Change Project... 1 Divergence / Depth of Change Scope / Pervasiveness of Change Force Field Analysis Tool... 2 Leadership Readiness Survey... 4 Organization Readiness Survey... 5 Resistance Survey... 6 Stakeholder Mapping Process... 7 Identify and Charaterize Stakeholders Stakeholder Mapping Table Analyze Stakeholder Relationships Develop a Political Action Plan Commitment Plan Perceived Congruence Creating a Vision Creating a BHAG (Big, Hairy, Audacious Goal) Discovering Inspiring Stories The Oracle Creating an Activity Plan Step 1: Generate the Categories of Change Step 2: List the Iniatitives Step 3: Prioritize and Sequence the Iniatitives Step 4: Create the Activity Plan Activity Planning Worksheets / Draft Activity Plan Step 5: Create a Responsibility Chart Responsibility Chart Developing a Communications Plan Roles Context and Message Methods Communicating for a Change Planning Template Sustaining Momentum After-action Reviews AAR Process Facilitation Guidelines Preparing for an After-action Review

3 Defining the Change Project Divergence/Depth of Change Scope/Pervasiveness of Change To what extent does this change: represent a natural evolution in this organization? represent a new way for people to do their work? require a new set of skills and knowledge? challenge existing beliefs, values and relationships? Does this change involve a single system or multiple systems? How many organizational units must be involved in this change? How many of the Star elements need to be altered to support this change? How many people are going to be affect by the change? What implications do these change features have on the way I will need to support or manage this change? Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 1 P a g e

4 Force Field Analysis Tool For the change project being considered: 1) Describe the current level of effectiveness 2) Describe the desired level of effectiveness 3) Describe the forces (e.g., norms, policies, trends, beliefs) that are pushing and resisting change Forces Pushing For Change Current Level of Effectiveness Forces Resisting Change Desired Level of Effectiveness Words and Phrases to describe current effectiveness: Words and phrases to describe desired effectiveness Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 2 P a g e

5 Which forces, if changed, would result in the most movement toward higher effectiveness? What actions could be taken to increase or decrease the forces? What will be different (and better) after this change is implemented? Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 3 P a g e

6 Leadership Readiness Survey To what extent do you/your leadership team You Your Leadership Team Low Med High Low Med High Understand the need for change Understand what the change will require Willing to commit sufficient time, energy, and resources to the change Feel enough pain to give the change sufficient urgency Have the competencies to lead the change effort Have the competencies to manage the change effort Collaborate effectively with others in the pursuit of strategic objectives Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 4 P a g e

7 Organization Readiness Survey Readiness Items Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree Our organization has a good track record implementing changes like this. We have the skills and knowledge necessary to implement this change The need for this change is clear People understand the need for this change Implementing this change will help our organization be more effective How this change supports the organization s strategy is clear to everyone This organization supports risk taking and innovation The people in this organization can handle an additional change People see how this change will make a positive difference in their work This change is supported by the right people This change will be very disruptive to the way we do things around here To score this survey, add up the scores to the 11 questions. A score of more than 42 suggests that the organization is ready to change. A score of less than 33 suggests that the organization should engage in an increased number of preparation activities before starting the intended change. Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 5 P a g e

8 Resistance Survey Not all resistance to change is personal or individually oriented. However, personal resistance to change is normal and common. The following survey was developed to measure an individual s general comfort level with change, ambiguity, and stability. It can be used on yourself, to get a sense of how generally resistant to change you might be, or to help think about the sources of resistance in someone else, perhaps a key stakeholder. Readiness Items I can pretty much determine what will happen in my life. I am often reluctant to consider changing the way I now do my work (r) Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree My life is determined by my own actions. The thought of implementing change worries me I try to avoid situations full of uncertainty I try to avoid any added responsibilities on my work I have often found that what is going to happen will happen. I look forward to change in my work I feel like no one ever tells me anything about what s going on around here I feel anxious about when changes are announced When I get what I want, it's usually because I worked hard for it. I sometimes stick my neck out to get ahead at work I try very hard to improve on my past performance at work. When I get what I want, it's usually because I'm lucky. The people who know what s going on here do not share enough information I dislike ambiguous situations I try to perform better than my co-workers Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 6 P a g e

9 Stakeholder Mapping Process The purpose of this tool is to walk you through the process of mapping out the relationships among stakeholders to an organization change. The process begins by identifying and characterizing stakeholders. Based on this information, the stakeholders are analyzed and a commitment and political action plan is built. The information in the stakeholder analysis also can be used in creating a vision, building a communication plan, and designing an activity plan. Identify and Characterize Stakeholders Analyze Relationships Build a Political Action Plan IDENTIFY AND CHARACTERIZE STAKEHOLDERS 1. Brainstorm all stakeholders to the change. A stakeholder is any individual, group or organization whose interests are affected by the change or whose activities strongly affect the change. Stakeholders possess information, resources, and expertise needed for implementation. Be comprehensive and creative. Priority Stakeholder Priority Stakeholder Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 7 P a g e

10 2. No individual or organization has the resources to fully address every stakeholder request. It is important to prioritize the stakeholders in terms of their influence on the success of the change. Make an initial sort of the top three to seven stakeholders. List them in the Stakeholder column in the Stakeholder Mapping Table. In addition, identify the less powerful but still important stakeholders. 3. For each stakeholder, complete the Stakeholder Mapping Table using the following definitions. Collect as much information as you can from the stakeholder directly as well as opinions from other relevant parties. ID is a number assigned to each stakeholder Stakeholder is the label given to each interested party competitor, nongovernmental group, internal department, community, senior manager, and so on. Knowledge of change is an assessment, on a scale of 1 to 5 with 5 being highest, of the stakeholder s familiarity with the change, their technical knowledge, and their history with similar changes Nature and description of interest describes the stakeholder s relationship to the change. Think about the stakeholder s role in the change. What do they want from you, the organization, or the change? Is it more attention, lower costs, better service, higher quality? Describe the nature of their demands. What do they have to contribute to the change? What capacity do they have to influence the change? For each stakeholder, describe their role, demands, contributions, and capacities in the Nature and Description of Interest column of the table. Alliances refers to any existing relationships the stakeholder has with other stakeholders. Do they have similar objectives, have they worked together in the past, how strong is the relationship? Resources is a category that describes how much of any relevant resource people, time, budget the stakeholder has or has access to and their ability to mobilize those resources. Power is a function of the dependency the change project has on the resources owned and controlled by the stakeholder. A stakeholder could have a variety of relevant resources, but little power if they change is not highly dependent on having access to those resources. Trust is the extent to which the stakeholder s reputation is positive and reliable. Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 8 P a g e

11 Stakeholder Mapping Table ID Stakeholder Knowledge of Change Nature and Description of Interest Alliances Resources (Quantity and Ability to Mobilize Power Trust Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 9 P a g e

12 Analyze Stakeholder Relationships 1) For each stakeholder, use the following tools to better understand the relationship of the stakeholder to the change. Write the name or label for the stakeholder in the appropriate cell(s). Key Informant: Low Support for Change High Keep your Friends Close: Trust Low High Keep your Enemies Closer: Bring into the Light: Keep Informed: Weak Power Strong Manage Closely: Involvement Low High Monitor: Keep Satisfied: Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 10 P a g e

13 DEVELOP A POLITCAL ACTION PLAN 1. Based on the Stakeholder Mapping and Analysis Process, identify the critical few stakeholders whose support is necessary (or whose efforts must be mitigated) to insure the success of your change project. Map their level of commitment to the change on the commitment plan chart. a. List the names of the key stakeholders in the first column b. Place an X in the cell describing that stakeholder s current attitude toward your change project based on the assessment in the Stakeholder Analysis c. Place an O in the cell that describes the minimum level of support required for your change to be successful. d. Draw an arrow from where they are to where they need to be. Commitment Plan Key Stakeholder Actively Resists Let it Happen Help it Happen Make it Happen Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 11 P a g e

14 2. Summarize the key actions necessary to influence the stakeholder. Stakeholder What messages or information does this person/group need? How much energy, effort, and resources are going to be necessary to influence this stakeholder? Who can be helpful in influencing this stakeholder? What activities can be arranged (e.g., meeting, phone calls, s, presentations)? Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 12 P a g e

15 Perceived Congruence To what extent does the proposed change fit or misfit with the following conditions Strong misfit with the change More misfit than fit Undecided or Irrelevant More fit than misfit Strong fit with the change Environmental Congruence Pressures in the external environment Pressures for improved customer service Changing needs of the workforce New technologies available to the organization Pressure to lower costs Strategic Congruence The organization s vision and values The long-term goals and objectives of the organization The organization s structure The organization s processes Management s style of leadership Change Congruence Other changes taking place at this organization The key initiatives of our senior leadership team Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 13 P a g e

16 Creating a Vision A vision is the architecture of direction in organization change. It can describe goals, picture the desired future state, provide context to the change agenda, inspire people to contribute to a change, and help to formulate communication plans. Almost every successful organization change process contains a visioning activity that is appropriate to the type of change being considered. Three of the more common ways to create a vision include: Creating a big, hairy audacious goal or BHAG Interviewing organization members to uncover an inspiring story of the future that is happening today Describing the organization as it will look in the future To create an appropriate visioning process, use the following set of questions, exercises, and activities, mix them together, or make up your own. Creating a BHAG 1. Five or ten years from now, what achievement revenues, market share, reputation, competitive success, or other accomplishment if it came to pass, would blow away your customers, colleagues, senior management, or other relevant stakeholders? 2. What five or ten year accomplishment seems unbelievable today? If you accomplished the BHAG, describe what the situation would look like in vivid detail. Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 14 P a g e

17 Discovering Inspiring Stories Get as many people as you can involved in interviewing members of the organization. Based on a philosophy called appreciative inquiry, here are some questions that you can use to generate stories that could serve as an inspiring vision for the future. Once the interviews are complete, look for themes or find unique and hopeful stories that can be turned into visions of what could be in the organization 1. Initial Attractions Think back to when you first decided to join the organization. What had you read or learned about it that attracted you? What were your initial excitements and impressions? 2. High Point Experience During your time with the organization, we are sure you ve had some ups and downs, some peaks and valleys. Please reflect for a moment on a high point experience, a time when you felt most engaged and most proud of your involvement. Tell the story! What happened? What were the forces and factors that made the experience possible? What was it about you that made it a great experience? Who were significant others and what was it about them that made it a high point? What was it about the organization that made it a high point for you? 3. Core Factor What is the Core Factor that gives life and vitality to this organization: without this element, the organization would cease to exist. 4. Images of the Future Imagine that tonight you fall into a deep relaxing sleep and you don t wake up until the year [pick a year]. When you wake up, you see that a miracle has taken place. Significant changes have taken place and the organization has become everything you ever hoped it would be. You can truly say, without reservation, that this is the organization of your dreams. What do you see? What does it look like? What s going on around you? What s happening that s new and different? What do you see in terms of purpose, values, systems, people, ways of working? Who are your colleagues and how are you working with them? What else do you see? 5. Three Wishes If you could develop or transform the organization in any way, what three wishes, in order of priority, would you make? Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 15 P a g e

18 The Oracle 1. What two questions (about your future) would you most like to ask an oracle? 2. If everything turned out perfectly, what would the oracle s answer be? 3. Have people share their questions and answers. Without diluting the emotion or the power, write a summary answer. Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 16 P a g e

19 Creating an Activity Plan Every successful change maps out a sequence of activities that guides the group, system, or organization toward the change vision. Constructing an activity plan involves (1) gaining agreement on the conceptual categories of change, (2) listing the various initiatives, projects, and activities within each of the categories, (3) prioritizing and sequencing initiatives into a calendar format, and (4) developing a responsibility chart.. Step 1: Generate the Categories of Change Gaining agreement on the conceptual categories of activities in the activity plan elevates the initial conversations to a higher, more organizationally focused level, eliminates some initial debates over the efficacy of individual activities, and allows closer linkages among the contextual (e.g., vision, strategy, and group norms or culture) aspects of the change process. These categories can come from a variety of places, including: New product development Market research Capital acquisition Technology assessment Training and education (develop new skills) Communications Set up change governance structure Work design Process improvements Financial activities Rewards Structure People (HR systems) Direction-setting activities Information and control systems What are the key categories of change activities? For incremental changes, 3-5 categories are usually sufficient. For larger, more complex, or fundamental changes, 5-7 categories are often adequate. (In fact, if you have more than 7 categories, check to make sure you are not cutting the categories too finely.) List the different Categories of Change in the first column of the Activity Planning Worksheet (below). Step 2: List the Initiatives Once priority categories of change are identified, populating those categories with specific activities becomes a routine process of idea generation through brainstorming and reviewing/clarifying the list. Be sure to include any initiatives that were identified as part of the political action planning in the prepare step. For each major category of change, brainstorm all of the initiatives, tasks, committees, activities, training, events, and decisions that will be required to execute and implement the Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 17 P a g e

20 change. The purpose here is to do a brain dump of the million and one things that need to be done. Don t worry about their sequence or duplication or relationships among the activities. Make the list in the initiatives column of the Activity Planning Worksheet. Step 3: Prioritize and Sequence the Initiatives The timing of different changes, the ability to change in the short run, and the pace of change are addressed next. Prioritize: Some changes are more important than others and should be implemented earlier. For example, since strategies often set parameters and guidelines for structure and other organization design changes, implementing changes in strategy should probably precede changes in organization design. Other changes, such as reward system changes or decentralization of decision-making authority, are likely to be more effective only after other changes, such as information system or new job descriptions, have been implemented. In addition, some systems, structures, products/services, and activities cannot be changed in the short run. Labor contracts, purchasing contracts, fixed capital and equipment, and other relatively irreversible commitments are difficult to alter quickly. Make an initial estimate of when the initiative should occur during the course of the change. You can use a very general scale, such as early, middle, or late. This is often all that s necessary. For other changes, a more refined priority metric is necessary. Finally, there are some initiatives that can occur at any time. For these changes, leave the priority column blank. Record your sense of the initiative s priority in the Priority column of the Activity Planning Worksheet. Sequence: Very often in change, all of the initiatives are seen as important and there is often a front-loading of activity early in the change process. To help sort out this log jam, it is helpful to understand the interdependencies in the initiatives. Use the Dependencies column to identify important sequences of activity. For each initiative, make a note of any other initiatives that must precede it in time. That is, if the initiative cannot be designed or completed adequately until another initiative is underway, there is an important dependency that must be managed. For example, the implementation of a new information system must wait until the software and minimum performance metrics have been decided. Finally, make a note of the likely duration of the initiative. Will it last for two days or two weeks? Will it recur again throughout the project? Step 4: Create the Activity Plan Once each category of activity is developed and sequenced, placing the entire array of activities into a month-by-month grid is helpful as a final test of the overall sequencing of activities. A template for laying out the different activities is provided, but often a spreadsheet program or project management application is more powerful and flexible. Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 18 P a g e

21 Activity Planning Worksheet Categori es of Change Initiatives (Specific tasks, activities, training, events, and decisions, etc.) Priority Dependency (Note the initiative (A3, B1, C4, etc.) that must precede this one Duration Category A: Initiatives (Specific tasks, activities, training, events, and decisions, etc.) Priority Dependency (Note the initiative (A3, B1, C4, etc.) that must precede this one Duration Category B: Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 19 P a g e

22 Activity Planning Worksheet Categori es of Change Initiatives (Specific tasks, activities, training, events, and decisions, etc.) Priority Dependency (Note the initiative (A3, B1, C4, etc.) that must precede this one Duration Category C: Initiatives (Specific tasks, activities, training, events, and decisions, etc.) Priority Dependency (Note the initiative (A3, B1, C4, etc.) that must precede this one Duration Category D: Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 20 P a g e

23 Activity Planning Worksheet Categori es of Change Initiatives (Specific tasks, activities, training, events, and decisions, etc.) Priority Dependency (Note the initiative (A3, B1, C4, etc.) that must precede this one Duration Category E: Initiatives (Specific tasks, activities, training, events, and decisions, etc.) Priority Dependency (Note the initiative (A3, B1, C4, etc.) that must precede this one Duration Category F: Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 21 P a g e

24 Draft Activity Plan Initiatives Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4 Time 5 Time 6 Time 7 Time 8 Time 9 Time 10 Time 11 Time 12 Directions: 1. List the important initiatives in the first column. 2. For each initiative, indicate when it should begin and how long it will last. Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 22 P a g e

25 Step 5: Create a Responsibility Chart 1. List the tasks, activities, training, events, and decisions listed in the activity plan along the top row of the matrix below. If necessary, you can choose a major element of the change plan and break it down into more specific tasks and activities. 2. Identify the people, groups, and any other parties or stakeholders who will be required to participate in the implementation. List them in the first column of the matrix. 3. For each activity, assign one of five roles to each person. (NOTE: this is a team-based activity and should be completed with all the relevant parties in a meeting together.) Responsible (R) - Has the primary responsibility and accountability to carry out a change activity or initiative. Is ultimately accountable for the completion of the task. Approve (A) Represents a key stakeholder in the change activity and has the ability approve or veto whether or not a change activity or initiative moves forward. Support (S) Must provide timely input into a change activity including resources (money, people, time) and information. Informed (I) Must be informed of task timelines and of any changes in content, purpose, or timing of an activity or initiative. Uninvolved (U) Has no relationship to the task or activity. 4. For each person with a (R), develop an action item to communicate your vision and expectations, the resources available, and your confidence in the other stakeholder s ability to carry out the task. Responsibility Chart Relevant Parties Activities, Events, and Decisions KEY: R=Responsible; A=Approve; S=Support with Resources; I=Informed of Changes; U=Uninvolved Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 23 P a g e

26 Developing a Communications Plan Communicating during change is difficult because many different people want to hear many different messages in the one way that suits their wants and needs. No single system or program can do all that. However, an appropriately developed communication plan can get critical information into the organization and address a majority of the communication requirements. Use the following worksheet to understand the key roles in a communication plan, the important messages to be delivered, and the appropriate methods for sending out information. Roles Different types of people play different types of roles when communicating about change. Recent research and experience combine to suggest that an effective communication plan leverages the following four roles: 1. Using the Stakeholder Analysis conducted earlier (especially the Alliances column) or based on knowledge of the group or organization that is changing, who is well known as somebody who knows everybody. These connectors tend to be outgoing, have enormous Rolodex power, and are important nodes in the social network. Identify them below: Connectors: 2. Who are the formal and informal influencers and implementers in the organization? Who do people look up to and take direction from? Who can and will influence others? These people are often the ones chosen to be on task forces because they have the reputation for getting things done. List these salespeople below: Salespeople: Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 24 P a g e

27 3. Using the Stakeholder Analysis conducted earlier (especially the Knowledge of the Change column) and your knowledge of the group organization that is changing, who are the subject matter experts with respect to the change? Who knows almost everything there is to know about the change and is willing to share that knowledge willingly, without bias? List these mavens below: Mavens: 4. Identity the leader of the change effort. Who is ultimately accountable for the change? Who has the most responsibility for its success? List the change leader(s) below: Change Leader(s): Context and Message No communications plan can be successful if it does not take into account the current situation in the organization or think about the words, phrases, and content of the information being transmitted. This sections helps you think about what message will be most salient given the current context in the organization. 1. Describe the general condition of organization. What are the major strategic challenges facing to system (e.g., globalization, deregulation, clever competitive moves, changes in the customer)? What is the current life cycle stage of the organization (e.g., growth, downsizing, maturity, cost-cutting)? What other words and phrases do people use to describe what s currently going on in the group or organization that is changing? Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 25 P a g e

28 2. Thinking about the change and the context described above, what messages (e.g., words, phrases, images, metaphors) are likely to be heard, to catch people s attention, or to rise above the noise of normal information flow in the organization? (Note: try describing the change in one short, crisp sentence using sticky words and an energetic, active voice.) Stakeholders Sticky Message 3. What is the one sentence message/business case you hope almost everyone would use when they tell someone about the change? Methods Communication channels can be divided into public or private forums. Public forums involve more than three to five people, while private forums are one-on-one or very small groups of people. Communication methods can be divided into direct and indirect mediums. Direct mediums are face-to-face while indirect mediums include memos, s, and recordings. Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 26 P a g e

29 1. Research suggests that the most effective communication system is the private-direct method, although most organizations reject this method as too time-consuming. Think of a rationale or sales pitch to convince the change leader that s/he should increase the use of private-direct methods of communication. 2. Use the template on the next page to match roles, messages, and methods: Communicating for Change Planning Template Audience Vision (whole organization) Message content (Sticky words, metaphors) Public or Private Direct or Indirect Timing Role--Who should deliver the message? Commitment Plan Stakeholder A Stakeholder B Stakeholder C Change Activities Activity 1 Activity 2 Activity 3 Activity 4 Progress/Update 1 Progress/Update 2 Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 27 P a g e

30 3. What will you do to provide the connectors and salespeople with the sticky message. How will they learn about the change, how can you help them communicate the information? Are they supporters of the change? (If not, what do you have to do to get them to support it?) 4. Describe how you will make the mavens available to stakeholders. How can their expertise and knowledge be spread efficiently and effectively throughout the group or organization that is changing? 5. What opportunities exist to put mavens, connectors, and salespeople in the same room at the same time? 6. When can the change leader meet with connectors and key influencers and implementers, face-to-face, to talk about the change? Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 28 P a g e

31 Sustaining Momentum Sustaining momentum is all about claiming the ground you have fought so hard to cross. Make sure the change you have implemented does not revert back to old habits. Answer the following questions: 1. Are there any performance management systems (rewards and recognitions, performance appraisal, control/measurement systems, etc.) that can be adjusted to support the new change? 2. Can I provide any training to support the new change? Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 29 P a g e

32 After-action Reviews An after-action review (AAR) is an assessment conducted after a project or major activity that allows organization members to discover (learn) what happened and why. The heart of the AAR is identifying what was supposed to happen, what actually happened, why it happened, and how to sustain strengths and improve weaknesses. An AAR is not a critique and does not allocate blame. Feedback generated during the AAR process compares the actual output of a process with the expected outcome. The primary key to success of an AAR is the climate established during the meeting. Change agents, change leaders, team members, and others must create a climate of openness and honesty. The discussion must be in sufficient detail and clarity so that everyone understands what happened and why and then implement process improvements. AAR Process 1. Gather all the relevant stakeholders 2. Set the agenda and ground rules 3. Give a brief description of the activity and describe what was supposed to happen 4. Involve others to describe what actually happened. What were the key events? Note: it is important that this portion not turn into a critique. Keep the tone fact-based. What did people see and hear? Do allow people to describe why certain actions were taken. What were they thinking, what was happening around them? 5. What did we do well during this activity? What lessons from prior activities did we apply? 6. What could we have done differently? What other options were available? Do people think other courses of action would have been more effective and why? Note: be sure to support people who made tough choices. 7. Create a list of lessons learned. Facilitation Guidelines Remain unbiased throughout the review Involve as many people as possible Do NOT allow personal attacks. Keep the focus on learning and improvement. Encourage others to offer suggestions and solutions and get the group to discuss potential consequences Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 30 P a g e

33 Preparing for an After-action Review 1. What activity is being discussed? 2. What were the key events, decisions, actions, and other activities that occurred? 3. What role did I play in these events and activities? Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 31 P a g e

34 4. What was my reaction (physical and emotional) to these events when they occurred? 5. What are my lessons learned? Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California 32 P a g e