Mountain Plains. Adult Education. Association. Journal of. Adult Education. Volume Number 1

Transcription

1 Mountain Plains Adult Education Association Journal of Adult Education Volume Number 1

2 Editors Gary J. Conti Oklahoma State University Rita C. McNeil Idaho State University Editorial Board Arizona Michele Zerr Colorado Ray Peterson Patricia Thorpe Idaho Karen Wilson-Scott Richard Johnson Montana Rita Collins Curtis Smeby Nevada Clifford McClain Carol Steedman New Mexico Breda Bova Michael O'Brien Utah Michael Freeman Lou Workman Wyoming Donna Amstutz Michael Day Michael Woolcott Copy Editor Dawnne Ernette Truckee Meadows Community College Consulting Reviewers Anne Ghost Bear Southern Nazarene University Sally Nichols-Sharpe Bacone College James Gregson University of Idaho Brenda Solomon Oklahoma State University

3 Volume Number 1 Table of Contents Articles The Three-Part Harmony of Adult Learning, Critical Thinking, and Decision-Making Kyle Moore...1 Creating a Learner-Centered Environment in Nursing Education: An Immersion Experience Susan H. Steiner, Beverly J. Hewett, Evelyn Floyd, Nicole C. Lewis, Eldon H Walker...11 Andragogy A Mantra for US/Iraqi Cross-Cultural Dialogue Ghada S. Mahdi & Larry K. Bright...18 Techniques Designing an Online Class Using a Constructivist Approach Sang Chan...26 Book Review Julie A. Sellers: Todd Kelshaw, Freyda Lazarus, Judy Minier, and Associates. (2009). Partnerships for service-learning: A case study approach to considering service-learning outcomes...40 Copyright 2010 by the Mountain Plains Adult Education Association. The MPAEA Journal of Adult Education is an official publication of the Mountain Plains Adult Education Association and is published twice annually. Editorial office: Rita C. McNeil, Human Resource Training & Development, Campus Box 8081, Idaho State University, Pocatello, ID 83209; mcnerita@isu.edu or (208)

4 The Three-Part Harmony of Adult Learning, Critical Thinking, and Decision-Making Abstract Kyle Moore Adult learning, critical thinking, and decision-making are fields that receive attention individually, although they are interspersed with elements of each other s theories and philosophies. In addressing adult learning precepts, it is essential to include critical thinking and decision-making. One without the other creates weakness; all must be present if learning is to be effective and rewarding. This composition provides subject matter expert definitions of adult learning, critical thinking, and decision-making and then identifies the related elements. The piece also accentuates how those responsible for teaching adults must facilitate the union of adult learning, critical thinking, and decision-making. Introduction Adult learning is a unique process that requires supporting processes to make it successful. Two of the processes that co-exist with adult learning are critical thinking and decision-making. The ultimate goal of adult learning is to make the educational experience as valuable to the learner as possible and to create a desire to expand the learning. In striving to reach this definitive goal, the coalescing of the two independent processes, critical thinking and decision-making, with adult learning principles must occur. Many times people take for granted the process of critical thinking and the skills necessary to manage this process. We gather information from many directions and, often, do not take the time to evaluate the flood of information properly. Adult learners need such a process to Kyle Moore is a Training Coordinator at Monsanto, Inc. in Soda Springs, ID, an Adjunct Professor, Human Resource Training and Development, Idaho State University; and President of the ASTD Eastern Idaho Chapter. 1

5 assist them in determining if the information they receive in an educational setting (and in life) addresses their identified needs. Recognition of the need for and application of the critical thinking and decision-making processes is vital to meaningful adult learning. The merging of the processes of critical thinking and decision-making with the adult learning process significantly increases the probability of successful learning. Adult Learning Hypothesis Adult learning is a complex process which many researchers and experts have a difficult time defining, due to the extraordinary number of variables that affect adult learning. Some of those variables are learning styles, teaching styles, motivation for participating in learning, cultural issues, student s self-esteem, past learning experiences, and personal problems. Most adult learning experts agree that adult learning is based on the concept that adults are motivated to learn by internal and/or external forces. Adults will learn more effectively if the subject matter is meaningful to them and relevant to their goals, they keep their goals and objectives in mind, and possess a deep inner desire to learn. In addition, the numerous life experiences the adult learner has accumulated provide a resource to draw upon when learning. Malcolm Knowles (as cited in Galbraith, 2004, p. 23) describes adult learners as being self-directing, as deriving only positive benefits from experience, as possessing great readiness to learn, as voluntarily entering an educational activity with life-centered, task-centered, or problem-centered orientation to learning, and as being internally motivated. Adults learn through independent and interdependent experiences and have a drive to gain new knowledge they consider as being important to them and their lives. Adults seek out knowledge that will enable them to progress mentally, provide workplace advancement, improve social aspects of their life, justify their beliefs or behaviors, or change their beliefs and behaviors. Adult learning is the result of adults seeking answers to life s challenges and to their own personal needs and desires. Adults possess a preferred learning style and learn more effectively if the instruction delivery style addresses the learner s preferred learning style. Adults learn better in situations where they are comfortable both physically and psychologically. When these conditions are met, adult 2

6 learners are more willing and able to question, evaluate, and come to informed conclusions (think critically) about the subject matter and how it affects their lives. Knowles, Holton III, and Swanson s Depiction of Adult Learning One term, now well known in adult learning circles, is andragogy. This term, thought to be originated by Alexander Kapp, a 19 th century German grammar school teacher, lost and gained recognition through the years and, as of today, is popularized by the adult learning process. Andragogy, as defined in The Adult Learner: The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, is the art and science of helping adults learn (Knowles, Holton III, & Swanson, 1998, p. 61). Many adult learning experts agree that there are major differences between how children learn and how adults learn. Utilizing the principles of andragogy is a way to differentiate between how children learn and how adults learn. Knowles, Holton III, and Swanson provide a list of assumptions that are associated with andragogy and adult learning (pp ). A summary of these assumptions is as follows: 1. Adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to learn it. 2. Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own decisions, for their own lives. 3. Adults come into an educational activity with both a greater volume and different quality of experiences from youths. 4. Adults become ready to learn those things they need to know and be able to do in order to cope effectively with their real-life situations. 5. In contrast to children s and youths subject-centered orientation to learning (at least in school) adults are life-centered (or taskcentered or problem-centered) in their orientation to learning. 6. While adults are responsive to some external motivators (better jobs, promotions, higher salaries, and the like), the most potent motivators are internal pressures (the desire for increased job satisfaction, self-esteem, quality of life, and the like). These assumptions form the basis for many adult learning models that attempt to address the needs adult learners identify and ensure that those teaching adult learners approach the educational process differently 3

7 than they would when teaching children and youths. Teachers of adults must take on a role much like a facilitator and work under the conviction that they are there to facilitate the learning process and ensure the adult learners receive the knowledge they need or desire. Critical Thinking Concepts Just as for adult learning, there are many definitions for critical thinking. Each definition is somewhat different, but all retain aspects of the principles that compose an overall definition of critical thinking and its properties. Those who study this subject such as Norris, Halpern, and Maiorana, define it using anywhere from a single sentence up to an entire paragraph containing over 100 words. No matter what the definition, there always appears to be a link that makes the definitions similar in meaning. The definitions allow readers to see critical thinking as an uncomplicated course of action or a complex approach to arriving at an educated decision by implementing a strategy for questioning and reasoning that will allow arrival at a final well-informed outcome. Halpern (as cited in Fowler, 2002) defines critical thinking as thinking that is purposeful, reasoned, and goal-directed the kind of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions when the thinker is using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the particular context and type of thinking task (Fowler, 2002). Mariorana (as cited in Fowler, 2002) includes critical thinking is, therefore to achieve understanding, evaluate view points, and solve problems. These definitions mention goal-directed and achieving understanding which relate well to each other and are a common bond in the utilization of critical thinking methods. Subject Experts Elucidation of Critical Thinking Brown and Keeley define critical thinking as reacting with systematic evaluation to what you have heard or read (2000, p. 2). These authorities state that this reaction and systematic evaluation requires a set of skills and attitudes (p. 2). The skills and attitudes are built around a set of critical questions that provide a structure for critical thinking. Also involved in critical thinking is the process of conducting a 4

8 continual, ongoing search to identify better opinions, decisions, or judgments (p.2). Brown and Keeley (2002) define two types of thinking that have their specific advantages and disadvantages. These two approaches to thinking are the sponge style and the panning-for-gold style. They describe the sponge style as absorbing information through a nonparticipatory approach, simply absorbing information about the world in a relatively passive manner. The panning-for-gold style is a more involved style of thinking that requires the thinker to participate actively using a questioning attitude. Both styles have advantages and disadvantages, but Brown and Keeley support the use of the panning-forgold style because it allows the thinkers to ask critical questions (p. 2) that will assist them in identifying issues, clearing up ambiguity, determining the assumptions that are present, ensuring the information is good, and what reasonable conclusions are possible. This allows the thinkers to absorb what they want to, and reject any information and assumptions they find to be specious. Kirby, Goodpaster, and Levine, (1999) describe creative thinking, organization, logical thinking, scientific thinking, persuasive thinking, and problem solving as all being part of critical thinking. They define creative thinking as taking the old and mixing it, moving it, breaking it, or building it into newness (p. 108). Organizing is find[ing] basic orders that are both in the universe and in our minds, we can use those strong orders in our thinking (p. 119). The authors explain logical thinking as identifying reasoning fallacies in one s own and in others thinking (p. 134). Scientific thinking is necessary as it includes observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation or data collection, and verification as necessary steps to deal with the tremendous amount of data we have today (p. 194). Persuasive thinking involves influencing others to accept our message. The key to this type of thinking is to ensure biases, emotions, and ethics do not cloud the picture. We must understand human nature, control our emotions, and think carefully; and we must be aware of the time, the place, our involvement, the message, the receivers, and their values (p. 226) when we see the need to persuade others. Finally, Kirby, Goodpaster, and Levine state that problem solving is applying critical thinking to achieve the goals and personal harmony that are important in our personal and professional lives (p. 251). 5

9 Decision-Making: The Product of Critical Thinking Decision-making, in today s world, is many times a disorganized, impulsive process which results in making conclusions without the necessary information and analysis. Many times this results in negative consequences for the decision maker and those affected by the decision. Skillful decision-making relies on reasoning and allows the decision maker to take into account a significant amount of information and alternatives to arrive at a rational decision. The concept of decision-making carries many definitions, as does critical thinking. Decisions can affect many people, either adversely or favorably, and all decisions will most likely affect different people in different ways. For this reason, it is imperative to make decisions in a way that addresses the many issues leading to the outcome and its reason for becoming a decision in the first place. Decision-making is a process on which those who have studied the aspects of decision-making agree. The key steps in the process are defining the problem, researching the problem, generating a list of alternatives, and making a knowledgeable choice or decision out of those alternatives. Some experts on decision making include additional steps, but the basic steps remain the same. The result of adhering to these steps and allowing them to guide the decision maker is a decision supported by facts. This also allows the decision maker to have confidence in the decision. McCall and Kaplan s Premise of Decision-Making McCall and Kaplan (1990, p. 4), define rules for quick decisionmaking actions and convoluted action, both of which are good decisionmaking processes, depending on the situation. They explain the decisionmaking process and how the complexity of the problem affects this process or which process should be applied. Most problems coexist with other problems, both related and unrelated to the core problem. McCall and Kaplan support the concept introduced by Burns that problems and decision-making are a process, a sequence of behavior, that stretches back into a murky past and forward into a murkier future. [It is] a turbulent stream rather than an assembly line operation a twisted, unshapely halting flow (p. xviii). This quote stresses the fact that, many 6

10 times, a significant amount of instability goes along with the decisionmaking process. Relationship of Critical Thinking and Decision-Making Critical thinking and decision-making are interrelated in the sense that, to make skilled decisions, the concepts of critical thinking are a necessity. In fact, the relationship between critical thinking and decisionmaking is so close that there should be very little differentiation made between the two philosophies. Critical thinking involves asking critical questions that will lead to a sound conclusion, thus resulting in a sound decision. Both decision-making and critical thinking include formulating a good problem identification approach, researching and seeking alternate courses of action, considering other points of view, and determining which choice is the best choice to execute. Another relationship between critical thinking and decision-making is the actuality that accurate critical thinking involves entering into the decision making process repeatedly to arrive at a crystal-clear conclusion. Every question asked brings a new decision to the process and the number of critical questions necessary to reach a decision may increase or decrease, depending on the complexity of the problem. The Three-Part Harmony of Critical Thinking, Decision-Making, and Adult Learning In demonstrating a strong connection between adult learning, critical thinking, and decision-making, one only has to browse through some of the numerous books and articles on adult education. Very seldom will one find a book on adult learning that does not mention critical thinking and the ability to make informed decisions. Since there are so many variables in the adult learning process, it only seems natural that critical thinking and decision-making are an integral part of the learning process. The concepts related to adult learning, such as justifying beliefs or behaviors, changing beliefs or behaviors, as well as the drive to gain new and essential knowledge requires adult learners to be familiar with and apply critical thinking techniques. However, the key to the relationship between adult learning and critical thinking (which includes decisionmaking) is to convince adult learners that learning critical thinking 7

11 processes is important to them and will be of value to them in their learning, their workplace, and their lives. Knowledge of the many barriers to critical thinking may serve to address the issue of importance and value of the knowledge behind critical thinking. Kirby, Goodpaster, and Levin identify some of these barriers as being, enculturation, values and preferences you have now [which] were instilled in you since birth by your culture (1999, p.14), self-concept the way we view ourselves (p. 19), ego defenses, psychological coping strategies that distort reality in order to protect ourselves from anxiety, guilt, and other bad feelings (p. 22), selfserving biases biases in our thinking and perception that serve to protect or elevate our self-esteem (p. 24), and emotional influences (p. 29), such as anger, passion, and depression. A barrier to critical thinking, described by Galbraith, is hegemonic assumptions. Hegemonic assumptions are assumptions that we embrace eagerly because we think they are in our own best interests (2004, p. 342). The hegemonic assumptions that do not serve our best interests sometimes blind us. Enculturation develops, as these assumptions become part of our society. The instructor is responsible for harmonizing critical thinking, decision-making, and adult learning in that they must create a learning environment that fosters a desire in adult learners to recognize the need for critical thinking. Instructors of adults must also help learners see the vital connection between adult learning and critical thinking. Methods for accomplishing this are numerous, but learner involvement, utilization of real-life experiences, and an instructor with subject matter expertise are essential for learning success. Conclusion Adult learning, critical thinking, and decision-making are complex processes that challenge adults constantly. The fact that adult learning styles vary makes the challenge even more difficult. Two preeminent benefits of thinking critically are providing the thinker/learner with a systematic approach to evaluating the subject matter and providing this same systematic approach to evaluating discussions and problems. The use of learning tools such as research assignments that include application of critical thinking and decision-making skills to form conclusions are an effective approach to strengthening the relationship 8

12 between adult learning, critical thinking, and decision-making. Enhance this type of assignment by centering it on controversial issues that encourage the use of processes such as Brown and Keeley s panning for gold approach to critical thinking and decision-making. Frequent use of open-ended questions during classroom discussions, allowing learners time to ponder the questions and group interaction all encourage the development of critical thinking skills. This systematic approach to critical thinking presents a more organized method of managing a situation or learning experience that requires implementation of critical thinking skills. The thinker/learner can employ a system of skills and attitudes that allow the thinker to arrive at a sound conclusion. Those responsible for teaching adults must take on the responsibility of creating a learning environment that facilitates critical thinking and ensures learners see the vital connection between adult learning, critical thinking, and decision-making. Have learners develop a philosophy on learning that includes aspects of critical thinking and decision-making. Have them review their philosophy periodically throughout the course. A constructive learning environment, development of critical thinking skills, and constant application of those skills makes the relationship between adult learning, critical thinking, and sound decision making a harmonious association. References Brown, M. N. & Keeley, S. M., (2000). Critical thinking: Asking the right questions. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Custom Publishing. Fowler, B. (1996). Critical thinking definitions. Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum Project. Retrieved February 13, 2005, from Galbraith, M. W. (Ed.). (2004). Adult learning methods: A guide for effective instruction (3 rd ed.). Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company. Kirby, G. R., Goodpaster, J. R., & Levine, M. (1999). Critical thinking. Boston: Pearson Custom Publishing. Knowles, M. S., Holton III, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (1998). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (5 th ed.). Houston: Gulf Publishing Company. 9

13 McCall, M. W. & Kaplan, R. E. (1990). Whatever it takes: The realities of managerial decision making. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice- Hall, Inc. Ruggiero, V. R. (1998). Beyond feelings: A guide to critical thinking (5 th ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company. 10

14 Creating a Learner-Centered Environment in Nursing Education: An Immersion Experience Susan H. Steiner Beverly J Hewett Evelyn Floyd Nicole C. Lewis Eldon H Walker Abstract A call for change in nursing education has been issued in order to prepare the nurse of the future in a changing health care delivery system with increasing complexity. The learning environment is changing, including the faculty role. Innovative research-based pedagogies are suggested as a way to challenge traditional nursing education. The foundational learning theory course in our school of nursing program, Rethinking Nursing Education, is one way to begin creating a new world of nursing education. How better to fully appreciate the learning theories underpinning a learner-centered environment than an immersion experience? Introduction A call for change in nursing education has been issued in order to prepare the nurse of the future in a changing health care delivery system with increasing complexity (NLN, 2007, AACN, 1997). Innovative research-based pedagogies are suggested as a way to challenge traditional nursing education. Critical thinking and clinical judgment continue to be top priorities while the learning environment is changing, including the faculty role. Electronic learning is on the rise with a faculty role described as a learning coach or facilitator. To prepare nursing educators for the future, our school of nursing revised the Education option in the Master of Science program. Program outcomes include the ability to use a variety of pedagogies to create an Susan H. Steiner, PhD, RN, FNP, is an Associate Dean and Clinical Associate Professor, Fay W. Whitney School of Nursing, University of Wyoming; Beverly J. Hewett, PhD, RN, is a Clinical Associate Professor, Idaho State University School of Nursing; Evelyn Floyd, JD, MS, RN; Nicole C. Lewis, MS, RN, Gonzaga University; Eldon H Walker, MS, RN, Boise State University. 11

15 adult learner-centered approach to curriculum development, teaching strategies, and evaluation. The foundational learning theory course in the program, Rethinking Nursing Education, is one way to begin creating a new world of nursing education. In this course, learners explore learning theories and their application to nursing education. Adult learning theory is emphasized and textbooks include Learning in Adulthood by Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007) and Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice by Weimer (2002). How better to fully appreciate the learning theories underpinning an adult learner-centered environment than an immersion experience? This is the story of the continuing evolution of this course from the perspectives of the faculty coordinators and learners who have partnered in the experience. The underlying goal of the course is to develop faculty with a passion for learner-centered learning. Porter-O Grady (2003) used a quote from Antoine de Saint-Exupery that explains the strategy of the course: If you want to build a ship, don t drum up people to gather wood and nail the planks together. Instead, teach them a passionate desire for the sea (p. 105). At the beginning of the course, students form a community of learners to build the syllabus, including course content, structure, and evaluation. The course is designed to be the ultimate immersion experience in an adult learner-centered environment. Faculty facilitators for this course are members of the learning community and provide the course outcomes, textbooks, a list of potential topics, as well as an introduction to the need for change and characteristics of an adult learning environment. From there, the group is asked what they want to learn and how they want to learn. The community works together to choose the specific content and structure of the course and eventually write the syllabus. The initial reaction of learners is one of shock, disbelief, discomfort, fear, and/or annoyance. As the syllabus is created, however, the reaction transforms into excitement. By the end of the course, learners are true believers in the principles. The all online course has not been taught the same way twice. There are, however, two constants: (1) course outcomes are met, and (2) learners are extremely satisfied with their learning, both content and process. Following analysis of a variety of learning theories, members of the learning community seek innovative teaching strategies documented in the literature and also develop strategies of their own to implement. Over the past six years, the course has evolved from a face to face online 12

16 hybrid to a fully online asynchronous course. Initially learners met together for one day to develop the syllabus and plan the course. In the most recent course, the planning and syllabus development occurred in a two hour long synchronous web conference using the Elluminate system and asynchronously using an online WIKI. Regardless of delivery method used, learners unanimously praise the course for its excellence and express thanks for the opportunity to participate. The following representative sample of learners comments over the past six years demonstrates the success of the course: I have enjoyed the ability to design the syllabus. This was a little difficult given it is one of the first graduate level courses that I have taken. It was nice to have a voice in the learning process. I love that we were able to make this class "ours"! It has been a great experience! I love the concept of learner-centered education! Fun course great insight to nursing education. I initially did not think the course would be useful, but I learned a tremendous amount of information that will improve my teaching ability. I can t believe that as students we really did pull this off! This was a fantastic way to present a theory class. Theory in general is not a fun class. This course was a pleasure to take. Very relaxing, yet educational and learner-centered. Enjoyed the learner-driven aspect; I learned a lot from my peers and their own research into the topics. Great discussions and valuable learning! Great learner-centered courses never are easy. The hardest thing is that we [as future instructors] could even be accused of being lazy - making the students do all the work! It is going to take thought, time, and even relinquishing some control to make it work. But I do have hope that each course could have some part that could be left up to student participation. If emphasis is placed on the humanistic concepts, each instructor can find a way to make it every 13

17 class they teach more learner-centered, beginning with creation of the syllabus. Faculty Perspective As faculty facilitators, we find the experience equally rewarding, and this has become a course that other faculty ask to teach. Each semester we learn that it is all about learning, not teaching. We learn to trust in the principles of learner-centered learning: andragogy, humanism, and social constructivism. Yet we wonder at the start of each semester: Will this work? Are we wrong? Are we somehow cheating the students? And most importantly, we ask: Will the students learn? We worry more about this introductory course than any other. We throw a group of learners who are brand new to a graduate program into a completely andragogical environment and provide virtually no traditional structure. However, faculty do facilitate the process to help learners visualize and construct the course. As a group, the learners decide what to learn, how to learn it, and how to evaluate their learning. As facilitators, faculty help the learners visualize ramifications of what they are constructing and whether the direction decided upon is the most appropriate path. Then, after all the decisions are made, the course moves forward as determined by the learners. This course hones facilitation skills of involved faculty. As coinstructors, we support each other allowing and facilitating the learners to take responsibility for course development and learning. It is difficult to give up that control, but if we truly believe in learner-centered learning, this is what we must do. As the facilitating faculty, we may not always agree with how the learners choose to direct the course, but it is our responsibility to allow the learners to proceed as planned. We encourage them to tweak the course as needed during the semester, especially when that aha moment occurs and the learners recognize a flaw in the syllabus. Through faculty facilitation, a discovery of fresh insights leads to a mid-course correction creating a positive learning experience for the entire learning community. Learner Perspectives Learners in this course had to literally rethink their approach to education and stretch their boxes. Below Eldon, Evelyn, and Nicole 14

18 share learner perspectives from their experiences in this course and how the knowledge was applied as a nurse educator. Learning that it was our job within Rethinking Nursing Education to create the syllabus and plan the course was a brand new experience for Nicole. She understood the customary pathway for education focused on the professor, where the professor distributes the syllabus, instructs how he or she wants to instruct, and then evaluates the performance of the students. Eldon reflected on his experiences in a traditional program, Learner-centered education is not a new model of education, but a as product of the traditional sage on a stage approach to lecture and learning, the master s level course Rethinking Nursing Education was difficult at the outset. The use of learner-centered education theory within Rethinking Nursing Education was evident by the community of learners creating the syllabus, recalled Nicole. Initially, as the community of learners sat together in a meeting room, there were looks of shock, disbelief, and questions such as, How do I know what I am to learn? I have never done this before. How do I create a syllabus? Eldon remembers on the first day of class being jolted out of my comfort zone of learning. I wanted, expected the faculty, to just outline and inform me what we were going to do in his course, with the bulk of the control from the faculty. My thoughts were: What? No syllabus? Just tell me what I need to know! It was a complete immersion experience for the community of learners. The fear of not being told what must be learned transformed into an opportunity for success and they experienced their ability to learn and grasp more knowledge by assessing what really needed to be learned. The community of learners described an increased amount of knowledge gained due to the level of increased autonomy, control, and input into their own education. There was an increased sense of value and dedication within the learning environment. Eldon and Evelyn have moved forward in their story of a learnercentered learning environment by applying what they learned in a nursing faculty role. Each has searched for ways to apply the principles of learner-centered learning appropriate for the nursing classes they are teaching. Eldon describes his students as mostly non-traditional; they are older and have work and family obligations. These students do not want the exercise of jumping through hoops for the sake of busy work. His 15

19 students wanted to know how will I use this in the real world of nursing? He appraised the best practices in teaching of problem-based learning and case studies. Reflecting on all his options, Eldon decided on the use of anticipatory sets and case studies as a primary component for student learning: Before this was started, the majority of students opted to hear the lecture (teacher-focused) and then to look at the readings later. Now, students show up to class prepared to discuss three to five different topics. They have previously opened their texts and are more engaged. Further, by utilizing a small case study in class, I can follow-up the case study during class with five to six NCLEX questions drawn from the case study. These students have become very engaged in this learning. The students do not receive the copies of the NCLEX-type questions, but they anticipate that similar questions may appear on their next exam. Evelyn has applied what she learned by trying to make information practical and applicable to each level of students she may be teaching. She found that clinical experiences for the beginning nursing students are traditionally very structured and task focused. She now works with the students to focus on the entire process of client care, not just completing the tasks. The focus is learning. Clinical experiences now correspond more directly with course content. Students are given the freedom to choose clients and research the diagnoses, practice basic and focused assessments, and determine appropriate care. She explains that her role as clinical instructor is to guide or mentor the students in these tasks by helping the students to critically think about how their assessments and their care correlate with the client diagnoses and medications. She has found that this approach creates a relaxed interactive learning environment. The students begin to appreciate a team approach to client care as well as differentiation of roles and responsibilities. Final Thoughts This process of rethinking nursing education for Nicole, Eldon, and Evelyn came as aha s and, over time, as each tried to implement a learner-centered approach to education, they discovered the best learning takes place with a learner-centered, not faculty-centered approach. Although this is the most effective way for adults to learn, faculty are required to be more creative. As faculty, we realize the learner-centered approach is time intensive, yet the rewards are well worth the effort. 16

20 Faculty growth in learner-centered content, application, and facilitation skills are as important to us as the satisfaction derived from watching the learners develop and grow. Our purpose in sharing this story is to encourage faculty to stretch their boxes and explore the use of a learnercentered immersion in other courses and levels of nursing education. References American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN) (1997, October). A vision of baccalaureate and graduate nursing education: The next decade. Retrieved April 16, 2009, from aacn.nche. edu/publications/positions/vision.htm Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3 rd ed.). California: Jossey- Bass. National League for Nursing (NLN) (2007). Position statements. Retrieved April 16, 2009, from research/ index.htm Porter-O Grady, T. (2003). A different age for leadership, part 1. Journal of Nursing Administration, 33, Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered teaching: Five keys to changes to practice. California: Jossey-Bass. 17

21 Andragogy A Mantra for US/Iraqi Cross-Cultural Dialogue Ghada S. Mahdi Larry K. Bright Abstract Andragogical precepts provide rich opportunities for building cultural bridges, particularly among people in times of strife. Encouraging adults to share their experiences and insights in a learning community of unconditional positive regard can build understanding, hope, and peace among people experiencing conflict and marginalization. An accepting adult learning environment can offer political moderates a new mantra for understanding the Middle East and the West during the current global conflict. As an Iraqi from war-torn Baghdad and an American from the US Midwest, the two writers advocate for engagement of adults in addressing the realities and alternative visions of people. Introduction The American literature of adult education advocates for building a learning climate for dialogue to explore life s options and to establish policies which assure social justice. There is less such literature in the Arab Middle East. The voice of Iraqi moderate scholars needs to be heard. This paper explores how an Iraqi graduate student and her advisor see the potential of andragogy to bring better understanding to US/Iraqi relations. Human suffering, injustice, poverty, and indifference are not new to the world. But, for citizens of Iraq today, these miseries are current and deeply painful. Scholarly reflections may be useful on what andragogy may have to offer for insight and social action. In the experiences, fears, and hopes of adults, the meaning of living with uncertainty may be examined. International conflict may challenge adult Ghada S. Mahdi is a Doctoral Candidate in Adult and Higher Education, Division of Educational Administration, University of South Dakota; Larry K. Bright is a Professor in Adult and Higher Education, Division of Educational Administration, The University of South Dakota. 18

22 educators to apply their knowledge to maintain quality in teaching and advising with students from war zones. A Coincidental Circumstance Leading to Significant Meaning The writers were surprised and pleased by discovering that their friendship evolved unexpectedly. Neither person had expectations of becoming understood more than superficially by the other, given the global press on the Middle East and the US, as well as the wide distances assumed to be between the two worlds. Then, there could have been the usual rural-urban split, since one person came from a city of over six million (Baghdad), and the other from a town of 10,000 (Vermillion). This difference was never apparent to either person. But, both people found confidence in their mutual knowledge of the value of basic interpersonal skills related to active listening and paraphrasing. They also found safety in their confidence in their common backgrounds of adult education theory. The discussion which unfolds will show the influence of theory on practice. Applying Andragogy to Advising and Instruction Andragogy considers the experiences of adult learners as valid and valuable. When differences in cultures complicate adult interaction, the need for returning to the basic principles of andragogy is even more important. Giving time to understanding human differences and similarities, taking time to increase tolerances for ambiguities, and valuing adult experiences all basic to use of adult education theories are important in building relationships across cultures. The underlying principles of andragogical theorists emphasize the role that experience plays in adulthood. Knowles (1989) suggests that adults come into an educational activity with a greater volume and a different quality of experience from youths. Kolb (1984) emphasized that learning is a continuous process grounded in experience. Knowledge is continuously derived and tested out in the experiences of the learner (p. 27). Mezirow stated: Discourse is not a war or a debate; it is a conscientious effort to find agreement, to build a new understanding (1996, p.170). Adult educators must be aware that helping adults learn 19

23 how to move from an argumentative mind set to an empathetic understanding of others views is a priority (Mezirow, 2000). Hoping to Learn from Time Commitments to Dialogue US/Iraq These principles of andragogy provided the writers with mantra for dialogue. As people of Iraq and the US Midwest, the writers found themselves thrown together by the chance of being assigned advisee to advisor. It happened that both people caught each other at a time when each was willing to take the time to engage in dialogue and international student social activities. Having lunch and time for casual conversation should not be put off for later. Interaction on a reasonably regular basis can provide opportunity for understanding behavior and intentions. The writers found themselves willing to suspend disbelief that they were different, even in the face of media stereotyping of US and Iraqi conflicts. The writers found fewer social differences to explore than there were similarities shared hopes, positive experiences in teaching, and enthusiasm to find ways for professional contribution in the world. In instructional and advising contexts, both people found it extraordinary that they stumbled across each other in a world caught more in frenetic panic and competition than in finding time for dialogue and collaboration. Hoping to better prepare herself for service in teaching English, the Iraqi writer found that the andragogical principles have broadened her knowledge base, but the relationships with an American who was more than an anticipated stereotype extended her self-awareness and her appreciation of the West. The American looked enthusiastically toward knowing more about the Arab Middle East. Value of Time and Basic Interpersonal Skills in Cross-Cultural Communication The significance of andragogy for building cultural bridges, particularly in times of strife, provides hope for enriching dialogue. Andragogical theory can offer hope for scholars from Iraq and the US who seek to bridge politically current barriers. In adult education in universities, faculty say they ascribe to the applications of andragogy, but they may not find the time to practice their craft with people assumed to 20

24 be in conflict with US policy. In best adult classes, there needs to be time for dialogue reflection on the meaning of concepts, events, and dreams. Busy faculty need to find time away from lecture to use their skills in communication to facilitate adult sharing of experiences and insights. Active listening, skillful paraphrasing, describing experiences and behavior without judgment, and engaging people with unconditional positive regard are essential to building trust and mutual mentoring for understanding comparative cultures. This kind of teaching is especially necessary in building learning community with students from Iraq. Iraq is a culture steeped in traditions. Patience for customs of listening and greetings is needed. Americans who practice acceptance and active listening can be successful in building trust. American demand for quick and precise communication can alienate students who have been educated to respect traditions, rank, seniority, and eloquence in the use of language. In a learning community based on unconditional positive regard, people can build understanding, hope, and peace even among people experiencing conflict, marginalization, and persecution. However, it takes time, skill, and volition. Neither writers believe that this kind of positive environment happens frequently in either the US or Iraq. People seem to believe they are too busy to try to understand each other. US Appreciation of Iraq in Times of Stress When human beings are under the stress of war, fears of persecution, misunderstanding, and stereotyping abound. Adult educators can be empathetic people who offer their time, their insights, and their respect to people experiencing trauma. Americans can learn from Iraqis about the experience of living in a war zone. This knowledge cannot be underestimated. In interactive dialogue, there is the heart of andragogy, a means for finding the meaning of living and serving, and the purpose of life. Adult educators continue to strive to find ways of engaging learners in seeking to make a more inclusive and safe world for human beings across all levels of differences. However, the world of social castes is not safe and inclusive. Students as human beings need to feel valued, respected, and treated with affection and love. The same holds true for professors. Mutual acceptance and understanding do not happen by coincidence or magic. They come from applying philosophy to practice. 21

25 For moments of spiritual learning to occur, there must be space in the learning environment which is safe, supportive, open and sacred (Merriam, 2007 et al., p. 205). Vella (2000) outlined three aspects of sacred space dialogue, respect, and accountability. A sacred space allows for dialogue where one listens to others experiences without judgment. The teacher is accountable for designing a learning experience that both supports and challenges the learner (2000). The writers have found that for their increased learning curve about each others cultures, stereotypes, and social behaviors, there had to be time, volition, and a love of both learning and people to sustain the initiative. Hellriegel and Slocum (2008) have conjectured that positive emotions such as trust, generosity, and gratitude can be contagious. Love and appreciation for learning both personally and professionally are the most beneficial and valuable gifts teachers will give to their students. But, extreme pain of both people in the West and Middle East who feel hopeless to influence a terror-free world takes time to hear and to understand. Practicing the Craft of Andragogy in Iraq and the US Midwest There is a need for Middle Eastern scholars studying in the West to reflect on the nature and purposes of andragogy and its theory and research. Through providing a safe and accepting place for dialogue, people with multiple perspectives on the nature, purposes, and challenges of living may contribute to each other s epistemological foundations, an essential need for contemporary peoples embroiled in strife. Much can be learned from people willing to share the meaning they place on their life experiences. The writers have found that basic respect for people involves both listening and sharing, allowing ample time for narrative examples, paraphrasing, and responsiveness to both ideas and feelings. An adult education course at a university has potential to bring people together regularly, but courses focused primarily on one-way teacher talk have often been the norm across classrooms in the world. Building a climate for dialogue involves hearing people joys, challenges, and rages. This means that fully-functional adults come to relationships, knowing that too much talking or listening can interfere with the development of trust. 22

26 Responses to injustice, deceit, marginalization, and indifference have taken decided tolls on Iraqi adults who continue to struggle to find meaning and purpose in living let alone the food and safety necessary for each day. However, after food and shelter demands, social needs emerge. An empowering relationship, which doesn t create dependency, requires a person with the time, opportunity, and volition to encourage other adults to share. The building of a mutually empowering relationship may be difficult for the sage on the stage who cannot let go easily taking most of class time for lecturing. Being the Change We Want to See in the World When language differences keep people apart, there is a need for finding interactions based on behavior, as much as verbal exchange. The writers found that visits to each others families were as important as class time for dialogue. We need to see how people treat their family and friends to invest further in a trusting relationship. This suggests that adult learning needs to be extended beyond the classroom. Sometimes both of the writers have been filled with sorrow regarding the status of Middle Eastern conflict. Getting in the way of each other s rage is never a good plan for engaging in insights. However, listening to feelings about persecution, stereotyping, and despair takes time. In life, time to share with others may be our most precious commodity, but finding friendship through empathizing brings undeniable reward. The circumstances of both people s lives had given little opportunity beyond reading and the media for either person to actually know the other. There had been few opportunities for an Iraqi and a US Midwesterner with graduate degrees in education to rub elbows. The writers found much to discuss, but no impasses including topics of politics, religion, social class, or educational background. This mutual friendship has happened at the University of South Dakota, and neither person s life will ever be the same. A cultural bridge has been established and other friendships of this kind are likely to travel this path. Occasionally in life, a person has the opportunity, as Gandhi wrote, to be the change you wish to see in the world. This kind of change can be part of making one friendship at a time. Andragogy may provide the mantra for rebuilding peace between the West and Iraq. 23