AlvlERICAN UNIVERSI1Y

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1 II AlvlERICAN UNIVERSI1Y FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS SERIES: Use of Jail Sanctions in Family Drug Courts Subject: From: Date: Use of Jail Sanctions in Family Drug Courts BJA Drug Court ClearinghousefTechnical Assistance Project June 25, 2010 (rev.) Question: Vermont has one Family Treatment Court and has been discussing the idea ofutilizing short periods oftime in jail (24-72 hours) for major drug court infractions, such as lying to the court or falsifying documents. Persons agreeing to participate in drug court would agree to such sanctions as a condition of participation. There has been some opposition to the use ofjail in Family Treatment Court matters. Question: Are other FTC's using jail as a sanction (my understanding is that some are)? If so, what are the conditions/infractions under which they would use jail as a sanction? How long a period is the sanction? and what is the legal rationale for imposing jail as a sanction? Note: This "FAQ", originally published in January 2005, has been updated to reflect the 2009 California decision in In Re Nolan W. J holding that imprisonment cannot be used as a sanction in the Family Drug Treatment Courts in California. In response to that decision, Judge Len Edwards (ret.), founding and first presiding judge for the Santa Clara County Family Drug Treatment Court, published an article in the Juvenile and Family Court Journat, which is appended to this "FAQ" and addresses the implications ofnolan for those family drug treatment courts that considered the use ofjail as a permissible sanction. Judge Edwards notes that: "... in a treatment court, treatment considerations should guide decisions concerning parental failure to follow service plans. Imprisonment and other sanctions that are not treatment oriented should not be imposed by the court in FDTC proceedings. Nor should reduced visitation be used as a sanction in FDTC. Parents already have a significant potential sanction - poermanent loss oftheir children - and a limited time to demonstrate that they can parent safely. Punishments are neither necessary nor appropriate. Instead, we have learned that support and incentives work best with parents, and that adequate treatment plans will be the most effective parental success..." I 1 In renolan W., (92009)45 Cal 4 th 1217,203 P.3d454, 91 Cal. Rptr. 3d Juvenile and Family Court Journal 61, no. 1 (Winter) published by the National Council ofjuvenile and Family Court Judges Frequently Asked Questions: Use of Jail as a Sanction By Family Drug Treatment Courts. BJA Drug Court Clearinghouse/Technical Assistance Project. American University. June 25,2010 (rev.)

2 Responses: Judge Len Edwards, Presiding Judge Family Treatment Court Santa Clara County Superior Court San Jose, California Although we mention the possibility ofjail in our application process, we have only used that sanction once in 7 years. We don't believe we need it given the other sanctions available. We tend to rely upon positive reinforcement as the principal motivator and, ofcourse, there are always the future ofthe children in the background. San Diego uses jail extensively. The California Court ofappeal recently affirmed the use ofjail as a sanction in their recovery court in a published opinion. They also have good data (as do we). If you want to study the usefulness ofjail, I suggest you contact someone at the San Diego, CA, juvenile court. Lyn Angene, Coordinator Substance Abuse Recovery Management System San Diego Family Drug Treatment Court San Diego County Superior Court San Diego, California Lyn.Angene@SDCourt.CA.Gov Jail is perceived by us as a wake-up call rather than a sanction. Many of the clients who did time injail perceived it that way as well, per Judge James Milliken, who started the program. It is imposed for a dirty test and is 48 hours for the first incidence or three days. (The respondent goes in the evening of the first day, stays the next day and night and then is released the following morning) The second dirty test results in five days jail. The authority for imposing the jail sanction is derived from the civil contempt code referenced in the recent opinion In re Olivia J. 12/2/04. Note: In Re Olivia J., Court of Appeal, Fourth Appellate District, Division One, State of California. Filed December 2, Appeal from judgment of Superior Court of San Diego County. Affirms trial judge's order of incarceration offather for noncompliance with treatment program requirements.. The following is a summary ofthe case: The minor child had been removed from her home with her mother upon a finding that the mother had subjected her to excessive discipline and that she was at substantial risk of suffering serious physical harm. The child's father had little contact with her but paid child support. The court placed the child with her adult sister and ordered reunification services for the parents, including unsupervised visits for the father. The Court ordered the father into SARMS, which provides alcohol and drug treatment to parents in the San Diego County dependency systems who agree to cooperate with prescribed treatment plans, and is part ofthe San Diego County Dependency Court Recovery Project. The father subsequently violated SARMS' requirements, including failing to appear for drug and alcohol screening, failing to attend required 12-step meetings, and failing to maintain weekly contact with his recovery specialist. The Court imposed a sentence ofthree days in custody (which had previously been imposed for noncompliance and suspended) and sentenced him to an additional two days. The facts ofthe case are summarized in the case decision at Frequently Asked Questions: Use of Jail as a Sanction By Family Drug Treatment Courts. BJA Drug Court ClearinghouselTechnical Assistance Project. American University. June 25, 2010 (rev.)

3 The father appealed the juvenile court's judgment of contempt and order for incarceration under Welfare and Institutions Code Sections 213 and Code of Civil Procedures section 1218 after the court found he willfully disobeyed its order to participate in the Substance Abuse Recovery Management System Program (SARMS) as part of his reunification plan in the dependency case involving his minor daughter Olivia J. He alleged the following grounds for appeal: (1) the court had no authority to order incarceration based on his non-compliance with a reunification component not reasonably related to the problems that caused the child to be a dependent; (2) the judgment of contempt was invalid because the court did not enter a specific order that formed the basis ofa willful violation; (3) the court improperly delegated complete discretion to a SARMS "recovery specialist" to determine the specific requirements that resulted in a contempt finding and incarceration; and (4) he was denied his right to effective assistance ofcounsel because his attorney did not seek a continuance to terminate the SARMS requirement and did not attempt to stay the order of incarceration to file for a writ of relief. The Court's ruling was based on a fmding that: (1) the respondent did not object to the requirements of the reunification plan in the trial court, and, by acquiescing to the SARMS requirements, waived the right to claim they were unreasonable; (2) the respondent agreed to participate in SARMS with the understanding his noncompliance would result in sanctions, including a fmding of contempt and possible incarceration for up to five days, and therefore waived his right to challenge the court's ability to enforce its order through contempt and incarceration; (3) that the fmding of contempt and resulting incarceration were based on the respondent's willful violation of a lawful order of the juvenile court, not on his failure to participate in a reunification plan."...once the court found the SARMS order was valid and [the respondent] had the ability to comply with the order but willfully disobeyed it, the court properly exercised its contempt powers..."; and (4) that the juvenile court may delegate the ministerial tasks of overseeing reunification services to the person or entity best able to perform them, without improperly delegating judicial authority. "...Through its review ofthe service providers' reports, the juvenile court retains ultimate control over the provision of services." Judge John Parnham Family Drug Treatment Court First Judicial Circuit Court (Escambia County) Pensacola, Florida Judge_pamham@co.escambia.fl.us From the beginning we have used jail as a possible sanction for noncompliance with the Dependency Drug Court. We started using jail based upon our experience in the Criminal Adult Drug Court. This issue presented the most challenges since dependency proceedings are civil in Florida. Once we satisfactorily addressed the due process and other constitutional issues, we decided to limit the amount of time I could impose. Of course, jail is used as a last resort and is imposed primarily for therapeutic purposes after exhausting other consequences. (Positive incentives are also used extensively) We started our court in 1995 and still use jail as a consequence. We have done hundreds of exit interviews with graduating clients, and almost all say that the possibility of going to jail for noncompliance was a major motivator, early on in the program. Our statistics also indicate that jail was most often required early in the program when motivation was most tenuous. Frequently Asked Questions: Use of Jail as a Sanction By Family Drug Treatment Courts. BJA Drug Court Clearinghouse/Technical Assistance Project. American University. June 25, 2010 (rev.)

4 I hope this has been helpful and if you need any additional information please contact me at your convenience Judge Charles McGee Family Drug Court Washoe County District Court Reno, Nevada Regarding the subject ofthe use ofjail as a sanction in Family Drug Court, I think that you are going to find a lot of disparity in the way that this sanction is viewed across the country. The east coast, including New York and Florida, are either dead set against using jail as a sanction or using it as a last resort. With the exception of Santa Clara County, the west coast, including my program and Judge Milliken's program in San Diego County, thinks it is an essential tool to the success ofthe program. The issues are further confused by both state law and procedure and, frankly, the level ofjurisdiction which the Family Court Judge occupies. In some states the referrals are made to the juvenile and family court which is proceeding on a civil basis, or the referrals are made to a "lower court" of limited jurisdiction. In some states there are due process issues that make civil contempt cumbersome, depending upon the degree of notice, nature of charges, whether the judge who makes the order can also sit in the contempt hearing, whether or not counsel is obligatory, etc. While we use graduated sanctions, a relapse is often met with a one or two day jail sentence and after ten years ofdoing this, when I ask a new client in the program what it was that made the difference, a very common answer is "that two days in jail reminded me just how serious you were about your reunification program." You might touch base with Judge Milliken because I think he feels that not providing strict sanctions amounts to what he calls ''judicial enabling". Finally, for those detractors who claim jail time is inappropriate for those who suffer from a "disease", my answer is that "reality therapy" can be an integral part ofthe therapeutic process. Hon. Nicolette Pach (ret) _ Suffolk County Family Treatment Court Central Islip, New York nicolettep@optonline.net *********** I had written a short piece on the topic for the NDCI Newsletter Summer I'm attaching my draft of it..... Hope it's of use. Family Dependency Drug Courts and the Use of Contempt Powers By Judge Nicolette Pach (ret.) Substance abuse is a precipitating factor in percent ofchild abuse and neglect cases. It is no surprise that family courts have looked at the criminal drug court model for inspiration in designing family dependency treatment courts (FDTC). The differences between criminal drug courts and FDTC s are currently a subject of great discussion. The adult criminal drug court model, with a focus on public safety, provides support and services to the Frequently Asked Questions: Use of Jail as a Sanction By Family Drug Treatment Courts. BJA Drug Court Clearinghouse/Technical Assistance Project. American University. June 25, 2010 (rev.)

5 participants in a holistic approach to become abstinent, gain control oftheir lives and stop their criminal behavior. Whereas the focus ofthe family dependency drug court model is two-fold, with the paramount concern and focus on child safety and well being, achieving a pennanent safe and stable home for children, while providing the parent with the support and services to become abstinent, gain control oftheir lives and provide them a realistic chance for reunification with their children in a time frame that is considerate of the child's developmental and emotional needs. A critical issue in criminal and family drug courts is securing participants' compliance. In the criminal court the use of incarceration as a sanction is clearly acceptable. One ofthe motivations for participation is the avoidance ofjail by the defendant. The contract that is entered into clearly contemplates failure to comply will result in incarceration. In family drug courts the motivating factor is the parents' desire to maintain or regain custody of their child. In the family drug court jail is not an anticipated outcome ofthe traditional dependency case. Reunification or the alternative, tennination of parental rights (TPR) may occur. Therefore the anticipated consequence of failure to comply with an order in a dependency case is the curtailment or loss ofparental rights, not the loss ofpersonal liberty. While some FDTCs have concurrent criminal jurisdiction, most do not. Many family courts, however, may exercise contempt powers to secure obedience to court orders. So it is technically possible to incarcerate a parent for failure to comply with a court order to attend substance abuse treatment and remain abstinent. Using the power ofa contempt proceeding in a dependency case is controversial. The experience of the Suffolk County New York Family Treatment Court is offered here as it evolved from 1997 to In New York, the court has the power to incarcerate for up to six months for contempt ofcourt. In exercising it in the Suffolk County Family Treatment Court, the strongly held philosophy was that it was improper to use a jail sanction for contempt as punishment, it was only pennissible if it was reasonably calculated to gain compliance with a court order. The court was forced to examine when the circumstances were ripe for securing compliance. Patterns ofcompliance among participants emerged as the FDTC developed and were examined. Some participants complied immediately when faced with the loss of, or risk of, losing custody of their child(ren) and as a result jail was not necessarily an issue to be discussed. A second group ofparents were clearly struggling and were not able to maintain sobriety, or even get started in treatment, in the early stages of the case. The court had not yet gotten their attention. The family court in New York has the power to issue a bench warrant for failure to appear in court. Upon a failure to appear, a parent that had either been demonstrating an unwillingness or inability to comply, or who had not been meeting with staff or appearing at treatment and their whereabouts were unknown, had a bench warrant issued on them. With the cooperation ofthe Suffolk County Sheriff's Department, such parents were usually not hard to find and were promptly returned to the court. For some, being brought to court in handcuffs in the back of a sheriff's car was all the wake up call they needed. For others bail was set and the parent waited for a day, overnight or a weekend for attorneys to be assembled and for further proceedings to take place before their release. Those few days in jail served to reinforce the seriousness of their circumstances and allow them enough sober time to recognize that the opportunity to raise their own children henceforth was at risk. A contempt petition filed by the county attorney, representing child protective services at this early stage, could be used as leverage to get a parent into either the 28-day program or a longer-tenn residential treatment program, if indicated as necessary by treatment professionals, in exchange for a suspended jail sentence. The 28-day residential treatment program often gave the parent a treatment base as well as the ability to continue treatment and meet their responsibilities in the community. A third category ofparents consisted ofthose who continued to be unable or unwilling to comply. Months would pass and their attendance at treatment and in court was sporadic. Urine tests were often positive for substances of abuse and visitation with the children was irregular. At that point the county attorney might again file a contempt petition. In the state ofnew York, under the Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA), a pennanency hearing must be held within a year ofremoval of a child-in other states it is held after only six months. The court is required at that hearing to approve a "permanent" plan for the child. The plan must be calculated to provide a safe and stable home in a timely fashion. The court must then take stock of whether a jail sentence for contempt is likely to result Frequently Asked Questions: Use of Jail as a Sanction By Family Drug Treatment Courts. BJA Drug Court Clearinghouse/Technical Assistance Project. American University. June 25, 2010 (rev.)

6 in compliance with the court order. Even ifthe court believes compliance might be forthcoming, an additional consideration is whether the parent will be able to make significant progress quickly enough to be considered as the permanent resource for the child. In their experience, the Suffolk County New York Family Treatment Court identified the second group of parentsespecially in the early stage of the proceeding-as better candidates for the use of the court's contempt powers. Incarceration at that point is calculated to secure compliance in time for the family to be reunited, which is, after all, the ultimate goal ofthe family treatment court. The third group ofparents, those still non-compliant in the late stages oftheir dependency case when ASFA demands a permanent plan be made, were not seen to be an appropriate target ofthe court's contempt powers. To what end is that power being exercised ifit is too late to secure meaningful compliance? While it may be tempting for staff ofthe treatment court to recommend a jail sanction out of frustration and desperation with the parent, it is ultimately up to the judge to determine if it would be a legitimate use ofthat power, or if the time for securing the parent's compliance with the court order is past, recognizing that it may very well be time to focus on another permanent plan for the children. We welcome any additional information and/or perspective readers may have on this topic. Frequently Asked Questions: Use of Jail as a Sanction By Family Drug Treatment Courts. BJA Drug Court Clearinghouse/Technical Assistance Project. American University. June 25, 2010 (rev.)

7 Sanctions in Family Drug Treatment Courts By Judge Leonard Edwards (Ret.) INTRODUCTION We all know that sanctions and rewards are essential parts of the success of Family Drug Treatment Courts (FDTC), but no one is clear about what these sanctions and rewards should be. Each local court has its own set of sanctions and rewards, many borrowed from criminal drug courts, some created by available resources within the community. Now the California Supreme Court has made the decision about sanctions more complex with its decision in In re Nolan Wi holding that imprisonment cannot be used as a sanction in the FDTC. What are permissible sanctions in an FDTC? After In re Nolan W, are fines or community service permissible? What about a reduction in visitation? What guidance has the California Supreme Court given trial courts in these areas? This article will try to bring some clarity to these questions and also offer a framework for trial courts to consider regarding the most effective use of sanctions in FDTCs. The article concludes that imprisonment is an unnecessary sanction in FDTCs, and that sanctions in these courts should be guided solely by treatment considerations. BACKGROUND FDTCs are collaborative courts/ and as such they combine judicial supervision of clients with rehabilitation services that are rigorously monitored and focused on recovery. 1 In re Nolan w., (2009) 45 Ca1.4th 1217, 203 P.3d. 454, 91 Cal.Rptr.3d Collaborative courts are also called problem-solving courts. Judge Leonard Edwards is a retired Superior Court Judge from Santa Clara County, California. He setves as Judge-in-Residence for the California Administrative Office of the Courts. Correspondence: Leonard.Edwards@jud.ca.gov. Author's Note: Many thanks to Sidney Holler for her help in the research for this article. jul'mileand Family COlJrljolJrnal6J (Wimer) Nalioni/I CO/l/l(i/ o(j1l1liwile and Fi/mily COlJrljlldger

8 56 JUVENILE AND FAMILY COURT JOURNAL / Wimer 2010 Collaborative courts are distinguished by a problem-solving focus, a team approach to decision making, integration of social and treatment services, judicial supervision and monitoring of the treatment process, community outreach, direct interaction between the client and the judge, accountability for adherence to the treatment plan, and a proactive role for the judge inside and outside the courtroom. 3 FDTCs are a specialized type of collaborative court that operates within the child protection (juvenile dependency) court. They are not courts in the traditional sense because they do not adjudicate. Instead, they provide a setting for a collaborative effort by the... court and all participants in the child protection court to come together in a nonadversarial serting to determine the individual treatment needs of substance-abusing parents whose children are under the jurisdiction of the dependency court. 4 The first Family Drug Treatment Courts started in Okaloosa County, Florida, in June Other FDTCs started soon thereafter including Washoe County (Reno), Nevada, and Seminole County (Sanford), Florida. s Judge Charles McGee from Washoe County, a pioneer in the creation of FDTCs, believed that the collaborative approach to substance abuse treatment might improve a parent's chances of rehabilitating. 6 Other judges heard of this innovation and FDTCs were created in jurisdictions across the country. As ofjune 2009, more than 300 FDTCs were active or in the planning stages. That number continues to grow as judges recognize the value of these courts.? FDTCs look similar to most criminal drug courts except that they operate in the context of child protection proceedings. In this respect they are quite different from criminal and juvenile drug courts. They are classified as civil as opposed to criminal proceedings. Child protection proceedings are not about the offending parent-the legal action is brought on behalf of the child. The purposes of child protection proceedings are to protect the child, to provide timely permanency for the child, and to ensure the child's well-being. The stakes are high-higher than any other court proceeding with the exception of the death penalty. A child may be removed from parental care and placed in foster care. If parents are unable to reunify with their child, they may permanently lose their parental rights, and the child may be adopted by another family. ~ For additional information on collaborative courts, see California Courts: Programs: Collaborative Justice at 4 L. Edwards &J. Ray,Judicial Perspectives on Family Drug Treatment COU'fls, 56 JUVENILE AND FAMILY COURT JOURNAL 1-27 (Summer 2005), at 1. 5 The dating of the early FDTCs comes from Caroline Cooper at the BJA Drug Court Clearinghouse, American University, Washington, DC. 6 C. McGee, Another Permanency Perspective, 48 JUVENILE AND FAMILY COURT JOURNAL, Wimer 1997, at SUMMARY OF DRUG COURT ACTIVITY BY STATE AND COUNTY, June 18, 2009, BJA Clearinghouse, Justice Programs Office, School of Public Affairs, American University.

9 Edwards I SANCTIONS IN FAMILY DRUG TREATMENT COURTS 57 IN RE NOLAN W; Let's start with In re Nolan W The case began in San Diego where the Substance Abuse Recovery Management System (SARMS) has been in place for over 10 years. s Under the SARMS protocol, all substance-abusing parents whose children are before the juvenile dependency court must be assessed for substance abuse and are then placed into the SARMS program pursuant to Local Rule of Court The parents sign an agreement concerning participation in the program including a description of the sanctions for failing to complete the treatment plan. A typical plan might include attending Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, substance abuse counseling, frequent court hearings with mandatory attendance, and compliance with the visitation schedule. The sanctions increase in severity with each violation of the treatment plan and can include termination from the drug court and the scheduling of a permanency planning hearing. Contempt of court proceedings and imprisonment are also possible sanctions. The San Diego court culture seems to view imprisonment as an important sanction. As the former Presiding Judge of the San Diego Juvenile Court wrote, "A parent must receive immediate consequences for a noncompliant event, and the court must be able to swiftly incarcerate recalcitrant parents."9 In Nolan W., the mother entered SARMS, signed the participation agreement, but did not follow through with the treatment plan. She came before the judge who held her in contempt of court (60 counts including multiple incidents of not testing, not attending meetings, and missing visitation), sentenced her to 300 days in jail, and suspended the sentence on condition that she follow the plan. When the mother continued to miss testing, meetings, and visitation, the judge reinstated the 300-day sentence and issued a bench warrant for her arrest. The sentencing on the contempt convictions occurred after the mother's reunification services had been terminated and a permanency planning hearing had been set in the underlying child protection case. The mother appealed the jail commitment arguing that the sentence was excessive and that the court did not have statutory authority to sentence her to jail in a child protection proceeding. The intermediate appellate court reversed the sentence as an abuse of judicial discretion, but did not address the second issue. The California Supreme Court went further and declared that contempt and sanctions such as imprisonment and fines were not available in the dependency court because the legislative scheme did not envision punishment as a proper sanction in legal proceedings that focus on a child's safety, permanency, and well-being. The Supreme Court wrote that the ultimate sanction in juvenile dependency cases is permanent loss ofparental rights, thus imprisonment has no place in the scheme established by the legislature. 8 J. Milliken & G. Rippel, Effective Mcmagement of Parental Substance Abuse in Dependency Casts, JOURNAL OF THE CENTER FOR FAMILIES, CHILDREN & THE COURTS (2004), at Id. at 102.

10 58 JUVENILE AND FAMILY COURT JOURNAL / Winter 2010 When the Legislature has established a specific penalty for a transgression, courts may not impose a contempt punishment that is inconsistent with the legislative scheme... the legislative scheme here contemplates that the ultimate penalty for a parent's failure to satisfy reunification plan requirements is the loss of parental rights. LO The Supreme Court stated that "[r}eunification services are voluntary and an unwilling parent may not be compelled to participate."l1 The court added: "(t}he juvenile court intervenes to protect a child, not to punish a parent."12 The state had argued that "shock incarceration" or "therapeutic jail time" are useful strategies for courts to have at their disposal. The Supreme Court, however, found "no empirical support for the proposition that the threat of parental incarceration encourages higher reunification rates."13 Nolan W has led to an olltcry. Some say that the California Supreme Court has diminished the impact of Family Drug Treatment Courts. Some judges say the loss of the imprisonment sanction will reduce the effectiveness ofcolltt intervention because "graduating clients... almost all say that the possibility ofgoing to jail for noncompliance was a major motivator early on in the program.,,14 One experienced judge commented that the Supreme Court has "thrown the baby out with the bath water." REWARDS AND SANCTIONS There seems to be a consensus among drug court professionals that rewards and other positive incentives enhance the effectiveness of collaborative courts. 15 Surprisingly, [says Judge Hicks} praise is usually the most powerful motivator, especially for addicts who have often experienced very little praise recently. Therefore, family drug court teams try to identify every opportunity to recognize and praise good behavior and to celebrate the achievements of parems. 16 Whether sanctions produce positive change is more difficult to assess. Most criminal drug court experts contend that the threat of jail is critical to the success of these courts. 17 One study, conducted in San Joaquin County, California, indicates clearly that jail as a sanction in criminal drug court is an effective deterrent to participants' inappropriate behaviors, and that using jail as a sanction resulted in lower recidivism in Cal.4rh ar 123l. 11 Id. ar /d. at Id. ar Judge John Parnam, quoted in Use ofjail Sanctions in Family Drug Courts, Frequently Asked Quesrions Series, BJA Drug Court Clearinghouse, American University (2005), ar Judge William Meyer, Developing and Delivering Incentives and SanctionJ, April 2007, herp:11 on Therapeutic Sanctions and Incentives Developing and Delivering Incentives and Sancrions. 16 Judge E. J. Hicks, FClmity Drug Courts, 78 THE OKLAHOMA BARJOUHNAL (Nov. 3,2007), at D. Marlowe, & K. Kirby, Effectit'e Use ofsanctions in Drug Courts: Lessons from Bebavioral Researcb, II NATIONAL DRUG COURT INSTITUTE REVIEW (1999).

11 Edwards I SANCTIONS IN FAMILY DRUG TREATMENT COURTS 59 clients who did not receive jail. I8 Bur as the author of the San Joaquin study wrore, "{j}ail sanctions are unnecessary in FDTCs because they have a different 'ulrimate' threat of taking kids away."19 That same aurhor conducted a focus group with parents at an FDTC in Oregon. The parents "were adamant that jail as a sanction discourages their progress, especially for those that never experienced time in jail before participation in the voluntary FDTC.. 20 In practice, many FDTCs do not use jail as a sanction. Surveys from the BJA Drug Court Clearinghouse show that abour half of these courts do not use jail. 21 As Judge Douglas Johnson of Omaha, Nebraska, states: We are in our 5th year ofserving infants, toddlers and their parents who suffer from mental health and substance abuse in our 0-3 Family Drug Treatment Court. Most of these parents had childhood experiences of foster care, domestic violence, sexual abuse, or being poorly parented. An appropriate trauma-informed response to these families does not include a jail sanction for a parent who has not followed a program requirement. Missteps are inevitable on the road to sobriety. Affirmation and supportive services motivate a parent to continue the journey to overcome depression, anxiety, substance abuse, domestic violence, and the myriad of other issues in order to properly care for his or her child. Jail is the currency of criminal court, nor juvenile and family civil courts. n In fact, imprisonment is an inappropriate sanction in the FDTC context for many reasons. First, it appears that because jail is an effective sanction in criminal court, many professionals assume that it will be just as effective in FDTC Many of the earliest FDTCs simply looked to existing criminal drug courts as a model for their operations. Experience has shown, however, that the two courts are distinct and that successful practices in criminal court do not necessarily ensure success in FDTC Second, the most rigorous national study of FDTCs undertaken by NPC Research indicates that courts that use jail as a sanction do not necessarily have better results than courts that do not use jail.23 The five-year study of four jurisdictions (Suffolk County, New York; San Diego County, California; Washoe County, Nevada; and Santa Clara County, California) found that the one county that did not use jail (Santa Clara) provided more treatment, faster reunification, less time in foster care, and higher rates of family reunification than the other three jurisdictions. Third, many FDTCs prefer not to use jail because they believe it is an inappropriate sanction in child protection court. As Judge Johnson states above, the FDTC is a civil court---dependency court is noncriminal in nature. The purpose of the juvenile depen 18 S. M. Carey, K. Pukstas, M. S. Waller, & M. W. Finigan, Drug Courts and State Mandated Drug Treatment Programs: Ourcomes, COStS and Consequences (2008). Submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. (Copy available from author at carey@npcresearch.com). 19 froms.burrustotheauthor.nov (on file with the author). 201d. 21 SUMMARY OF DRUG COURT ACTIVITY BY STATE AND COUNTY, op cit. note from Judge Douglas Johnson, Sept. 18, 2009 (on file with the author). 23 S. Worcel, B. Green, C. Furrer, S. Burrus, & M. Finigan, Family Drug Treatment Court Evaluation, Final Report, (NPC Research, Portland, Ore.), 2007.

12 60 JUVENILE AND FAMILY COURT JOURNAL / Winter 2010 dency court is not to punish parents, but to protect children, find them permanent homes (preferably with their own families), and provide for their well-being. The Maine Family Drug Court responded to this issue by pointing out that it is an additional burden on the taxpayers to increase the jail population by placing drug court clients in jail. 24 Fourth, some FDTCs have concluded that jail is inappropriate because children will learn that their parents are going to jail. These courts believe that a jail sentence may result in a loss of respect and dignity for the parent in the eyes of the child, and have concluded that despite the well-meaning purpose behind some jail commitments, parents and family members perceive jail as punishment. Fifth, having jail as a sanction means that some judges will sometimes abuse their discretion. These abuses may not occur often, and they may never occur in some FDTCs, but as in San Diego and the Nolan case, they will occur. The California Supreme Court noted that this is problematic "because there are no statutory principles to guide or constrain the court.,,25 Moreover, these abuses may not be addressed because no attorney may be available with enough time and energy to appeal the judge's decision. Sixth, significant due process issues arise when courts use jail as a sanction. Legally the judge cannot simply sentence an FDTC client to serve a jail sentence. There must be a hearing with notice, an opportunity to confront those who claim that there has been a violation of the treatment plan, an opportunity to present evidence, and then a decision by the court regarding the alleged violation. All of this brings the adversarial process into the treatment court, which runs contrary to the Key Components of collaborative courts. Using a non-adversarial approach, prosecution and defense counsel promote public safety while protecting participants' due process rights:~6 Seventh, the imposition of a jail sentence is likely to disrupt the FDTC client's life. If the child is living with the parent, the child may need at least a temporary placement. Parent-child visitation in jail will be difficult if not impossible. The client may lose his or her employment or be unable to participate in services. Imprisonment may "get the client's attention," but it may also reduce her chances to turn around the other aspects of her life. Furthermore, any interruptions in the client's life will affect the statutory timelines within which parents must reunify with their children. The pressure on parents to reunify within one year is a significant motivator for parents. Many judges have found that jail is unnecessary and that stressing the shortness of time, the necessity of working hard on the case plan, and the consequences of losing permanent custody ofone's children are more than enough to motivate parents. 24 from Judge John Beliveau to the author, Dec. 8, 2009 (on file with the author). 25 In re Nolan W, at DEFINING DRUG COURTS: THE KEY COMPONENTS, Principle 2 (Office ofjustice Programs, Drug Courts Program Office, NADCP, January 1997). KeyComponenrs.pdf.

13 Edwards / SANCTIONS IN FAMILY DRUG TREATMENT COURTS 61 A NEW FRAMEWORK FOR SANCTIONS IN FDTCs All of these reasons lead to the conclusion that the FDTC should not use jail as a sanction because it is unnecessary. A much greater sanction is already in place-the permanent loss of one's children. Instead, FDTCs should focus on treatment. The FDTC response to a parent's failure to follow the treatment plan should be a treatment issue. The standard response to failure should be a re-evaluation of the treatment plan and a likely increase in some aspect of that plan such as more testing, moving from out-patient to in-patient living, staying away from certain locations or people, attending FDTC more frequently, participating in counseling, and similar strategies. 27 The California Supreme Court appears to have reached a similar conclusion: [The juvenile court} may extend the scope ofservices and supervision to secure compliance. For example, it may increase the frequency of reporting or testing, or require additional counseling or therapy.28 If sanctions are to be based on treatment, what about other frequently used sanctions? The California Supreme Court concluded that fines were an impermissible sanction. But what of community service, such as 100 hours of doing something to improve the community? Perhaps the answers will depend on the nature of the community service. Community service for a community-based substance abuse service provider or at an Alcoholics Anonymous meeting probably would be considered treatment oriented. Picking up trash on the highway would not meet that test and would be an improper sanction. Visitation presents a different set of issues. Some courts use reductions in visitation as a sanction for failures to follow the FDTC treatment plan. 29 Reducing visitation for such failures is improper for several reasons. First, visitation is a critical part of the underlying and ongoing child protection case. All reunification plans contain a visitation plan and schedule. Logically visitation should be addressed exclusively in the context of these proceedings, not at a treatment court hearing. Just as termination ofparental rights would not be decided in the FDTC, so should visitation not be litigated in the FDTC. Second, reduced visitation should not be a sanction under any circumstances because it is not a treatment issue. Visitation is the child's right to stay connected to the parent and the parent to the child. It should never be used as punishment. Reducing visitation can punish the child as well as the parent. If visitation is to be reduced, reduction must come in the context of the child protection proceedings with all parties 27 "... [11he coun should consult with the treatment professional prior to ordering more restrictive treatment, and treatment should not be ordered for punitive purposes." SAMHSA, CENTER FOR SUBSTANCE ABUSE TREATMENT, U.S. DEPT. OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES, SUBSTANCE ABUSE TREATMENT PLANNING GUIDE AND CHECKLIST FOR TREATMENT-BASED DRUG COURTS (1997), at In re Nolan W, at 1239, n In addition to the San Diego FDTC discussed above, the Hawai'i First Judicial Circuit uses reductions in visitation as a sancrion; see the Family Drug Co""t Participant Hrmdbook, Firsr Judicial Circuit, Honolulu, Hawai'i, at 18.

14 62 JUVENILE AND FAMILY COURT JOURNAL / Wimer 2010 having a full opportunity to be heard, and the decision must be based upon legal principles such as whether the parent's conduct indicates that visitation would be harmful to child. CONCLUSION In a treatment court, treatment considerations should guide decisions concerning parental failure to follow service plans. Imprisonment and other sanctions that are not treatment oriented should not be imposed by the court in FDTC proceedings. Nor should reduced visitation be used as a sanction in FDTC. Parents already have a significant potential sanction-permanent loss of their children-and a limited time to demonstrate that they can parent safely. Punishments are neither necessary nor appropriate. Instead, we have learned that support and incentives work best with parents, and that adequate treatment plans will be the most effective path for parental success. Most juvenile and family drug court judges are coming to realize that their ultimate effectiveness, in the long term, will depend upon their achieving compliance with drug court requirements through persuasion rather than coercion. 30 [emphasis in the original] FDTCs have proven their effectiveness. These courts provide individualized treatment for substance-abusing parents, and studies show remarkably positive results for families. We have learned that the criminal drug court model is useful, but should not be copied entirely in FDTCs. \Vith loss of permanent custody as the ultimate sanction, imprisonment is not necessary and may, in fact, limit the success of these courts. 30 OFFICE OF JUSTICE PROGRAMS DRUG COURT CLEARINGHOUSE AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PROJECT, JUVENILE AND FAMILY DRUG COURTS: AN OVERVIEW (1999), at 13.