Managing Postgraduate Study

Transcription

1 NSW Institute of Psychiatry Managing Postgraduate Study A guide for postgraduate students at NSWIOP

2 Table of Contents MANAGING STUDY... 3 STUDY METHODS... 6 TERMINOLOGY USED IN ASSIGNMENTS... 8 PRELIMINARY RESEARCH... 9 FINDING INFORMATION ACTIVE READING ESSAY WRITING CASE PRESENTATIONS ORAL PRESENTATIONS CONFIDENTIALITY GUIDELINES REFLECTIVE JOURNAL/SUPERVISION LOG LITERATURE CRITIQUE/ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY REFERENCING AND ACADEMIC INTEGRITY REFERENCING GUIDE HARVARD SYSTEM REVIEWING WORK GLOSSARY... 44

3 Managing Study Parts of this booklet were adapted from Managing your Study from La Trobe University postgraduate program. Returning to Study Distance education as a mode of study can make for proactive and more immediate learning than that obtained on campus. Distance education enables the student to work at their own pace (within certain limits), at the times which suit their lifestyle, personal circumstances and in an environment of their choosing. However, distance education also requires substantial amounts of: Self discipline Commitment Motivation Organisation Independence. There is a connection between these skills and the skills or characteristics required by competent managers. The following excerpt is from Study Skills for Managers by Mayon White (1990): The start of any new activity almost always generates some feelings of uncertainty and concern. Returning to study is no different in this respect...for many people the idea of studying as an adult, when perhaps they already have children at school or college is a curious one. After all, if you are trained or have experience in a particular field or profession why should study or retraining be necessary? Yet, over a typical working life of thirty five to forty years, a whole series of technologies, laws, products and practices will come and go. Without further training we are ill equipped to take advantage of such changes, or indeed to cope with them Students should look at their own working life so far and consider the impact of two major areas of change (i.e. communication and computers) on their own work patterns and skills. The reality of modern workplace is that career development has become a process of lifelong learning. Study Goals Identify ways a busy professional can integrate study with work and resolve any conflicting demands on their time which a new task may generate Make an initial assessment of their own strengths and weaknesses and training needs Acquire and develop a range of study skills Apply the skills taught and reinforce them through application and practice Encourage the student to develop a pattern of study which fits their own lifestyle and makes full use of available learning resources Understand and use self help groups and peer group support (Mayon White 1990). Planning and Commitment Unlike an on campus course, study via distance mode hands over responsibility for scheduling study time to the student. It is important for the student to plan for their study. Planning involves: Establishing a goal Identifying the current situation Determining the existing and probable aids and barriers to achieving the goals, and Developing plans to achieve the goals.

4 Current situation Identify current work, family, home, leisure and other commitments Identify how much time is spent on each commitment Identify and schedule the available and most suitable study slots. Aids and barriers to achieving goals After studying with the schedule for a week, students should review the schedule and study sessions; Identify the times study was more effective and the reasons the times were more effective; Determine if the schedule was typical in terms of workload, family activities etc; Determine the locations of more effective study, for example, the library and why. The other main time consideration is determining when assignments are due. The student should check these on a calendar to make sure they don t conflict with major or unchangeable work or other appointments. Develop a plan to achieve goals Students should look at the way they currently spend their time so that they will be in a better position to plan for distance study. The plan should be realistic and flexible. Motivation and learning The two most important elements of sustained motivation are a sense of: achievement because the student is making progress; and satisfaction of the student s own learning needs. Students need to: have a clear sense of purpose and be able to monitor their progress look at their time line of goals or aims and mark off those that have been successfully accomplished before then modifying or moving them if they are not achieved as planned, and Regularly evaluate progress against the topic learning objective to assess progress. It may be necessary to rearrange the schedule if it is believed that more time is needed on a particular section or topic. Self Management Adult Learning Adult learners generally strive to take a greater responsibility for their own learning. They take a more dynamic role in deciding how and what they need to know, what they should be able to do, and how they are going to do it. They use what are known as their metacognitive skills or more simply they think about thinking to better manage their learning. This thinking involves planning how to approach a given topic, monitoring understanding of content and evaluating progress towards a goal. Managing Time and Environment Although the unit guide for each unit gives guidelines on the amount of time required per week to complete the work within a study period, this assumes that the students study skills are already proficient and that they are probably familiar with some of the subject matter. Students, especially when first returning to study, can need considerably longer. This situation should improve after a few weeks, but if it doesn t then the student may need to review their study methods. Divide a large task into smaller sub tasks Match the sub tasks to short term goals for each study session Make these goals/tasks very specific and prioritise them.

5 At the end of a study session, the student should look carefully at any tasks that were not completed: Identify the reasons for their non completion Analyse any anxiety causing situations Can any of these tasks be approached differently Are there other resources that could be used to help accomplish the task? As more study sessions are completed, the student will have a better idea of what can reasonably be accomplished. The ideal study environment is one which is private, quiet and which has all the students requirements large table or desk, comfortable chair, good lighting, ample shelving, etc. However, there are alternatives, such as using a library; negotiating with the student s own family for a quiet time for study in the dining room or joining children for an organised session of study/homework on week nights. Stress Management There are many books and web sites available on managing stress. Improving Concentration The length of time a person can concentrate fully depends on factors such as their enthusiasm for what they are doing, their skill at a particular task, their emotional and physical state, and their surroundings at the time. Some ideas to assist: People will usually work best when no unpredictable sounds or happenings distract them. Many managers believe that even the possibility of being interrupted reduces the ability to concentrate, even if no interruption occurs Clean up visual clutter as most jobs best done and output improved in a clear work area Be well prepared before starting. Think through the whole task, obtain necessary resources Relax and reduce fatigue by adequate sleep, walking and relaxation techniques.

6 Study Methods Getting Started The first step in completing a high quality assignment is to collect the information needed. There is a wealth of information that can be used. Information can come from a number of sources such as journals, websites, books, television, video and conference presentations. The important thing is to be clear on what is being looked for. This section will provide guidelines on how to find the information needed and to select the appropriate information to include in the assignment. Analyse the Question Start by reading the question carefully and underlining the key words that tell what is being asked for and how the question is expected to be answered. Next read the marking guide to give an idea of how the assignment will be marked. If unsure, contact the Course Coordinator for clarification. Sample question: To what extent are community services utilised by carers of family members with schizophrenia? The content words (words that determine what to research) are: community services; and carers of family members with schizophrenia. To fully answer this question the student would be expected to research and write about both points as well as give a response to the question. This question did not have an obvious task word, a word that tells what is expected to be done with the information relevant to the content words. The following are examples of phrases containing task words. Make a list of the services that carers utilise. Analyse the reasons why carers do and don't utilise services. Male and female carers utilise very different services. Discuss. The first is a relatively easy task; all that is needed is to give a list of the services, as outlined in the student s readings. The second is a more complex task, whilst the third is an even more complex task. It would require: description of the services utilised analysis, i.e. of the reason why males and females utilise different services reasoning a reasoned, substantiated and logical conclusion that may agree/disagree with the statement. When the student is clear on what they are being asked to do in the assignment, then the student can begin to research the content of the assignment. It is also good to have a preliminary plan of what is to be covered by the student in the assignment. This can be reviewed as the student reads further and has a more complex understanding of the topic. Overview of the Writing Process There are many mistakes that students make in their assignments, but perhaps the most common is lack of structure and organisation of key ideas. It is very important to understand that writing assignments involves a process. A marker will be able to tell if the student sat down at the computer and wrote down every good idea that came into their head. A good assignment is one that has been planned and organised often it will involve writing several drafts! Do not believe anyone who says they wrote their assignment in 30 minutes and received a high distinction.

7 The most important first step before commencing any writing or database search is to read the course outline and have a clear understanding of what the student is being asked to do. Students should contact the Course Coordinator for clarification if unsure of what is required. a. Develop a plan Set long, medium and short term goals. b. Collect relevant information Prepare a brief statement outlining the focus of the assignment. Briefly survey articles and books to see if they have any relevant material. List key words that might be useful for database searches. Conduct database searches. Read and make brief notes on pertinent readings. Make a list of the key concepts or ideas that student wishes to discuss in the essay. c. Organise the information Decide on the best order for presenting ideas. Make a plan of the assignment. Contact the Course Coordinator to clarify any points. d. Write and revise the initial draft Using the overall plan, write a first draft of the assignment. Stick to the point. Demonstrate critical thinking by commenting on other authors ideas about the topic. Ask someone else to read the draft and have them indicate what parts are clear/readable. Keep to the word limit. If possible, leave the draft for a couple of days before going back to look at it. Make changes to the draft. e. Write the final draft Always type the final version. Where unsure of the spelling of any words look the words up in the dictionary. Use the grammar and spell check tool on the PC to check work. Check work for coherence and clarity. Follow the required style of referencing and make sure it is consistent throughout. Proofread the final draft to check for punctuation, spelling errors and clarity. Each of the components involved in the writing process will be discussed in greater depth through this guide.

8 Terminology Used in Assignments The following list of definitions may be useful. Analyse Argue Compare refers to the ability to break down material parts; investigate the relationship between parts; recognition of the organisational principles involved present the case for and/or against a particular proposition/position examine characteristics of the objects in question with a view to demonstrating their similarities Contrast Criticise Define Describe Discuss Evaluate Examine Illustrate Interpret Outline Review State Summarise examine characteristics of the objects in question for the purpose of demonstrating differences giving personal judgement about the merit of theories or opinions about the truth of facts; backing personal judgement by a discussion of the evidence set down a precise meaning of a word or phrase; showing that the distinctions implied in the definition are necessary give an account of present the different aspects of a question or problem evaluation is concerned with the ability to judge the value of material for a given purpose. The judgements are to be based on definite criteria. These may be internal criteria (organisation) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the student may determine the criteria or be given them present in depth and investigate the implications explain and make clear by the use of concrete examples, or by the use of a figure or diagram bring out the meaning of, and make clear and explicit; usually also giving personal judgement give the main features or general principles of a subject, omitting minor details, and emphasising structure and relationship make a survey of, examining the subject critically specify fully and clearly give a concise account of the chief points or substance of a matter, omitting details and example

9 Preliminary Research When students come to a new subject area, it may be necessary to get their bearings before launching into the more specialised reading that they may want to do later. Sometimes the student may have to read their texts with a specialist dictionary or subject glossary (for example, see the glossary of terms at the end of the course outline). Don't hesitate to do this students will not be able to gain the sophisticated understanding required to answer the assessment tasks if they don't understand the jargon of the subject area. As a distance student, with specially selected resources, it is a good idea to begin the research by reading the recommended readings for the topic under scrutiny in the question, as specified in the study guide. Don't hesitate to use other relevant texts. If students do extra research and can integrate it into their writing, they will be rewarded for their effort. This will be increasingly expected as the student progresses through the course. Primary and Secondary Sources Sources can be categorised as primary or secondary. Primary sources report information at first hand, whereas secondary sources are interpretations of events based on primary sources. Examples of primary sources in the mental health domain are: (a) the report of an experiment/s conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of some treatment and (b) the description of a survey conducted on a group of patients. Examples of secondary sources are: (a) articles on the history of particular treatment programs and (b) summaries of the results from a number of studies on drug effectiveness. However, the distinction between primary and secondary is not always clear cut, so it may be a matter of the student making a judgement. Burns, R. (2000), Introduction to Research Methods, 4 th edition, Longman, pp provides an overview on how to conduct a review of the research literature.

10 Finding Information Books Textbooks are useful for providing a general overview. Books are the best place to start when investigating a particular domain of interest, as they combine information from many sources and usually present the information in a somewhat simplified form, omitting detailed information that is unlikely to be of interest to the general reader. (General review articles in journals serve a similar role.) A suitable book, or book chapter, can be useful in providing a broad framework for a particular area of interest; a specific issue can then be followed up from other sources. References to suitable books can be found in library catalogues (by typing in a subject area) or by using bibliographic data bases such as PsychInfo or MEDLINE (as discussed below). Journals Journals are likely to provide the most reliable, detailed, and up to date information on most mental health topics. One of the student s first tasks is to identify the key journals that will be of use in day today work. To do this, students will usually need to go to a library and do a computer search using key words. Bibliographic Databases MEDLINE this is an impressive medical database that includes citations to clinical and preclinical studies and to other medical literature. A good deal of nursing literature is also included in this database. MEDLINE contains a comprehensive coverage of journals. Most general academic libraries, and health sciences and hospital libraries provide access to MEDLINE, and it may also be accessed on the Internet using PubMed or Internet Grateful Med. PsychInfo this is another impressive database. It includes citations to a broad range of psychological studies and other psychological literature and to some of the nursing literature. It covers both journals and book chapters. Most general academic libraries and health sciences libraries provide access to PsychInfo. Both these databases contain citations to vast numbers of references, so any search must be focused. This requires careful thought and knowledge of how the databases are structured. If a textword search such as depression is used there will be far too many hits to read. Students might reduce the search to English articles only, and to articles published over recent years. However, if the student is interested in depression in adolescents, a further textword search using the word adolescent and then use the logical operator combine (with the AND option) to reduce the search to articles with both the keywords depression and adolescent. By doing this, students will find a manageable number of citations listed. From the titles displayed, students should find some that are sufficiently relevant to make it worthwhile to read the Abstract provided, and from the Abstracts select full articles to read. Some of these may be obtainable in electronic text format. To find relevant material using these databases, students will probably have to search using a variety of terms, or expand the search to include citations outside the specific field of interest. For example, if interested in the effects of conducting group sessions for mothers of first born babies, students will need to examine the literature on support groups within a much wider field than those written about support groups for mothers only. Students might start by using the phrase support groups and only if more than, say, 100 titles are listed should students think of reducing the search by adding another word such as mothers combined (by AND) with support groups. Guidelines on how to undertake a literature search can be found in McBurney, D. & White, T. (2004), Research Methods, 6 th Edition Brooks, Cole Publishing Co, Chapter 2.

11 Libraries and Electronic Resources Libraries provide access to books and journal articles needed to support the coursework. Online catalogues and journal database provide access to these resources. If the student is unfamiliar with using these resources the librarian will be happy to help. It s unlikely that the student s library collection will hold all the books or journal articles needed. However, all libraries have access to other library s collections making it possible for students to borrow material not held at their library. This service is called an Inter Library Loan (ILL) service and is organised by the librarian. An ILL takes around 2 weeks. The information search process can be time consuming, so, please allow enough time for the searching and gathering of relevant information to support assignments. While some distance students may not have access to a physical library, there are many freely available reputable Internet resources to assist with studies. Internet Search The Internet can provide a huge amount of information for students. However, before using Internet based information in an assignment, it should be read and critiqued for its merit. Is it from an authoritative source? Not all sources on the Internet are reliable. Information on the Internet does not go through any process of quality control; anyone can place information on the web. Checklist for reviewing web based information: Is it from an authoritative source e.g., university websites, specialist organisations and services? Does the information have a particular bias? Do they provide references for where or how they obtained their information? Is the information current? Is it evidence based? Is it up to date? If reliable sources are found and used, they should be appropriately referenced (see appendix). It is important to keep track of the dates the website is accessed as this is needed for referencing. Google Scholar The Google Scholar search engine allows searching for scholarly literature across the web. Students can specifically search against just academic material, including peer review papers, theses, and abstracts from all broad areas of research. Google Scholar also automatically analyses and extracts citations and presents them as separate results, even if the documents they refer to are not online. This means the search results may include citations of older works and seminal articles that appear only in books o other offline publications. See Google Book Search This helps registered users to search the contents of books scanned into the Google database. Click a book title in the search results and the page of the book that has the search terms will be displayed, along with other information about the book and links to online bookstores (public domain books can be viewed in their entirety; for books under copyright, just a few pages; or in some cases, only the title s bibliographic data and brief snippets). Students can also search for more information within that specific book and find libraries that have the book. See

12 Evaluated Subject Catalogues These are likely to provide quality information, as the databases are compiled mainly with health professionals in mind. In many instances, a quality assurance methodology and/or code of conduct have been used. Examples of such catalogues are: health.org and Other prefiltered information deals specifically with evidence based medicine. One of these resources is Best Evidence, which is available in CD ROM format and answers focused clinical questions. Another is the Cochrane Library, which is available in CD ROM format and over the Internet. It contains systematic reviews, a large number of references from various sources, and information about how to conduct a systematic review. Research using the Internet is discussed in: Hewson, C., Yule, P., Laurent, C. & Vogel, C. (2003) Internet Research Methods: A Practical Guide for the Social and Behavioural Sciences, Sage Publications, Chapter 2. Decision making Is the Material Helpful? Before using a piece of information in an assignment, students should review it critically and ask themselves a few questions: Is the source reliable? Are the research results reliable? Was the study design appropriate? How did this affect the results? The author expresses a view, do they agree with it? How does this viewpoint relate to the topic they are writing about? Is the information up to date? When was it published? Is it comprehensive enough? Is this the best source available? There are a number of mental health consumer web sites which students may find helpful in determining the quality of material accessed. A selection is listed below: Internet Mental Health: American Psychiatric Association: Mental Health Infosource: Mental Health Net: Sane Australia: Net Psychology: Once the searches are completed the student should have all the information needed. The next step is to be selective about what is read and how to read it to maximise time and effort. A lot of time can be wasted reading irrelevant material. Active reading is one way to read more effectively.

13 ACTIVE READING There is an art to reading effectively. While the student s reading techniques may have been adequate in the past, study, such as is required by this course, requires a new and better way if students are to cope efficiently with the quantity of reading material which will be presented. Many students mistakenly believe that reading faster will improve their ability to study and achieve study deadlines. Speed reading, by itself, however, will not be sufficient for effective study. What is required is effective reading. To be effective, students have to read with a purpose, a plan and with concentration. Effective readers are organised; they do not just look at words, they search for their meaning. They assimilate what is being read and what they already know; they are active readers who remember and draw conclusions from the material as it is being read. Characteristics of an Effective Reader An effective reader is one who: distinguishes the type of material to be read discovers the organisational structure of the material reads with that structure in mind maintaining an active, inquiring, purposeful frame of mind constantly varies his/her reading rate makes valid conclusions about the topic which the materials cover. Some reading will add to the store of knowledge, some will be to gain new information. If the reading is in an area new to the student, it s important that the student first form in their mind some framework of what the material is about. This is done by pre reading. To pre read a whole book: look at the contents page does it seem to contain useful material? read the introduction or preface what is the author's purpose? how is the text structured? glance at the chapters are summaries included? what do the first and last paragraphs tell about the chapter? survey the index are there relevant words listed? what topics are given most coverage? To pre read a chapter: skim through and examine headings and sub headings look at any illustrations, tables, figures, diagrams read the summary at the end if there is one read the introductory and concluding paragraphs of the chapter. Topic Sentence Survey An awareness of paragraph structure can help identify the main point in a paragraph from the detail or supporting evidence. Generally, if the text has no subheadings, survey this by reading only the first and last sentence in each paragraph. Either one of these is usually the topic sentence. Topic sentences introduce or sum up the point expanded in the paragraph (students can use this technique in their own writing).

14 Skim Reading When skim reading a paragraph or chapter, look out for key words or key phrases. The skill is to concentrate on vital words or phrases, without which the meaning would be lost, glossing over or ignoring the less important words or phrases. Important statements or definitions are often put into italics or bold face type, and watch out for sentences or phrases set off by (1), (2), (3), or a), b), c) etc. sometimes sentences begin with 'firstly, 'secondly', 'finally' these are cues to important sub points in an outline. Pay special attention to charts, diagrams and maps, almost invariably an author uses them to present the most important ideas visually. Types of Reading Material Students will be reading for three different purposes in this course: to gather material that must be understood and recalled in detail; to understand and evaluate the author's purpose in writing and the supportive arguments or evidence presented; and background reading. Pre reading and topic sentence surveying may be all that is required for background reading. Key reading should be a useful strategy for understanding and evaluation purposes, however, there is an indepth method for material that needs to be understood and recalled in detail. This is called the SQ3R method. SQ3R Method Survey: Question: Read: Recite/recall: Review: Glance over the chapter headings and read the final paragraph. Look for a central theme. Try to identify some core ideas on which discussion will concentrate. Find highlighted words, definitions in margins, key sentences and summaries or a synopsis. Go back to the beginning of the chapter and turn the first heading into a question. This will arouse curiosity, increase comprehension, bring to mind information already known and help to understand the section more quickly. To find the answer to a question, read the end of the first section. Look for material to clarify arguments and assumptions, to evaluate them and to answer the student s own questions. Reading is an active search for the answers. Look away from the text and attempt to recall the answer to this question/s. Students should use their own words and cite an example. An excellent way to do this is to jot down some brief cue phrases in outline form on a piece of paper. These can then form the basis of notes. Look over all the notes to get a summary of all the points and their relationships. Check that recall was correct and check memory by reciting the main sub points under each heading. Using these five steps of the SQ3R method will result in faster reading, highlighting of important points and fixing them in memory. Reading for Assignments Select a book or an article from the reading list that gives an overview of the topic. Decide what needs to be found out. Write down some questions to focus reading. Check authors, publication date, contents and index pages to determine if the material is relevant to needs. Record details of author, title, place of publication, publisher and date now so there is no hassle trying to find the material again when compiling a list of references.

15 Skim read relevant sections and compare them with other material before taking notes. Record page numbers with any notes made. Avoid overuse of highlighters when reading photocopied material or text book. Brief notes will be much more useful, and can be written in the margins of photocopied material or text book. Students should use whatever suits their learning style. Read with a purpose and vary the reading rate to suit the complexity of the material. Critically examine the ideas and arguments presented in the books and articles read. The development of ability to critically assess the accepted body of knowledge in a discipline is a skill students will be encouraged to develop throughout their studies. Once the literature has been read and the student has an understanding of what they have read, it is time to begin using that information to answer the assignment question. Assignments can take various forms, each with a particular basic format in which the information is set down (this will be in the course outline).

16 ESSAY WRITING Why Write Essays? Essay writing is one form of assessment in our courses. It involves the use and development of many important skills such as time management, research skills, critical thinking and the ability to produce a coherent, logical piece of writing that answers a set question, according to academic convention. 'Why do they put us through all this?' students may ask. Here are two explanations: essay writing helps learning reading one or more books on a topic will provide a lot of information. However, it is unlikely that student s will have any incentive to critically analyse or apply the information contained in those books. Essay writing gives the opportunity to analyse and produce a unique synthesis of views. essay writing lets students show their understanding testing knowledge is relatively easy copying or rewording the content of a textbook may show a degree of knowledge. But markers want more than this they want evidence of understanding of concepts to the extent that knowledge can be applied to a particular question. Writing is a reader centred activity; it is directed at a particular audience. As a student in this course the audience is made up of markers who expect the student to answer the set question according to a number of conventions such as referencing. Don t Panic! Help is at Hand The following will give students a guide to the main process involved in the important skill of essay writing. If students have not had the opportunity to develop this skill before, it will take time, patience and practice, but the reward will be high marks, progression towards the goal of graduating and, perhaps most importantly, the knowledge that they can communicate in the chosen field of study. The steps outlined are just one suggested way of writing an essay; they are not a prescription which must be done in a particular order. Essay writing is a process that requires flexibility and creativity. For more ideas, refer to the list of suggested readings at the end of this section. When planning an essay students should take into account the main ideas, the structure, the content, the conclusion and the style of the writing. The structure, style, grammar and language are covered as well. If a student has specific needs because of a disability which may affect the ability to successfully undertake a unit of study, the student needs to inform the NSWIOP as soon as possible. Please see the section Indication of Support Needs. Select a Main Idea (The Thesis) Often student writers don't really know what they want to say until they have finished writing, and even then some don't really know what point they were trying to get across! This can, and should, be avoided. It is in this area, of selection of a main idea, that recognising essay writing as a process is most useful. Sometimes, students will look at an essay question and have an instant reaction to it students will immediately have a strong opinion either for or against a controversial statement. In any case, students will need to do some reading, thinking and writing before they feel they have a main idea they want to express. From the preliminary research and reading done, students will have a framework of what to cover, what main points to include and how to present the information and argument. If it is not clear at this point, the student may need to do more reading or discuss the ideas with the Unit Coordinator. Remember the first essay topic on community services for carers? Students could argue that male carers utilise more services than female carers. This argument would consolidate the thesis. Markers do not

17 want the students own subjective views on a topic (that is considered to be biased), but they do not want students to merely describe what is in the texts. When expressing an opinion, markers will expect students to provide evidence to support the opinion. Markers are looking for writing that integrates research with opinion: they want informed argument (consideration of more than one interpretation of the 'facts') substantiated by relevant research findings. Select Main Points Once enough reading has been done to feel a start at answering the question can be made and enough relevant notes have been taken, begin to think about which main points need to be used in order to substantiate the idea. The student may want to give some definitions; this is a good idea as it indicates to the marker how the information has been interpreted. Students may also want to give some relevant background to the main discussion, different ideas or theories pertaining to the topic, the different applications of a phenomenon, how the contexts of those applications may influence outcomes etc. Writing Starting to write ideas onto paper can be the most difficult task for many students. Even experienced writers suffer from writer's block. As stated earlier, there are a number of steps to completing a final draft of any essay. These steps involve writing and reviewing drafts of the essay. At first this process is a very time consuming process, but as writing skills develop, it takes less time. The aim is to answer the question and communicate to the marker that the students has researched the topic, understood it and can adapt and think about the information at an in depth level. To help in getting started, write an essay plan outlining the main points to cover, and the order in which to present the ideas. This can help to organise thinking around the subject and the arguments the student wants to present. When this is done, the student should refer back to the question and the marking guide to ensure they are on the right track? Students should not assume that the marker is knowledgeable about the topic and therefore the inclusion of basic material is not needed; make all the evidence for the argument clear and provide all the background information necessary to understand the topic even though it seems the obvious is being stated. If the student does not provide all the material necessary to understand the topic they are discussing, the marker may assume that there are large gaps in knowledge. Presentation Work must be clear and reflect standard practice for writing in English, acceptable spelling, grammar and sentence construction and adhere to the conventions of academic writing. This will make it easier for the reader to understand the content without having to reread through bad grammar or an inappropriate style. Students should remember to keep the language simple, clear and concise and to try to express the main idea of the paragraph in the first sentence of that paragraph and then spend the rest of the paragraph expending on that idea. Please see the sections on Assessment and Reviewing Work for instructions on the formatting of assignments. Structure There are four basic subdivisions to an essay: the introduction, body, conclusion and references. Introduction Body The introduction should be a single paragraph. It should introduce the specific argument to be developed. It should set the general scene (may be achieved by a historical review). Define terms (if appropriate). The body of the essay should be used to fulfil the premise made in the introduction. Present arguments. Demonstrate linkages between arguments.

18 When presenting research findings try to find patterns in the literature (time, design, age of participants). Defend what is said. Some well established ways of presenting material are: Tracing the development of ideas on a topic (historical review). Compare and contrast two theories/ approaches. If a topic is presented as a problem (e.g. how would you go about treating a young person who presents with depression) students could try setting out possible solutions and evaluating them. Present current opinions on a topic and evaluate the opinions. Concentrate on the procedures used in different studies to isolate reasons why contradictory findings have been found. Be precise remember there is a word limit. Conclusion The conclusion is the last paragraph of the essay. It should be used to summarise and draw together the major points of the essay. An example could be This essay has demonstrated that Everything said in the conclusion should have been discussed in the essay body. No new information should be presented in the conclusion. References Please see the section on referencing. Style The style used to write will impact on how the assignment reads. Keep the style formal but simple, the content of the writing will be complex, and a simple writing style can facilitate understanding. Write in a way that is objective and unbiased; write in the third person, and avoid using personal pronouns such as I, unless the student s opinion is being asked for in the assignment. Students will also be expected to use language that is inclusive of both genders. Grammar and Language Being able to express personal views and knowledge clearly is an invaluable skill that academic writing develops. Grammar and language are important aspects of how well the assignment will read and convey the knowledge of the subject. Write in the third person and avoid the use of slang and abbreviations. Be direct and positive, avoid using a passive tone. Write succinctly, avoid being verbose or waffly. Use electronic grammar and spell check (as an adjunct to checking over the material personally). Critical Analysis Writing is an important skill that develops through the student s studies. The most important skill that can be developed by the student from the studies is the ability to read information, critically analyse it, and form their own argument based on their analysis of the literature (evidence). Markers will be looking for evidence that the student has not only read the literature but has analysed the information. Critical analysis is important as it demonstrates that the student has an in depth knowledge of the subject. To help the student develop their skills in critical analysis, it will help if the student asks the following questions of the material. Do not merely accept everything read; think about it, what does it mean? Is this a reasonable argument? If so, why? If not why not? When analysing information, look at the evidence in the literature and outline the arguments for and against a particular viewpoint. Do they have a particular bias? To critically analyse the research students should weigh up the differing arguments e.g. what are the flaws in each argument?

19 If using research papers examine the methodology of the research. This will include research design, sample size, literature reviewed; do the conclusions match the results? Does the author have that conclusion because the methodology was flawed? Did the authors only focus on a particular group? How does this information relate to the focus of the essay? Further Reading Betts, K. & Seitz, A. (1986), Writing Essays in the Social Sciences, Thomas Nelson Australia, Victoria. Clanchy, J. & Ballard, B. (1991), Essay Writing for Students, A Practical Guide, 2nd Edition, Longman Cheshire, Australia. Marshall, L. & Rowland, F. (1993), A Guide to Learning Independently, 2nd Edition, Longman Cheshire, Australia. Northedge, A. (1990), The Good Study Guide The Open University, Milton Keynes. Smith, M. (1994), Study Secrets, Dellasta, Victoria.

20 CASE PRESENTATIONS Presenting a Case for Supervision Frameworks for Supervision and Case Study More detailed guidelines are provided on the following pages. 1.0 Identification 1.1 A first name only, gender, age/group/life stage 1.2 Family genogram 1.3 Your first impressions, physical appearance 2.0 Antecedents/Background Information 2.1 Contact (how the client came to see you e.g., self referred) 2.2 Context/location (e.g. agency, hospital clinic). 2.3 Pre contact information (what you know about the client, previous contacts) 3.0 Presenting Problem and Contract 3.1 Summary of client's presenting problem 3.2 Initial assessment. Duration of problem, precipitating factors (i.e., why the client came at this point), current conflicts or issues 3.3 Contract: frequency, length and number of sessions; initial plan. 4.0 Questions for Supervision 4.1 Key question(s) or issues you want to discuss in supervision 5.0 Focus on Content 5.1 Client's account of problem situation: (a) Work (b) Relationships (c) Identity (self concept, feelings, attitudes about self) 5.2 Problem Definition (a) Client's view of present scenario (b) How the client would like things to be/would like to happen 5.3 Assessment and reformulation how you account for & explain presenting problem: (a) Patterns, themes (b) In what way are these things important to explore? What theoretical concepts/ models or explanatory frameworks for assessments? (c) What else which has not been mentioned might be important to explore? (any underlying issues or past problems). 5.4 Counselling Plan (a) What direction or focus for future work? (b) What are the criteria for change: theoretical frameworks and assumptions? (c) Review and/or formulation plan(s) 6.0 Focus on Process

21 6.1 Strategies and interventions (a) What strategies and interventions have you used? (b) What were you trying to achieve? (c) Effect on the client? (d) Generate alternative options 6.2 Relationships (a) What was happening between you and the client? Describe relationship, reframe relationship. (b) What was happening within the client (transference) (c) What was happening within you (countertransference) (d) How has your relationship changed? 6.3 Evaluation (a) Review process (b) Consider alternative tasks and ways of implementing counselling plan 7.0 Focus on Parallel Process 7.1 What was happening between you and the supervisor? 7.2 Any parallels (thoughts, feelings, experiences)? Does what was going on in the supervisory relationship tell you anything about what was going on between you and the client? Adapted from C Feltham and W Dryden, Developing Counselling Supervision (1994) Sage Publications.

22 Case Studies Most units of study at the NSWIOP will require submission of at least one case study. The purpose of the case study is to provide an opportunity to apply what is learned to clinical work, to reflect on clinical practice in a structured way and to link theory with practice. The information in this section aims to provide a general guide to submitting a case study as an assessment task at the NSWIOP. The course materials will provide specific details on the clinical issues that the case study should cover. (These will vary depending on the unit). Students should also refer to the assessment criteria against which the case study will be marked. Students enrolled in the Master of Psychiatry should note that a different format is required for their case study assessment tasks, and they should refer to the guidelines provided separately in the course materials. Confidentiality Any case study that is submitted for marking, or presented to a group of students, should be done so with strict adherence to confidentiality guidelines. No identifying information should be presented in the case study. In some cases, it will be sufficient to simply omit details such as name, address and date of birth. However, a case study may be unique to the extent that other details may need to be omitted or even deliberately changed to protect the identity of the person. When referring to the client in a case study students may chose to refer to them by a pseudonym, or as Mr/Mrs/Ms X or similar. The advantage of a pseudonym is that it helps to maintain the sense of the client as a person. However, students must make it clear in the assignment that the name being used is a pseudonym and not the client s real name. Essentially, it is always preferable to make a statement at the start of the assignment that acknowledges the ways in which the person s identity has been protected. Any assignment work found not to have adhered to confidentiality guidelines would, in the first instance, be returned to the student for resubmission. Any subsequent lapse in adherence to confidentiality guidelines will be referred to the Program Director and could result in failure of the unit. Structure and Style The case study must have: an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Many students omit the introduction and conclusion when presenting a case study assignment. The introduction provides an opportunity to set the scene and outline what is aimed to be covered in the case study, while the conclusion provides a summary of the salient issues/points and draws these together in a meaningful way. A good introduction and conclusion will enhance the clarity and strength of the work. The case study should be presented in a formal writing style, using the same principles outlined in the section on writing skills. Write in paragraphs and avoid dot points or abbreviations while acceptable in case notes these are not acceptable in written assignments. However, it is acceptable to use subheadings in the body of the case study. Content The Unit Materials will provide specific information regarding the content/requirements of the case study. Before starting, students should make sure they are clear about what is being asked of them. (If unsure, speak with the Unit Coordinator.) The following is a general guide only: Introduce the case study with a brief account of how the contact with the person came about, a description of the clinical setting and the reason for selecting the particular case study. Don t assume

23 the marker knows why the case study was chosen provide a clear rationale, for example, the unique cultural factors, diagnostic complexity or complex management issues. When selecting the case study, students should also consider that it is more difficult to write up a complex case than one that is more straightforward. Consider including the following information (where appropriate): Demographic Details Provide the reader with as clear a picture of the client as possible. Relevant details include (but may not be limited to) age, gender, living circumstances, marital status and cultural background. Students must not include any identifying information using a pseudonym this must be acknowledged so that it is clear that confidentiality has been observed. Presenting Problem & History of Presenting Problem Provide an overview of the presenting problem and the reason the person has come to the attention of the student or student s service. Consider the client s expectations, limitations of the student s service, interagency issues. Provide an assessment of current mental state and any risk factors that need to be addressed in the treatment plan. Mental Health Background/History Relevant information would include past contacts with services, admissions, relapses, types of intervention and degree of success. Also of importance would be the client s own attitude to their mental health problem/s and their degree of involvement in their own intervention planning. Social History Social history (family, financial background, social supports, current and past employment) is a significant area because it plays an important part in determining the client s strengths and needs. The interplay of risk factors and protective factors may be highlighted in a discussion about the client s social history. Family History Information may include place of birth, relationship with the family, number of siblings, family harmony/conflict and family history of mental health problems for example. In particular, issues relating to family history that have a significant impact on the client should be discussed. Show that these issues have been considered in light of factors such as age, cultural background, social history, and psychiatric history. Physical Health Consider physical health issues, especially where it impacts on mental health or vice versa. Forensic History Discuss any relevant forensic issues such as charges, episodes in jail, and experiences in jail. Drug and Alcohol If relevant, discuss any drug and alcohol issues and how these impact on mental health and mental health interventions. Consider both illicit drug use and misuse of prescription medications. Drug and alcohol assessment should include the type of substances used, amounts and frequency as well as patterns of use, and the person s perception of the problem. Developmental History A developmental history will encompass a range of factors including developmental milestones (physical, cognitive, emotional), school experience (school conduct, academic achievement, attitude to school experience), relationships (with peers and family), and sexuality (sexual identity, sexual relationships). Of course these factors will interact considerably with aspects of family, social and psychiatric history and these interrelationships should be identified and, where relevant, expanded