WORKING WOMEN AND ALCOHOL: IS THERE EVIDENCE FOR A STRESS-INDUCED MODEL OF ALCOHOL USE? THE ROLES OF PERCEPTIONS OF CONTROL AND DEPRESSION

Transcription

1 WORKING WOMEN AND ALCOHOL: IS THERE EVIDENCE FOR A STRESS-INDUCED MODEL OF ALCOHOL USE? THE ROLES OF PERCEPTIONS OF CONTROL AND DEPRESSION by SHANNON MICHELE TINNEY (Under the Direction of Jody Clay-Warner) ABSTRACT This study extends the sociology of stress paradigm in examining women s alcohol consumption in exploring how depressive symptomatology mediates the relationship between full-time employed women s perceptions of control at home and work (formalization, procedural justice, and work-family conflict) and monthly alcohol consumption to posit a stress-induced model of alcohol use. A sample of full-time employed women (n=1,038) from the 1997 National Employee Survey, a nationally representative random sample of full-time employees is used for this analysis. Perceptions of control were inversely related to depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms were inversely related to monthly alcohol consumption. Ultimately, empirical evidence offers no support for a stress-induced model of alcohol consumption. Instead, evidence suggests there is two separate processes creating stress that manifest as different mental health outcomes for full-time employed women. INDEX WORDS: Women, Perceptions of control, Formalization, Procedural justice, Work-family conflict, Depression, Alcohol consumption

2 WORKING WOMEN AND ALCOHOL: IS THERE EVIDENCE FOR A STRESS-INDUCED MODEL OF ALCOHOL USE? THE ROLES OF PERCEPTIONS OF CONTROL AND DEPRESSION by SHANNON MICHELE TINNEY B.A., Western Maryland College, 1999 A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ARTS ATHENS, GEORGIA 2003

3 2003 Shannon Michele Tinney All Rights Reserved

4 WORKING WOMEN AND ALCOHOL: IS THERE EVIDENCE FOR A STRESS-INDUCED MODEL OF ALCOHOL USE? THE ROLES OF PERCEPTIONS OF CONTROL AND DEPRESSION by SHANNON MICHELE TINNEY Major Professor: Committee: Jody Clay-Warner James E. Coverdill Paul M. Roman Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia August 2003

5 DEDICATION To my family and friends for all of their love and support. iv

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are a number of people who I would like to thank. First, I want to thank my family, friends, and loved ones for all of their encouragement, love, and endless support during this endeavor. I am so lucky to have you in my life and I love you all. Second, I would like to thank the members of my committee: Jody Clay-Warner, Jim Coverdill, and Paul Roman for all of their time, guidance, and support. Most important, I want to thank them for all of the lessons they taught me and for encouraging my independence as a young sociologist. Finally, I want to thank Paul Roman for providing me with the unique opportunity of being a research trainee through funding from the National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse. I feel fortunate and am grateful for the resources he has provided me in learning our trade of social research. v

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... ix LIST OF TABLES... xii LIST OF FIGURES... xiii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK...6 Review of Literature...6 Rationale and Hypotheses METHODOLOGY...17 Data and Methods...17 Sample...18 Measures...19 Dependent Variable...20 Independent Variables...20 Control Variables ANALYTICAL METHODS AND RESULTS DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS...36 Summary of Findings...36 Limitations...42 vi

8 Future Research...43 REFERENCES...45 APPENDICES A B WORDING OF ITEMS...53 TABLES WITH REGRESSION RESULTS FOR THE DRINKER-SAMPLE OF EMPLOYED WOMEN...58 vii

9 LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1: Descriptive Statistics for Variables used in the Analysis...26 Table 2: OLS Regression Coefficients Predicting Depressive Symptoms from Perceptions of Control while controlling for Work Context, Home Context, and Demographics for the Entire Sample of Employed Women...28 Table 3: OLS Regression Coefficients Predicting Log 30-day Alcohol Consumption from Perceptions of Control while controlling for Work Context, Home Context, Demographics, and Depressive Symptoms for the Entire Sample of Employed Women...31 viii

10 LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1: Theoretical Mediation Model of Full-time Employed Women s Stress-induced Alcohol Consumption...5 Figure 2: Estimated Model Relating Full-time Employed Women s Perceptions of Control and Depressive Symptoms to Alcohol Consumption...35 ix

11 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION There is a wealth of research exploring how work and life stressors promote alcohol consumption and instigate various consumptive behaviors (for reviews see Trice & Sonnesthul; Wilsnack, 1992; Frone, 1999). Work both paid and unpaid can prove chronically stressful due to the physical and psychosocial characteristics of the working environment. Characteristics of the work environment causing distress include, but are not limited to, having excessive work demands that create time pressures, working in an organization characterized by a high degree of formalization and enforcement of standards, and lack of participation in decision-making processes (Mirowsky & Ross, 1989; for reviews see Pearlin, 1989; Wilsnack, 1992; Frone, 1999). Dually important is that balancing work and family demands can be stressful. As women increasingly participate in the labor force with the rise of the dual-income earner family and femaleheaded single parent households, they also continue to come home and do the second shift, taking primary responsibility for housework and child care (Hochschild, 1989). The quality and organization of work has implications for an individual s psychological well-being, as the level of control exerted upon the individual by the workplace and the family to conform to behavioral expectations may be discordant with the level of control the individual needs or values. Having a sense of control within these contexts protects the individual from experiencing the emotional, behavioral, or physical manifestations of distress (Mirowsky & Ross, 1989; for reviews see Pearlin, 1989; - 1 -

12 Aneshensel, 1992), such as depressive symptoms, as well as using alcohol as a coping mechanism to reduce this stress. Despite the acceptance that work stress promotes alcohol use, there has been an inadequate exploration of the mechanisms through which work stress affects women s alcohol use. To explain the mechanisms, it is important for researchers to keep in mind two facts. First, many alcohol researchers have not addressed in their analyses the stress that work, family, and the intersection of the two create for women. Women are entering the workforce in increased numbers while still maintaining roles of spouse and mother (Bond, Galinsky, & Swanberg, 1998). Second, depressive symptoms have not been used as a mediator in a tension-reduction model of alcohol use for women in the U.S. labor force. Women are more likely than men to express psychological distress in the form of depression (Mirowsky & Ross, 1989; Aneshensel, Rutter, & Lachenbruch, 1991), and are more likely than men to have the co-occurrence of depression and alcohol problems and dependence (for a review see Fillmore, Golding, Leino, Motoyoshi, Shoemaker, Terry, Ager, & Ferrer, 1997). Thus, I propose and test a model of stress-induced drinking to examine the relationships among women s perceptions of control, depressive symptoms, and alcohol consumption using a nationally representative sample of full-time employed women in the U.S. labor force. According to this model (Figure 1), a lower sense of control (high formalization, procedural injustice, and high work-family conflict) increases levels of depressive symptoms, which in turn is related to the use of alcohol as a tension-reduction method. Finally, to control for possible spurious associations among perceptions of control, depressive symptoms, and alcohol consumption, the proposed model, as - 2 -

13 estimated, will control for a number of work-related, home-related, and demographic variables. The study aims to answer the following questions. First, for a full-time employed woman, what is the association between her perceptions of control at work (formalization and procedural justice) and depressive symptomatology? Second, what is the relationship between her perceptions of work-family conflict and depressive symptomatology? Third, what is the relationship between levels of depressive symptomatology and monthly alcohol use? Finally, does depressive symptomatology mediate the relationship between one s perceptions of control and monthly alcohol use for full-time employed women to support a tension-reduction model of stress-induced drinking? Ultimately, this study will make two contributions. First, the study examines perceptions of control in the workplace and at home, which have been segregated in previous work stress and alcohol studies. Second, depressive symptoms are used as a mediator to assess its usefulness in explaining a tension-reduction model of drinking for full-time employed women; depressive symptoms have yet to be explored as a mediator in such a model. I present this investigation in four sections. First, I synthesize the contributions of previous literature to understand the relationships among work stressors, work-family conflict, psychological distress, and alcohol use with mediation models. From this, I explain what still needs to be addressed to then derive hypotheses for this study in Chapter 2: Conceptual Framework. Second, I explain how the hypothesized relationships will be tested in Chapter 3: Methodology. Third, I present and explain the results of the regression analyses in Chapter 4: Analyses and Results. Finally, in Chapter 5: - 3 -

14 Conclusions and Discussion, I summarize the study s results, address its limitations, and provide suggestions for future research

15 Figure 1. Theoretical Mediation Model of Full-time Employed Women s Stress-induced Alcohol Consumption Formalization (+) Procedural Justice (-) (+) Depressive Symptoms (+) Monthly Alcohol Consumption Work-family Conflict Control Variables Work Context Demographics -Job Complexity -Age -Job Demands -Race (white = 1) -Distributive Justice -Education (HS or less, Some college, BA, -Supervisory Status (yes/no) Advanced degree) -Occupational Prestige -Income Home Context -Married (yes/no) -Presence of Children in HH (yes/no) - 5 -

16 CHPATER 2: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Review of Literature Work and alcohol researchers have produced numerous studies that demonstrate how work conditions and work-family conflict promote alcohol consumption and use behaviors (for reviews see Wilsnack, 1992; Frone, 1999). Researchers in this area also have developed more sophisticated models to explain why and through what mechanisms work and life stressors influences drinking behaviors (for reviews see Wilsnack, 1992; Frone, 1999). A predominant theoretical paradigm explaining why stressors influence alcohol consumption and use behaviors is the tension-reduction model of drinking. The tension-reduction model of alcohol use posits that those who drink alcohol do so because of its stress-reducing qualities; thus, alcohol is used as a coping mechanism in order to mitigate negative emotions (Conger, 1956). A number of studies have tested a stress-induced drinking model using mediators such as work distress (Cooper, Russell & Frone, 1990), negative emotion (Violanti, 1983), depressive symptoms (Kawakami, Araki, Haratani, & Hemmi, 1993), drinking to cope (Greenberg & Grunberg, 1995; Martin, Roman, & Blum, 1996), and job dissatisfaction (Greenberg & Grunberg, 1995) when investigating why work stressors influence alcohol use. Further, researchers have extended the tension-reduction model of alcohol use to explain why work-family conflict influences psychological well-being by using negative affect as a mediator (Frone, Barnes, & Farrell, 1994; Vasse, Nijhuis, & Kok, 1998)

17 A review of literature reveals that many of the work stress models of alcohol consumption commonly examine job demands, job control, and job complexity (for reviews see Wilsnack, 1992; Frone, 1999). In addition, the work-family conflict and the characteristics of the work environment literatures predicting alcohol outcomes are not integrated, which does not address how the stress that the paid and unpaid worlds of work affect women. Finally, mediation models of alcohol use have used domain specific negative affect, like job dissatisfaction or work distress, instead of more global forms of distress, like depressive symptoms. It is important to test depressive symptoms as a mediator to explain a tension-reduction model of drinking for women, since women are more likely than men to experience depressive symptoms in conjunction with alcohol problems and alcohol dependence (for a review see Fillmore et al., 1997). Provided the limitations of prior research, I propose and test a tension-reduction model of drinking. Specifically, I hypothesize how a lower sense of control (high formalization, procedural injustice, and high work-family conflict) increases levels of depressive symptoms, which in turn is related to the increased use of alcohol as a tensionreduction method to cope with negative emotions. Rationale and Hypotheses Work, family, and the intersection of the two can create stress for an individual if the level of control exerted upon the individual by the organization to conform to behavioral expectations is discordant with the level of control the individual needs or values. Stressors refer to particular conditions that produce a reaction to the socioenvironmental demands that tax the ordinary adaptive capacity of the individual or from the absence of the means to attain sought-after ends (Aneshensel, 1992, p. 16)

18 Particularly, chronic stressors are those that reappear and persist, and they are likely to occur in the conflicts and frustrations experienced by ordinary people doing ordinary things (Aneshensel, 1992, p. 20). An individual having a sense of control within the contexts of work and home protects her from experiencing stress and its emotional, behavioral, or physical manifestations (Mirowsky & Ross, 1989; for reviews see Pearlin, 1989; Aneshensel, 1992), such as depressive symptoms, as well as using alcohol for its tension-reduction properties. Three different forms of control are featured in this investigation: formalization, procedural justice, and work-family conflict. First, a woman s position within the organization can bestow upon her a certain amount of control over what happens in her work environment given the organization s culture. Two forms of control within the workplace are included in this investigation the degree of formalization and procedural justice. The third form of control work-family conflict is incorporated to explore how the normative expectations placed upon women by the workplace and the family in their roles as employee, spouse, and mother produces demands that interfere with one another and create time pressures that, in turn, produce stress. Each form of control will be discussed in relation to depressive symptoms, and hypotheses will be posed. Next, depressive symptoms will be discussed in relation to alcohol use to then discuss a tension-reduction model of drinking for women. According to Scott (1998), formalization is the extent that the rules governing behavior are precisely and explicitly formulated... [with an] attempt to make more explicit and visible the structure of relationships among a set of roles and the principles that govern behavior in a system (p. 35). Moreover, [f]ormalization also serves to - 8 -

19 objectify the structure to make definitions of roles and relationships appear to be both objective and external to the participative actors (Scott, 1998, p. 36). Within this investigation, formalization is conceptualized as the extent to which individuals perceive there is a high degree of standardization and regulation within their organization with codified rules and procedures for carrying out one s work tasks and conducting one s workday. Further, formalization assesses the degree to which employees perceive these rules and procedures are strictly enforced through close supervision from organizational authorities. Although standardized and regulated behavior on part of organizational authorities is advantageous to the organization in planning and achieving its goals, it can be alienating for employees as they become increasingly dissociated from each other and their work. A structure that one cannot act within or upon to satisfy one s needs and reaffirm what one values, such as individual innovation, creativity, and self-directedness in completing work products (Scott, 1998), can be demoralizing. An inflexible organizational structure with very prescriptive rules for work behavior that are strictly enforced with possible severe sanctions squelches agentic behavior to fulfill one s intellectual needs in work, such as self-directedness and using judgment in making decisions about how one conducts one s work and structures the workday (Scott, 1998). Thus, a more formalized work environment is associated with less individual work control. Several studies have demonstrated the inverse relationship between forms of individual work control and distress for women (Miller, Schooler, Kohn, & Miller, 1979; Kohn & Schooler, 1983; Lennon 1987, Lennon & Rosenfield, 1992; Lennon, 1994). Therefore: - 9 -

20 H 1 : Formalization will be positively associated with depressive symptoms. In the current study, one form of procedural justice in organizations participative decision-making is examined. Individuals tend to evaluate as fair procedures that reflect standing, neutrality, and trust (Tyler, Boeckmann, Smith, & Huo, 1997). Within the decision-making process, procedures are viewed as fair when they (1) are applied consistently to all employees time after time, (2) are made in an unbiased manner, (3) are based on accurate and complete information, (4) can be challenged or reversed if perceived as inadequate, (5) are representative of the opinions of all affected employees, and (6) are based on ethical standards, for example all employees concerns are heard before a decision is made, rather than after the fact where acts of deception may be of issue (Leventhal, 1980, p ). Participative decision-making sets forth a collection of procedures that characterizes how group members of varying levels of power and status can interact with each other to reach consensus about a specific decision that will affect them (Kanfer, 1990). Tyler and colleagues draw from Leventhal s set of principles characterizing fair procedures to demonstrate that decision-making procedures establish a set of group rules, norms, and values that define the people within the workgroup. The rules and authorities symbolically represent and serve as a reflection of the group s values. These norms and values are internalized by group members as part of their socialization process within that organization, and define the social identities of those group members (Tyler, Boeckmann, Smith & Huo, 1997). The employee perceives herself to be a valued member of the group when she is able to voice her opinions and concerns within the workgroup

21 Ultimately, these actions connote status and identity-relevant information to the employee, reaffirming that she is a respected member of the workgroup. Procedures that allow participation and affirm group membership can have three effects: (1) they increase perceived fairness because the procedures are in line with what one values, (2) they confirm one s status in the group, thus fulfilling identity-relevant needs of inclusion and respect, and (3) they elicit perceptions of control because one is believed to be a valued member of the group, which serves as a resource to fulfill one s need to be heard in the decision-making process (Lind & Tyler, 1988; Tyler, Boeckmann, Smith & Huo, 1997). Thus, a sense of control comes from perceptions of procedural justice. An individual who perceives to have status and power within her workgroup feels she has a voice within the decision-making process, thus she perceives to have control within that process. Conversely, if the group s values, norms, and rules are discordant with that of the individual, in that one is not treated with respect, does not trust authorities to provide complete and accurate information, and is not recognized as a member of the group s decision-making process, then this could be identity-disaffirming, creating demoralization. Perceptions of procedural injustice manifest themselves in an aversive tension state, creating distress (for a review see Kanfer, 1990). Specifically, perceptions of procedural injustice have also been shown to affect one s self-worth, with those perceiving greater unfairness as feeling disrespected and marginalized in one s group (Tyler, 1994) since perceptions of greater procedural justice convey identity-relevant information for the individual (Tyler, Degoey & Smith, 1996). In fact, studies have confirmed that

22 perceptions of low control in terms of decision-making authority are to be related to psychological distress (Pugliesi, 1988; Lennon & Rosenfield, 1992). 1 Therefore: H 2 : Perceptions of procedural justice in the workplace will be inversely related to depressive symptoms. Aside from the aspects of workplace culture that influence one s psychological wellbeing, the intersection of work and family demands can create low perceptions of control and produce stress. Greenhaus & Beutell (1985) define work-family conflict as, a form of interrole conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect. That is, participation in the work (family) role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the family (work) role (p. 77). Workfamily conflict is a proxy for how two forms of social organization (workplace and family) exert control over the individual through the demands they place upon her as encapsulated in her roles as employee, spouse, and mother. These obligations, in turn, can create stress when the two forms of social organization vie for attention as the demands from one sphere conflict with the demands from the other sphere--work-family conflict. Although there is evidence that having multiple roles are psychologically beneficial to women (Barnett & Baruch, 1985; Wilsnack, 1996; Roxburgh, 1997), having an excess of demands translates into time pressures. Having multiple demands on one s time at home may reduce the ability to fulfill all obligations for care resulting in one feeling they have a lack of control (Lennon & Rosenfield, 1992). For instance, a woman may have high work-family conflict because her job requires more time than she can afford to devote given home responsibilities, and vice-versa. Too many demands and not enough time to 1 Important to note, Pugleisi (1988) and Lennon and Rosenfield (1992) do not operationalize procedural justice; instead they touch upon elements of the concept in their operationalization of job control. This study uses a rigorous measure of procedural justice to test its relationship with depressive symptoms

23 fulfill all tasks and responsibilities may transfer into feelings of low mastery (Lennon & Rosenfield, 1992). Hochschild (1997) found that women described their lives as uncertain and stressful because of the decreasing amount of time they have at home due to the expectations placed upon them as employees coupled with the unpredictability of children s behavior and household responsibilities. Along this vein, Rosenfield (1989) demonstrated that fulltime women with children had higher levels of depressive symptoms than full-time employed men with children. Moreover, Rosenfield (1989) found that perceptions of control mediated the relationship between full-time employed women s level of demands and depressive symptoms. It should follow that: H 3 : Perceptions of work-family conflict will be positively associated with depressive symptoms. Women are more likely than men to experience depression in conjunction with alcohol problems and alcohol dependence (SAMHSA, 1997). In a review of the literature examining patterns and trends in women and men s drinking, Fillmore and colleagues (1997) note the consistent association between women s depressive symptoms and alcohol consumption and use behaviors (e.g., Wilsnack, Wilsnack, & Klassen, 1984; Wilsnack, Klassen, Schur, & Wilsnack, 1991). Further, Hartka and associates (1991) examined the relationships between consumption per occasion and depressive symptomatology in a meta-analysis of studies from the United States, Canada, and Great Britain. Among all studies samples of women, depressive symptoms at time one were predictors of alcohol consumption at time two (Hartka, Johnstone, Leino, Motoyoshi, Temple, & Fillmore, 1991). Therefore:

24 H 4 : Depressive symptoms will be positively associated with monthly alcohol consumption. The tension-reduction model of alcohol use posits that those who drink alcohol do so because of its stress-reducing qualities; thus, alcohol is used as a coping mechanism in order to mitigate negative emotions (Conger, 1956). Cooper, Frone, Russell, & Pierce (1997) theorized about the links among gender, stress, coping, and alcohol use. They suggested that women may be more likely to use avoidant styles of coping to reduce stress, as such women would be more likely to use alcohol to alleviate stress. Although no gender differences were discovered, there was support that individuals who adopt avoidant styles of coping with stress are more likely to use alcohol to support a tensionreduction model of alcohol use (Cooper et al., 1997). Avoidance coping means that one does not confront a problem; instead, an individual will deny that a problems exists, trivialize its severity, and/or express one s negative emotions about it (Weidner & Collins, 1993). Drawing from Cooper et al. s (1997) rationale, it is plausible that women experiencing low perceptions of control may use alcohol as an avoidant-coping mechanism to reduce the tension produced from the discord between the level of control they have in their work and home lives and the level of control they desire in carrying out their daily responsibilities as dictated in their social roles. In a review of literature on gender and coping, Weidner & Collins (1993) show that women are more likely than men to use avoidant coping styles when faced with chronic stressors like work stress. In addition, women are more likely than men to experience depression (Aneshensel, Rutter & Lachenbruch, 1991). Weidner & Collins (1993) share studies that demonstrate those who have depressive symptoms are more likely to use avoidant styles of coping. Taken altogether, it is plausible that those experiencing higher

25 levels of depressive symptomatology from lower perceptions of control are more likely to use alcohol to reduce tension. There have been mixed results when testing the mediating effect of distress in a tension-reduction model of drinking. The few studies that have examined the mediating role of distress have not found support for the model (Violanti, 1983; Cooper, Russell, & Frone, 1990; Kawakami, Araki, Haratani, & Hemmi, 1993). However, these studies provide no evidence for a stress-induced model of alcohol consumption for women for a number of reasons. First, Cooper, Russell, & Frone (1990) conceptualize psychological distress in domain-specific terms (work distress), rather than using an assessment of depressive symptomatology like the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale used in this investigation. Using a domain-specific assessment of distress ignores other roles (parent and spouse) and domains of life (home) that create stress. Furthermore, only one of the three studies examined gender differences in the associations among work characteristics, depressive symptomatology, and alcohol use (Kawakami et al., 1993). Still, this sample is not representative of women in the full-time employed United States workforce since its sample was comprised of Japanese computer factory workers. The tension-reduction model has also been used in a limited capacity to explain the relationships among work-family conflict, distress, and alcohol consumption. These studies have used more global measures of negative affect and have found support for a stress-induced model of drinking. Among a sample of employed mothers of adolescents, Frone & colleagues (1994) discovered work-family conflict was indirectly related to increased heavy drinking via domain specific (job and family) satisfaction and overall negative affect. Similarly, Vasse & associates (1998) reported that negative affect

26 mediated the relationship among work-family conflict and alcohol consumption. Therefore: H 5 : Depressive symptoms will mediate the relationship between perceptions of control and monthly alcohol consumption

27 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY Data and Methods Data were drawn from the 1997 National Employee Survey collected at the Survey Research Center and the Center for Research on Behavioral Health and Human Services Delivery at the University of Georgia in conjunction with the School of Management at the Georgia Institute of Technology. Computer-assisted telephone interviews were conducted with a national probability sample of 2,505 full-time employed Americans who were selected using a single-stage random digit dialing (RDD) procedure. Eligible respondents were at least 18 years old, worked at least 35 hours a week, and were not self-employed. In households where more than one adult qualified, the last birthday method was used to select the respondent (Salmon & Nichols, 1983). The 1997 NES surveyed includes 184 questions with a range of topics that focused on the characteristics of the respondents job and workplaces and their affective and behavioral responses to their work conditions, i.e. depression, alcohol consumption, and problem drinking. The interview schedule also included items regarding workplace downsizing and its application for work stress, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Additionally, items regarding Employee Assistance Programs and workplace drug testing are included. The response rate for the survey was 61%. 2 2 The response rate is calculated using only those people who answered the phone and subsequently declined to participate. The response rate does not include in its calculation those numbers dialed with no response since these could include business numbers, a non-working number, or a household without an eligible respondent

28 Sample Although a prevailing practice in alcohol outcome studies is for researchers to exclude abstainers, this analysis includes abstainers. Excluding abstainers from the analysis prohibits one from observing the full range of drinking behaviors, as reporting that one has not consumed alcohol in the past month is certainly a drinking behavior, i.e. abstention (Blum, 1984). Only selecting drinkers for the analysis can produce bias in the sample and regression results provided the following facts about women, depression, and alcohol use (Blum, 1984). First, women are more likely to drink less than men and are more likely than men to be abstainers (Fillmore et al., 1997). Second, women are more likely than men to have an affective disorder (Mirowsky & Ross, 1989; Aneshensel, Rutter, & Lachenbruch, 1991), and women are more likely than men to have a co-morbid affective disorder when entering treatment for substance abuse (SAMHSA, 1997). Therefore, analyses excluding abstainers may be biasing their estimates and falsely rejecting the null hypothesis as they only include those who reported drinking over a certain time period (Blum, 1984). It is imperative to estimate the direct and indirect effects of perceptions of control on depressive symptoms and monthly alcohol consumption (as indicated in Figure 1) for the entire sample of women (n = 1,038), as well as for a sub-sample of women who reported drinking alcohol in the past 30 days (n = 519). 3 The study s sample is demographically representative of the full-time employed U.S. female workforce according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). 4 Approximately 81.5% of the sample is white and is reflective of the full-time employed 3 Results for the sub-sample of women drinkers are presented in Appendices B and C. 4 All statistics are based on women age 18 and over unless otherwise noted

29 female workforce in 1997 (81.5%) (BLS, 1997a). Approximately fifty-two percent of full-time employed women were married in this sample comparable to 1997 national average (54.3%) (BLS, 1997b). Further, age is similarly distributed (BLS, 1997c). 5 Using the BLS occupational categories, this study s sample is similarly distributed across the occupational categories as the full-time employed female workforce in 1997 (BLS, 1997a). 6 Finally, this sample of full-time employed women median income was between $20,000 and $29,999 which is consistent with the median annual income for full-time employed women in $22,412 (BLS, 1997d). 7 The 1997 National Employee sample size is 2,505. Once the analysis was restricted to women the sample size was reduced by approximately 50% to 1,222. Ordinary least squares regression was conducted using listwise deletion to reduce the sample size to 1,038. Measures I used 16 indices to assess six categories of variables: 1) demographic covariates (four indicators), 2) work context covariates (five indicators), 3) home context covariates (two indicators), 4) perceptions of control (three indicators), 5) depressive symptoms (one indicator), and 6) alcohol consumption (one indicator). These measures are described below with eigenvalues and estimates of internal consistency (coefficient 5 This study s distribution: years (2.1%), years (5.7%), years (23.2%), years (33.3%), years (24.9%), years (9.9%), and 65+ years (0.9%). According to 1997 BLS annual averages: years (1.7%), years (8.9%), years (26.4%), years (30%), years (23.2%), years (8.9%), and 65+ years (1.2%). 6 This study s distribution: Managerial/Professional (35.9%), Technical, sales, and administrative support (40.4%), Service occupations (12.7%), Precision, production, craft, and repair (1.5%), and Operator, fabricators, and laborers (7.7%). According to 1997 BLS annual averages: Managerial/Professional (34.3%), Technical, sales, and administrative support (40.5%), Service occupations (13.5%), Precision, production, craft, and repair (2.5%), and Operator, fabricators, and laborers (8.5%). 7 Median income is based on full-time females age 16 and over

30 alpha); descriptive characteristics (mean, standard deviation, median, and range) are provided in Table 1 and wording of items are presented in Appendix A. Dependent Variable The frequency-quantity measure of alcohol consumption over a specified period of time is a conventional method of measurement in the literature (Room, 1991). Monthly alcohol consumption is measured as a continuous variable by multiplying the (a) selfreported frequency of drinking in the past 30 days by the (b) self-reported average number of drinks consumed on the days one drank beer, wine, or liquor. The frequency distribution for monthly alcohol consumption was highly positively skewed (4.848). In a review of literature with alcohol outcomes, one study reported skewed distributions for alcohol consumption and drinking problems (Cooper, Russell, & Frone, 1990, p. 272). Cooper et al. (1990) reduced skewness by log-transforming the dependent variables in the analysis. 8 In the current study, abstainers were set to.5 and the natural logarithm was taken of monthly alcohol consumption. The skewness statistic was reduced to.826. Independent Variables Depression. Depression was assessed with the abbreviated version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977). Research has demonstrated that the results of the shortened version are highly correlated with the full version (Ross & Mirowsky, 1984). For each item, respondents were asked over the last 8 Cooper et al. (1990) ran analyses with both versions of their dependent variables transformed and not transformed and reported no substantial differences in their results. The current study followed the same procedure. Formalization became a non-significant predictor of monthly alcohol consumption when using the non-transformed variable. Thus, a log-transformed dependent variable was used to satisfy the linear regression assumption of normality (Lewis-Beck, 1980); otherwise, one runs the risk of producing biased estimates with a skewed dependent variable (Lewis-Beck, 1980)

31 week how many days she (1) felt sad, (2) had trouble getting to sleep or staying asleep, (3) felt everything was an effort, (4) felt they just couldn t get going, (5) felt lonely, (6) felt they just couldn t shake the blues, and (7) had trouble keeping their mind on what they were doing. An additive scale was created, ranging from 0 (no symptoms reported) to 49 (all symptoms reported for each day of the week). The mean number of depressive symptoms experienced in the week was 8 (s.d. = 9.25). A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the seven items and one factor emerged (eigenvalue = 3.365) explaining 48.1% of the total variance. The scale has an alpha of.81. Perceptions of control. Three variables representing perceptions of control are included: formalization, procedural justice, and work-family conflict. All items comprising formalization and procedural justice were entered into a confirmatory factor analysis (along with items comprising job demands, job complexity, and distributive justice). Another set of confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to assure each factor was correctly constructed. Formalization. Formalization is measured with five items that examine the degree to which individuals perceive there is a higher degree of standardization and regulation within their organization with codified rules and procedures that are strictly enforced through close supervision from organizational authorities. Items include: (1) Employees are to follow strict operating procedures at all times; (2) Employees don t get away with much at the place where you work; (3) Employees feel they are constantly being watched to see that they obey all the rules; (4) If someone is found violating a rule regarding their work, they are punished; and (5) Employees would do what they are told because they would lose their jobs if they didn t. Responses were scored on a 4-point mean scale with

32 higher scores reflecting a greater degree of formalization (mean = 2.8; s.d. =.62). A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the five items and one factor emerged (eigenvalue = 2.172) explaining 43.4% of the total variance. The scale has an alpha of.67. Procedural justice. Procedural justice is measured with nine items assessing the extent to which individuals perceive that they are able to participate in the organization s decision-making processes that are characterized by interpersonal respect, trustworthiness, and neutral treatment. Items include: (1) When decisions are being made, all of the people who will be affected by them are asked for their ideas; (2) Managers make job decisions in an unbiased manner; (3) Managers make sure that all employee concerns are heard before decisions are made; (4) At the place where you work, managers clarify decisions and provide additional information when requested by employees; (5) Job decisions are applied consistently across all affected employees; (6) Employees are allowed to challenge or appeal a job decisions that made by managers; (7) Rank and file employees are involved in making decisions about how the work is done; (8) I trust that my supervisor is completely honest with me; (9) I trust that my supervisor will share important information with me. Responses were scored on a 4-point mean scale with higher scores reflecting higher procedural justice in the workplace (mean = 3.0; s.d. =.63). A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the nine items and one factor emerged (eigenvalue = 4.303) explaining 47.8% of the total variance. The scale has an alpha of.86. Work-family conflict. Work-family conflict is measured with a single item. The item was worded, Would you say that the demands of your job and the demands of your

33 family life interfere with each other a lot, somewhat, a little, or not at all? Responses were scored on a 4-point scale with higher scores reflecting greater work-family conflict (mean = 2.2; s.d. = 1.0). Control Variables There are three sets of control variables included. The variables have been found to be associated with depression and alcohol use: work context control variables (Mirowsky & Ross, 1989; for reviews see Pearlin, 1991; Aneshensel, 1992; Wilsnack, 1992; Frone, 1999), home context control variables (Mirowsky & Ross, 1989; Gomberg, 1996; Wilsnack, 1996), and demographic control variables (Mirowsky & Ross, 1989; Fillmore, 1987; Gomberg, 1996). Work context control variables. Five work context variables were controlled for in the analyses: job demands, job complexity, distributive justice, supervisory status, and occupational prestige. All items comprising job demands, job complexity, and distributive justice were entered into a principal components factor analysis. Three factors emerged. Job demands. Job demands (five items) assesses the degree to which individuals perceive time pressures given their workloads (Karasek, 1979) [see Appendix A]. Responses were scored on a 4-point mean scale with higher scores reflecting greater job demands (mean = 2.8; s.d. =.60). A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the five items and one factor emerged (eigenvalue = 2.205) explaining 44.1% of the total variance. The scale has an alpha of.67. Job complexity. Job complexity is measured with three items and examines the extent to which individuals perceive that they have a job that requires creativity, they

34 keep learning new things, and their work is substantively complex (Karasek, 1979) [see Appendix A]. Responses were scored on a 4-point mean scale with higher scores reflecting more complex jobs (mean = 3.3; s.d. =.69). A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the three items and one factor emerged (eigenvalue = 1.860) explaining 62% of the total variance. The scale has an alpha of.68. Distributive justice. Distributive justice is measured with three items asking the degree to which pay, benefits, and rewards are allocated fairly across employees in the organization [see Appendix A]. Responses were scored on a 4-point mean scale with higher scores reflecting greater distributive justice (mean = 3.2; s.d. =.75). A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the three items and one factor emerged (eigenvalue = 1.940) explaining 64.7% of the total variance. The scale has an alpha of.72 Supervisory status. Supervisory status is a dummy variable and measures if one has formal supervisory responsibilities (yes = 1); 36% of respondent s had formal supervisory responsibilities over others. Occupational prestige. Occupational prestige was coded using the National Opinion Research Center s prestige scores matching the 1980 U.S. census occupational codes that were assigned to each respondent s self-reported job duties and description. Home context control variables. Two home context control variables were included due to their association with depressive symptoms and alcohol consumption: married and children living in the household (Mirowsky & Ross, 1989; Gomberg, 1996; Wilsnack, 1996). Married is a dummy coded variable with those who are married or cohabitating = 1 and single, divorced, separated or widowed = 0; fifty-two percent of the women in the sample were married. The variable children residing in the household is

35 also dummy coded (yes = 1); fifty-seven percent of the respondents had at least one child living in their household. Sociodemographic covariates. Two variables were created for age; age was centered at its mean and a higher ordered term was created for age squared, as there is a curvilinear association between age and depression (Mirowsky & Ross, 1989). The sample mean for age was 40 years. Race is dummy coded 1 = white and 0 = Black, Asian, Hispanic, or other; 81.5% of the sample was white. Education is a series of dummy coded variables that represent one s level of education: high school, some college, Bachelor s degree, and advanced degree (Ph.D., M.D.). High school degree is the omitted category. In the sample, 35% had at least a Bachelor s degree. Income is measured at the ordinal level and mean substitution was employed to preserve as many cases as possible in the analysis. The sample mean for income was 3.52 (s.d. = 1.57); therefore the average individual annual income ranged between $20,000 and $29,

36 Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Variables Used in the Analysis Variable Mean Median Min - Max Outcome Variable Log 30-day Alcohol Consumption.53 (1.47) Mediating Variable Depressive Symptoms 8.30 (9.25) Perceptions of Control Formalization 2.76 (.62) Procedural Justice 3.04 (.63) Work-Family Conflict 2.17 (1.03) Work Context Control Variables Job Demands 2.77 (.60) Job Complexity 3.33 (.69) Distributive Justice 3.18 (.75) Supervisor (yes = 1) 35.6% Home Context Control Variables Kids (yes = 1) 56.7% Married (yes = 1) 52.2% Demographic Control Variables Age (years) (10.87) Race (white = 1) 81.5% Education High school or less (yes = 1) 30.5% Some college (yes = 1) 34.7% Bachelor s degree (yes = 1) 23.8% Advanced degree (yes = 1) 10.9% Annual Individual Income 3.52 (1.57) n = 1,

37 CHAPTER 4: ANALYTICAL METHOD AND RESULTS Using ordinary least squares regression, six multivariate models were built to assess the direct and indirect relationships among perceptions of control, depressive symptoms, and alcohol use. The models presenting the results for the full sample of women (n = 1,038) are presented in Table 2 and Table 3. The models presenting the results for the sub-sample of women who consumed alcohol in the past 30 days (n = 519) are presented in Appendix B. The first model, presented in Table 2, regresses the level of depressive symptomatology on full-time employed women s perceptions of control while controlling for work context, home context, and demographic variables. The next two models, presented in Table 3, estimates monthly alcohol consumption and tests for the mediating effect of depressive symptomatology between perceptions of control and monthly alcohol use while controlling for work context, home context, and demographic control variables. All results of the OLS regression models report the unstandardized coefficients, standard error of the estimate, and the model adjusted R 2. One-tailed t-tests were used to determine statistical significance since directional hypotheses were posited for the relationships among perceptions of control, depressive symptomatology, and monthly alcohol consumption. Table 2 presents the fully specified models estimating the relationships among perceptions of control and depressive symptomatology

38 Table 2. OLS Regression Coefficients Predicting Depressive Symptoms from Perceptions of Control while controlling for Work Context, Home Context, and Demographics for the Entire Sample of Employed Women. Constant (2.661) Perceptions of Control a Formalization.931* (.451) Procedural Justice * (.532) Work-Family Conflict 2.112*** (.285) Work Context Control Variables b Job Demands 1.077* (.528) Job Complexity.762 (.462) Distributive Justice *** (.429) Supervisor (yes = 1) (.578) Occupational prestige (NORCP) (.000) Home Context Control Variables b Kids (yes = 1) (.616) Married (yes = 1) *** (.559) Demographic Variables b Age (years) (.026) Age (squared term).005* (.002) Race (white = 1) (.702) High school or less (yes = 1) Ref Some college (yes = 1) * (.674) Bachelor s degree (yes = 1) ** (.811) Advanced degree (yes = 1) * (1.102) Annual Income -.456* (.205) Adjusted R 2.16 N 1,038 a *** p<.001, **p<.01, *p<.05 (1-tailed significance tests) b *** p<.001, **p<.01, *p<.05 (2-tailed significance tests) Unstandardized regression coefficients (standard errors in parenthesis)

39 The first model presents an equation predicting full-time employed women s level of depressive symptomatology as a function of perceptions of control while controlling for work context, home context, and demographic variables. Overall, the full model explains approximately 16% of the variance in full-time employed women s depressive symptomatology with the perceptions of control conceptual block (9.2%) accounting for well over 50% of the total variance being explained by the model. The hypotheses (H 1, H 2, and H 3 ) are supported predicting that full-time employed women who perceive greater control in their lives will be less likely to manifest depressive symptoms. First, hypothesis one predicting that formalization will be related to depressive symptoms is supported. Net the effects of all other variables in the model, women who are employed by organizations that are less authoritative and allow for individual discretion and autonomy (less formalized) are less likely to have depressive symptoms (.931; p<.05). Next, hypothesis two predicting perceptions of procedural justice will be inversely related to depressive symptoms is substantiated. Women who perceive their workplace to be procedurally just are less likely to experience depressive symptoms (-1.155; p<.05). Finally, hypothesis three expecting work-family conflict to be associated with depressive symptomatology is confirmed. Women who perceive greater interference between the demands of work and home are more likely to have higher levels of depressive symptomatology (2.112; p<.001). 9 9 See Appendix B. As a validation method, the same analysis was conducted by restricting the sample to only women who had consumed alcohol in the past 30 days. The sub-sample of women drinkers produced corroborating evidence lower perceptions of control are associated with greater depressive symptomatology