The 360-Degree Instrument and Performance
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1 The 360-Degree Instrument and Performance A Literature Review on the Analysis of the effectiveness of 360-degree feedback instruments and their impact on management performance and corporate earnings. Craig Sasse, Ph.D. Vice President, Information LeaderPoint Copyright: LeaderPoint
2 360-Degree and Performance 2 Background The use of 360-degree feedback instruments has become widely popular, with most Fortune 1000 firms now using it in some form (90% according to Filipczak et al. 1996). The significance of the trend is borne out by the dozens of articles on this topic over the past ten years. The common rationale cited by most advocates of 360s is that it is a tool that leads to management development. At least some point out other hidden reasons that 360s have been so readily adopted without much empirical evidence that they work. Specifically, firms are 1) simply imitating (indicating it may be a fad), 2) leveraging cost by using them as performance appraisal tools, and/or 3) providing impression management to show they are doing something in the face of rampant change (Waldman et al. 1998). Commentators cite other possible benefits of 360s. First, they can create participative work environments. That is, the use of the 360 allows subordinates to give feedback to managers and thus to have a say about their work environment. Secondly, they can become a mechanism to get valuable feedback from customers (e.g., London & Beatty 1993). Underlying theoretical support for 360s comes from psychology. In psychological literature, 360s would be classified as a form of feedback intervention (FI). One advantage trumpeted by 360 advocates is that it is a multi-rater tool, allowing managers to get feedback that would not be observable by the bosses. In a meta-analysis of FI studies over the span of several decades, the authors found that FIs are usually effective, but not always (Kluger & DeNisi 1996). In fact, they concluded that studies show a wide variability in what effects FIs make on performance, with 38% of the cases resulting in decreased performance as a result of the FI.
3 360-Degree and Performance 3 Background (Cont.) While most articles are positive about 360s (or at least their potential) 1 and their potential for development, many also cite caveats and report common misuse of the instrument. Among the problems cited: They are mixed with performance appraisal processes. There was wide agreement among commentators that this tended to compromise development goals. They were susceptible to poor design. Specifically, it is hard to write good questions. Furthermore, those questions need to be the right questions based on the specific context of the job and point of view of the assessor. Feedback is delivered poorly or inappropriately. First, it is imperative that the targets (manager under review) be able to interpret their feedback too much feedback can lead to distorted interpretations, too little can lead to shallow, inconsequential feedback. Second, the way it is delivered can cause the feedback to draw the attention to personal space rather than focus on the task. For example Kluger and DiNisi (1996) report that feedback delivered via computer was more effective than that delivered in person. People (assessors and assessees) can often try to game the system. For example, give high marks for a boss you want to see promoted far, far away (Filipczak et al. 1996). Analysis While most advocates agree that 360s should be used primarily, if not exclusively, for development, it appears that these development-only policies are difficult to initiate and nearly impossible to keep. That is, even those firms (a majority according to reports) that intend to use the 360 as primarily a development tool tend to eventually use them for performance appraisal also. For one thing, information that comes from the 360s is nearly impossible to keep locked up. Vinson (1996) quotes one HR manager, How can a boss be aware of an employee s feedback and not use it in his or her performance review and not let it affect that person s salary advancement? Perhaps a bigger reason that companies end up using it for performance appraisal is the belief that behavior will only change if there is some element of evaluation. Consider London and Beatty (1993) who, while agreeing that mixing development and appraisal purposes is problematic, conclude using feedback for development only can impede the effective use of the results unless there is a requirement for the manager to be responsible to the feedback (p. 367). 1 While most of the authors cited in this report were clear about the potential problems with 360s, they also had recommendations on how to do them better. This indicates they believe there is some underlying basis for them. When Kay (Arapoff 1999) reported that his study showed 360s were negatively associated with a firm s market value, he noted that this finding was counter-intuitive and went against conventional wisdom [that] would have us believe [360s] are like mom and apple pie...
4 360-Degree and Performance 4 Analysis (Cont.) Despite the relatively simple technology in using the 360 degree, its costs for the company are potentially much higher than expected. First, there seems to be some agreement that 360s are not a one-shot deal, but must be used consistently over several years (DeNisi & Kluger 2000; Snader 1997). Second, using the simpler structured instruments that Center for Creative Leadership puts out ($195 per assessee) can defeat the developmental purposes because the feedback and interpretation is too difficult (i.e., comparative results are complicated by a variety of situation-specific factors; see Ghorpade 2000). On the other hand, constructing a custom instrument that is specific to the performance requirements for the company demands significantly more time and money to develop. Finally, the best way to overcome the interpretation of results problem is to invest in consultants or at least invest time from support people to deliver and consult with target managers. DeNisi and Kluger (2000) suggest that personal coaches may be the key especially when dealing with inconsistent findings among the different raters (another problem that makes interpretation difficult). Using 360s for performance appraisal is problematic because it can easily become counterproductive to development purposes. When the 360 is understood to be part of performance appraisal, the target manager could easily revert to a prevention mode work to prevent punishment. Theoretically, DeNisi and Kluger (2000) note that their tested theory of feedback intervention predicts that whenever the feedback tends to focus the target on self rather than the task, the effect of the feedback will be negative in terms of performance. Thus, for example, negative feedback might make the target defensive and more likely to question the validity of the data (e.g., London & Beatty 1993 and Snader 1997). Furthermore, London, Wholers, and Gallagher (1990) found in a study that 34% of subordinates reported that they would respond differently to the 360 questions if it was used as part of the boss s performance appraisal. Receiving honest and valid feedback is no guarantee for change in behavior. First, honest feedback may still be invalid. Ghorpade (2000) suggests that one of the paradoxes of anonymous ratings is that while they may lead to more honest comments and statements, they may still not be valid. For example, the assessor may simply lack the information to provide accurate ratings or have wrong information about the specific roles in question. Secondly, even if the feedback is accurate and valid, there is no guarantee that behavior will change. Vinson (1996) notes that there are a lot of reasons for a person not to act on feedback such as being too busy, doubt the feedback, be uncertain about how to translate feedback into behavior. Furthermore, Waldman (1998) notes that despite all the literature there is a dearth of real data supporting actual change of behavior by managers as a result of 360 feedback mechanisms.
5 360-Degree and Performance 5 Analysis (Cont.) The likelihood that the 360s will become an effective development tool may depend on the stability of the work context and level of management being assessed. It is generally agreed that 360-degree mechanisms will fall to the lowest common denominator if the company climate is politically charged or morale and trust are low (e.g., Ghorpade 2000). More importantly, the more senior the management level, apparently the least likely the 360 will provide useful development help. For one thing, these people are the least likely to get honest responses from subordinates (Vinson 1996; Ghorpade 2000). Secondly, the work of these positions is more complex, which according to DeNisi and Kluger (2000) makes feedback interventions in general less likely to improve performance (based on the fact that as the complexity of the job increases the ability to use frequent feedback is decreased due to the full attention required to the task itself). 2 Specific to senior management, the work of these managers tends to be more invisible to peers and especially subordinates, thus making it difficult to get valid feedback in the first place. Conclusion As a final conclusion it seems that 360-degree feedback as a development tool for managers must overcome several barriers for it to result in positive change in behavior and performance. The first barrier is the questions themselves they must be appropriate in content and in comprehensibility so that valid information is derived. Generic, canned questionnaires are less likely to fulfill this need. The second barrier is the assessors themselves. Because they are human and individuals, they may have many different motivations and knowledge guiding their responses. As mentioned in the analysis, a politically charged environment invites gaming situations that seriously compromise the feedback. A third barrier is the implementation of the instrument. Not only can performance appraisal mechanisms confuse the process (leading to different responses by assessors), but it can affect the way it is received by the target. As noted earlier, when subordinates know that the feedback is also part of performance appraisal, they will often respond differently. 2 Consider the example by DiNisi and Kluger (2000) a broker trying to put together a complicated consortium to underwrite an IPO wold find feedback about his or her performance along the way rather distracting, and it would interfere with how well the whole deal came together. Feedback given at the end of the sale, however, might well be extremely useful to that broker.
6 360-Degree and Performance 6 Conclusion (Cont.) A fourth barrier is interpretation of the feedback by the target. As Kluger and DeNisi (1996) point out, if the nature of the feedback is at a low level (based on the details of the work), it will only lead to a positive change in behavior if it leads the target to generate accurate hypotheses about how to improve performance. Furthermore, the authors point out, this feedback can take the focus away from the desired performance (i.e., confusing task details with the task). A fifth barrier is the target (person receiving feedback) himself. Vinson (1996) notes that many strong personalities need massive doses of feedback to even start changing. DeNisi and Kluger (2000) note that if the target interprets the feedback at a self level, then it will likely have a negative impact on performance. In any case, the target is an important variable in determining whether the feedback data will be distorted and whether it will be used at all. Thus, it is easy to see why a Watson Wyatt study found the practice of 360- degree programs in public companies was actually associated with a decrease in the company s market value. As Arapoff (1999) asserts, [360-degree feedback] practices are very prone to misimplementation, and therefore must be implemented as flawlessly as possible.
7 360-Degree and Performance 7 Annotated Bibliography Arapoff, J. (1999). Human capital index: Measuring your organization s greatest asset. Strategy@Work. The basis of this article is a study conducted by Watson Wyatt to find out how a variety of human resource factors impact the shareholder value. The study included 405 publicly held companies and asked them a battery of questions about various HR issues (e.g., after working through the data they came up with categories like recruiting excellence, workplace environment, and prudent use of resources). Their method was simply to survey these firms, compile the data from the surveys and the relevant performance of the companies, and then run a series of statistical tests (regression and factor analysis). From the study it was found that 360-degree feedback systems actually were associated with decrease in market value. The author asserts that one of the reasons for this finding is because the 360-degree practice is prone to misimplementation. The end result is that the 360 becomes in these cases a poor use of resources. DeNisi, A., Kluger, A. (2000). Feedback effectiveness: Can 360-degree appraisals be improved? Academy of Management Executive, 14 (1), Based on their earlier study the authors conclude that feedback interventions usually are effective, but that a significant number of times they are actually negative (38%, based on their meta analysis). Although their model for feedback interventions is complex, one thing it does predict is that as the target shifts the focus to self (rather than on the task or performance), the effectiveness of the feedback is going to lessen. Focus on goals at this level always has the potential for impairing performance because they deal with issues that are basic to how we view ourselves, and dealing with such issues requires considerable cognitive resources... Furthermore, since attention at this level deals with important self-concepts, feedback interventions that focus attention here often produce strong affective reactions (despair, disappointment, or even elation) that can also interfere with task performance (132). Advantages of 360s: provides multi-source information making the feedback potentially richer. More importantly, it allows the correct people to rate the various things (subordinates can rate some things that bosses can t, customers can rate others that neither can).
8 360-Degree and Performance 8 DeNisi & Kluger (Cont.) The authors use their meta analysis study from 1996 to apply to the specific 360-degree instrument. They reiterate that there should be no assumption that performance will improve because there is feedback. Although they say that 360s have some sound underlying ideas, they note that there are many factors that will degrade their effectiveness. The underlying theory they draw is from their own research on feedback interventions (FIs). Most notably, any factors in the 360 that tend focus the target on the self will render the feedback less effective. The most typical conditions that will create this self focus are 1) use of comparative data (compare sources to each other and the self ratings), 2) job-related consequences such as performance appraisal. In addition, feedback for complex jobs such as higher-level managers will often hurt performance as it interferes with performance focus (based on the cognitive resources required to manage and interpret the feedback). The authors note that there are no real data to confirm whether these instruments are effective, and that the firm should evaluate the effectiveness of the 360 degree systems, first. Based on the authors suggestions for doing a 360 correctly, it is not inexpensive. First, they suggest that the feedback should be done regularly not just once so that targets can gauge improvement. Also, in order to do the critical work of interpreting and acting upon the feedback, coaches should be made available to make this happen personal coaches may be the key to dealing with the inherent discrepancies found in 360-degree ratings (137). Consistent w/ other articles, the authors note the potential problems when 360s have the dual purpose of providing development feedback and administrative decisions. They also note the tendency of many firms to go from just the former to both (see article by London to find out why they tend to do this). Filipczak, B., Hequet, M., Lee, C., Picard, M., & Stamps, D. (1996). 360 degree feedback: Will the circle be broken? Training, 33 (10), 24. Misuse of 360 degree is rampant because of poor or inappropriate questions and because participants try to game the system.
9 360-Degree and Performance 9 Ghorpade, J. (2000). Managing five paradoxes of 360-degree feedback. Academy of Management Executive, 14 (1), Lays out five paradoxes associated with 360-degree feedback. One of the paradoxes is anonymous ratings and the assertions that honest ratings do not necessarily mean valid ones. This paradox becomes more problematic as you move up the ladder to senior level positions because these positions are more complex and more hidden to the raters. In general management, this is especially relevant because many of the important behaviors are invisible to the raters. While these can be honest (and inaccurate) evaluations, there can be dishonest ratings because of anonymity in zero-sum (perceived anyway) situations. Consistent with other reports, 360-degree will fall to lowest common denominator if the company climate is politically charged or morale and trust are low. There are two basic continuums for types of feedback instruments: 1) generic vs. context-specific and 2) structured or quantitative vs. qualitative. Places like the Center for Creative Leadership offer a structured, quantitative generic form that is inexpensive; however, it creates problems in its usefulness because it is difficult to make any meaningful conclusions from the quantitative data. Context-specific questions can be much more rich, but require significantly more resources in developing and implementing. Kluger, A., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119 (2), This study makes thorough analysis of feedback intervention (FI) research and literature. It gives a full rendering of background, including theories that have been used in FI literature. For example, the authors talk about control and goal-setting theories. Both of these theories recognize that people have several behavioral options in reacting to a feedback-standard discrepancy (goal says people will try to achieve the goal while control says people will try to eliminate the discrepancy). The overall finding was that effects of FI on performance are highly variable. FIs are double-edged swords because FIs do not always increase performance and under certain condition are detrimental to performance (p. 175). The authors go on to assert that there are several factors (called FI cues) that either attenuate or augment performance. For example, praise was shown to be an attenuating effect on performance (in general, the sign of the feedback had no effect one way or the other). In general those FIs that got the targets to focus on the task rather an from a personal standpoint were found to be more effective (275).
10 360-Degree and Performance 10 Kluger & DeNisi (Cont.) The FI theory proposed by the authors presumes that attention is hierarchical. In their model, they have three levels of attention (highest to lowest): meta-task process usually tied to self, task motivation, and task learning level. What are they Meta-task: these are highest level and usually focus the target on concept of self Task Motivation: these are middle level and related directly to the target task. Task Learning Motivation: these are related to the how the task might be done *From Kluger and DeNisi (1996) The three attention levels of FI Possible effects on Performance Tend to put focus on self. This causes the biggest potential problem in terms of improving performance. When reflecting or considering issues of self and self-concept (like am I cut out to do this work) takes away cognitive resources that could be used to simply improve task. FIs that place attention on this level can cause affective reactions (e.g., become defensive) that are counterproductive it improving performance). The person is an important variable in determining the FI s impact. Tend to put focus on closing the gap between actual performance and performance goal. This is the desired level and affords the best chance for improving performance. Tends to put focus on the details of the performance. This can be effective if it leads us to generate accurate hypotheses about how to improve performance. Furthermore, this feedback can take the focus away from the desired performance (i.e., confuse the target as the detail not the task). FI effect is dependent on the nature of the task. Simple-task performance benefited from FIs more than complex-task performances. London, M., & Beatty, R. (Summer/Fall, 1993). 360-degree feedback as a competitive advantage. Human Resource Management, 32, Authors give uses and rationale for the feedback survey as a possible way to enhance a firm s competitive advantage. One interesting point derived from the article is the difficulty keeping 360-degree results purely formative and not tied to appraisal. While they acknowledge the problems with using it for both, they recognize the dilemma when the feedback is just developmental there seems to be no compelling reason for the manager to change behavior. The crux of the dilemma: Using peer and subordinate ratings for evaluation requires greater sensitivity, because managers are more likely to be put on the defensive and to respond to feedback by criticizing the validity of the data, an issue that is usually less critical in the developmental context. However, using feedback for development only can impede the effective use of the results unless there is a requirement for the manager to be responsible to the feedback (p. 367). By this logic, the authors suggest a two-step process that starts with formative feedback leading to input for supervisors making pay and promotion decisions. Add to this dilemma: 34% of subordinates report that they would respond differently to the survey if it was used as part of the boss s performance appraisal.
11 360-Degree and Performance 11 London, M., & Beatty, R. The authors also give the reasons why 360 feedback is useful: 1) Creates more participative work environment, 2) can get valuable feedback from customers (provides communication link), 3) allows for behavioral feedback in areas the supervisor or boss cannot know. As other articles have noted, problems with 360-degree often have to do with implementation. For example, it has been noted that many 360 programs are carried out in the absence of a strategic context and are not focused upon contributions to a firm s competitive advantage. (p. 355). Other possible problems w/ the tool are the possibility for selective perception and information distortion. This phenomenon is especially ripe when there is conflicting information. Another interesting point is how the target receives the results. The authors assert that the more detailed the report, the more difficult the interpretation, the more likely the target will distort the information or make the results fit their own bias (369). Thus, careful thought must be given in how to report the results to targets with the ideal to make the interpretations for them or at least make strong assertive conclusions about behavior. The dilemma is how to get the target to take ownership for the results and interpretation so that behavior changes are likely to occur? The authors make the distinction between what the manager does and how he or she does it. First, they point to Jack Welch s practice of rating managers on performance and congruence w/ company values. This implies that it is not just what performance the manager generates but how he does it. The 360-degree results could be used to identify how the manager behaves not just what he produces. In this way, the 360 degree would seem to serve as sort of a control (tactic) for the supervising manager its effectiveness being determined by how well the instrument was created (criteria and evaluations). London, M., Wohlers, A.J., & Gallagher, P. (1990). 360 degree feedback surveys: A source of feedback to guide management development. Journal of Management Development, 9, This article cites the finding from its research study that 34% of subordinates reported they would rate their boss differently if they knew performance appraisal was effected by their anonymous input. Snader, J. (1997). Misusing Feedback. Executive Excellence, 14 (1), 4. Lists 6 ways 360 feedback mechanism is misused. 1) Don t take the crucial planning step of determining what to measure; 2) They are viewed negatively based on timing; 3) Goes from assessment to salary review; 4) Don t match instrument with job positions; 5) Feedback is delivered poorly (can be blindsided and hurt); 6) Is done only once. You must keep doing it. Snader is a CEO and a proponent of 360 and has used them in the pharmaceutical industry.
12 360-Degree and Performance 12 Vinson, M. (1996). The pros and cons of 360-degree feedback: Making it work. Training & Development, 50 (4), Should not combine development and appraisal, but this is hard to do even when it is made policy. As one HR manager says, How can a boss be aware of an employee s feedback and not use it in his or her performance review and not let it affect that person s salary advancement. Vinson also notes that interpreting the feedback is important and should usually be done in consultation with someone else. Based on some direct experiences using 360-degree feedback Vinson makes the following observations. The problem is, first, it is hard for the most senior executives to get honest feedback from subordinates (and it is unlikely that the few people above them will take the time to do one). Secondly, even when prompted many of these senior executives never requested any help. Furthermore, when they were asked how they used the feedback some said they tried to pay attention to what everyone was saying. A lukewarm recommendation for any effect on performance, Vinson says that all of the managers admitted that it was very easy to slip back into their usual behavior (the mindset was not changed). Waldman, D., Atwater, L., & Antonioni, D. (1998). Has 360 feedback gone amok? The Academy of Management Executive, 12 (2), Reasons for adopting the 360-degree. Stated reasons include changing behavior through multi-rater feedback and the desire to promote a participatory work environment. However, the authors note three possible unstated reasons 360 mechanisms are used. First, it is to imitate a popular trend to keep up with the competition. One rationale for this imitation is the tremendous flux and change going on in companies and the need to find competitive advantage in management. Second, as a performance appraisal mechanism. Third, it is used for political purposes as a form of impression management. Depending on how it is adopted, it can be a relatively inexpensive way to show the firm is doing something.
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