SOLAR HEATING WITH HEAT PUMP AND ICE STORAGE

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1 SOLAR HEATING WITH HEAT PUMP AND ICE STORAGE Anton B. Schaap, Jos M. Warmerdam and Frank T.S. Zegers Ecofys, P.O. Box 848, 353 RK Utrecht, The Netherlands, tel , fax , Egbert E. Gramsbergen Gramsbergen, Tus 7, 557 MG Veldhoven, The Netherlands, tel , fax , Abstract - In the Netherlands the SPF of an electrical heat pump system should be higher than 2.5 in order to reduce the CO 2 emission in comparison with a natural gas heating system. A system with electrical heat pump, covered solar collectors, ice storage and waste water heat recovery was designed and tested. This system is interesting because it promises low costs per ton CO 2 saved per year at high CO 2 savings. The SPF can be as high as 5 (including the direct delivery of solar heat to the house in spring, summer and autumn). The system, as it was installed and monitored in Veldhoven The Netherlands, works, but the performance is not yet good enough. The waste water heat recovery performs well, but the ice storage performs less than calculated. The collectors perform at 8 % of the calculated value at temperatures around o C supply temperature. The consumed auxiliary pumping power is still to high. 1. INTRODUCTION The application of electric heat pumps for domestic hot water and space heating can deliver a substantial reduction of the CO 2 emission allocated to this heating purposes. However the efficiency of the heat pump strongly depends on the available heat source and so does the CO 2 reduction. The economy of the system depends on the efficiency of the system and on the local tariffs for electricity and natural gas (for the Netherlands). This means that the heat source of the electrical heat pump is of decisive importance for the feasibility of the heat pump system in comparison with a natural gas heating system for CO 2 reduction as well as cost effectiveness. 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE DUTCH SITUATION The Dutch situation of space heating and hot water differs in a number of ways from the situation in the surrounding countries. The main characteristics of the Dutch situation are: The country is densely populated so the costs for a natural gas grid connection are low (about euro 5 to euro 7). Almost all houses are connected to the natural gas grid. The emission of CO 2 per kwh electricity is relatively high (about.56 kg/kwh) because of the utilization of mainly coal (about 4 %) and natural gas (about 5 %) for electricity generation. The electricity price for small consumers is high in comparison with the natural gas price (about euro.3 per kwh for natural gas compared to about euro.12 per kwh for electricity). Low temperature heating systems (floor heating or air heating) are not common. Almost all systems comprise of wall mounted radiators. New houses are (by law) energy efficient, and will even be more so in the near future when the building requirement (The "EPN" = energy efficiency standard) is improved. For a standard 1 m 2 single family house (built in a row) this will mean about 19.5 GJ per annum (54 kwh per m 2 ) for space heating in the year 2. The sales of heat pumps are very low. Heat pumps have until this date only been installed in demonstration projects. Houses are built merely as housing schemes of more than one house. The houses are planned and realized by semi governmental organizations or by housing scheme developers. The houses are relatively small (a living space of about 1 m 2 and a content of about 25 m 3 ). There is only a very small space for the heating system. The gardens of the houses (if any) are small. Houses with more than 2 m 2 of total area are rare. 3. NATURAL GAS HEATING SYSTEM The houses are mostly heated with high efficiency natural gas central heating systems combining space heating and hot water (mostly without storage). The efficiency for space heating is above 85 % and for hot water production around 65 %. Because of the use of natural gas the CO 2 emission is relatively low. The space dimensions of the system are about 4 mm deep 5 mm

2 width and 8 mm high. The system is wall mounted (about 1 m above the floor) so it requires no floor space. The total investment for the complete heating system is about euro 35 (including heat delivery system). The capacity is high (around 25 kw) in order to produce about 6 liter of hot water per minute. The heating system is mostly controlled by a cheap (about euro 15) but accurate and comfortable self adapting controller mounted in the living room (with several programmable functions; for instance week patterns for room air temperature) combined with thermostatic valves on the radiators in the other rooms. 4. INTRODUCTION OF THE HEAT PUMP The introduction of electric (compression) heat pump systems is sponsored by the government and by the utilities. The goal is to reduce the CO 2 emission for space heating and hot water in the domestic sector. Because of the specific Dutch situation the heat pumps have to comply with several demands: Because of the high CO 2 production per kwh electricity the heat pumps must have a high SPF (Seasonal Performance Factor = average COP over one year and COP= Coefficient Of Performance) in order to realize a significant CO 2 reduction in comparison to the natural gas heating system. At a SPF of 2.5 the CO 2 production is equal to that of a natural gas heating system. Heat pumps with ambient air as heat source can hardly meet this requirement (Schaap, 1997). The system must be cheap and very compact. The systems must have a high comfort level and the control system must be very flexible. Because of the high investment, the heat pumps can only be introduced in new building schemes that will not be connected to the natural gas grid. The houses must be very energy efficient, because the price of the heat pump and of the heat source are almost proportional to the installed capacity. There has to be a special low electricity price per kwh for the heat pump system (about euro.6 per kwh). The low price could be justified when the utilities have the right to interrupt the electricity deliverance on peak hours. 5. POSSIBLE HEAT SOURCES There are numerous ways to extract low temperature heat from the surroundings of a building. The most important heat sources are: the ambient air, the ground, the ground water, the surface water, the waste water and the solar irradiation. The last two are being discussed in the next chapter. For a compression heat pump the efficiency is related to the temperature of the heat source; the higher the temperature the higher the COP. 1.1 Ambient Air As stated above the temperature of the ambient air is to low during wintertime to achieve a high SPF. The yearly CO 2 reduction is not high enough, in comparison to a natural gas burner, to justify the higher exploitation costs of the heat pump. 1.2 Ground water Ground water is the best source of heat around the house in wintertime. Under about 3 m of depth, the temperature is steady around 1 o C all year round. Almost anywhere in the Netherlands there are aquifers, from which ground water can be extracted. The water has to be injected in the aquifer again, when used for heating or cooling purposes. Such a system is being used on several locations in the Netherlands for the direct cooling of buildings and production processes. The problem is that this system is to complex for a single family house. It can however be used to feed a network of about 2 houses. Such a system is planned for a part of the new housing scheme Broekpolder in Beverwijk, the Netherlands (Klaver, 1997). 1.3 Vertical ground heat exchanger Second best option to extract heat from the ground is the vertical ground heat exchanger. In this case a closed loop is inserted vertically to a certain debt. The heat has to flow to the closed loop by ground conduction mainly. This makes the achievable temperature 5 to 1 o C lower than by using ground water. A drawback of vertical heat exchangers is that they can't easily be removed after the life of the system. There is however a possibility to combine the vertical heat exchanger with the supporting pillars of the houses. In some areas these pillars are rammed to a depth of 2 m to reach the first stable sand layer. If used by all houses in a neighborhood the ground has to be regenerated with summer heat. The average source temperature (just above o C) is somewhat higher than with ambient air as a heat source, but the CO 2 reduction is still not very impressive (see chapter 7). 1.4 Horizontal ground heat exchanger A horizontal ground heat exchanger consists of a number of closed loops inserted horizontally at a depth of about 1 to 2 m. Because of the small average area per house in the Netherlands a horizontal ground heat exchanger can seldom be used. 1.5 Surface water Surface water is a rather difficult heat source, because it freezes at o C. This makes shallow waterways un-

3 suited. Only deep lakes and rivers can be used. These are only at a small number of locations available. 6. DESCRIPTION OF THE SOLAR HEAT PUMP WITH ICE STORAGE A heat pump system which uses the solar irradiation and the waste water as a heat source was developed and tested. The system had to fulfill two important goals: The system can be utilized for any single (very energy efficient) house anywhere in the country; with no dependence on the structure of the ground nor on the available ground space. The system had to have a very high SPF in order to reach a considerable CO 2 reduction. 1.6 Description of the system Starting point is the heat demand of a very energy efficient single family house. For space heating the heat demand amounts to about 12 GJ/year (= 33 kwh/m 2 ) and for domestic hot water about 8 GJ/year (floor area typically about 1 m 2 ). The solar heating system with heat pump and ice storage is designed to meet de energy demand of such a house (see fig. 1). Fig. 1. The heat pump system with solar collector, ice storage and waste heat recovery. The solar thermal collectors are being used as a heat source for the (electric) heat pump (3.5 kw thermal capacity). However when the ambient temperatures are low (below o C) and the solar irradiance is low, then the contribution of the solar collectors (1 m 2 single glazed) is insufficient. During these periods the heat is withdrawn from an "ice storage" with a content of 3 m 3. The uninsulated ice storage (maximum temperature about 15 o C) can be buried under or next to the house (see fig. 2). Fig. 2. Ice storage with heat recovery waste tank The water in this storage can be transformed into ice, by circulating a antifreeze mixture through the heat exchanger, that runs all through the storage. In this way also the very high latent heat of the water is used to enlarge the thermal capacity. A temporary storage of about 3 liter for the waste water (toilet excluded) is placed in the ice storage. The ice storage recovers the heat from the waste water in wintertime (about 5 GJ/winter). Between solar collectors and heat pump a daily storage is placed (see fig. 1). This storage acts like a domestic hot water system in summer. During the heating season the daily storage improves the COP by storing the somewhat higher temperatures coming from the solar collectors. Without the daily storage the heat pump is always connected to the ice storage. It would operate at a source temperature around o C all winter. In the summer the combination of daily storage, hot water storage and solar collectors delivers directly hot water to the house. In spring and fall the solar collectors can also bypass the heat pump for the deliverance of (low temperature) space heating to the house, if a high enough temperature is available. For this bypass, a heat exchanger is installed parallel to the heat pump. Because of the high temperatures from the solar collectors in spring, fall and especially in summer, the SPF can be very high. It must be possible to reach a SPF up to 5 (including the direct solar delivery in summertime; Schaap, 1997). 1.7 Rain water storage (cistern) The ice storage is also used as a rainwater storage. The rain water is used for non-drinking water purposes in the house (flushing the toilet, washing clothes etc.). In this way part of the investment of the ice storage can be allocated to the rain water system. In winter only part of the capacity can be used for the rain water system. In summer the full capacity can be used. In this period the ice storage is not used for the heating system. For rain water storage s the (sometimes dry) summer is the important period.

4 1.8 System of the Fachhochschule Lübeck In Germany a comparable system was designed and tested in the early eighties by the Fachhochschule Lübeck (see fig. 3). The system had two separate collectors. Single glass flat plate collectors as a heat source for the heat pump and evacuated tube collectors for the direct deliverance of heat to the DHW. The high temperature storage is placed in the seasonal storage (ice storage) to collect the heat losses of the high temperature storage (Weik, 1984). Fig. 3. System with ice storage and solar collectors of the Fachhochschule Lübeck The system was installed at a research house of the Fachhochschule. The heat demand was 43.2 GJ for space heating and domestic hot water. The differences with the new system are: There is no regeneration of heat from the waste water, therefore the ice storage has to be bigger. There is a big storage at high temperature, therefore high heat losses occurred. There is no daily storage at the evaporator side, therefore the heat pump feels the temperature of the ice storage all winter. There are several separate circuits, therefore a lot of heat exchangers had to be used. This system reached a SPF of about 3.3 in the season 82/83 (all year round so including the direct solar delivery in summertime). This seems not good enough to compete with less complicated systems. 7. COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT HEAT SOURCES In order to determine the cost effectiveness of the new system several calculation were made. First a simulation program was written, with which the combinations of heat pump and different heat sources could be calculated. After that cost figures were gathered and a cost calculation was made for the different combinations and compared to a reference system (a natural gas burner). The costs were estimated on the basis of the production of a reasonable amount of systems per year; otherwise the reference system (that is produced in huge quantities) was to much in favor. The system combinations were judged on the basis of exploitation costs, primary energy use and costs per ton CO 2 saved per year. 1.9 Simulation program Because of the highly dynamic nature of a system with solar collectors a detailed calculation is necessary. The simulation program enables to calculate the system parameters every ten minutes. For the weather data a local Test Reference Year is used. The hourly data are interpolated for the ten minute values. The simulation system can simulate different heat sources like a vertical heat exchanger, a horizontal heat exchanger, an ambient air heat exchanger, an ice storage with waste water heat recovery and different types of solar collectors (Schaap 1997). Fig. 4 gives the yearly temperature in the daily storage and the ice storage for the system with solar collectors, ice storage and waste water heat recovery (system 2). Temperature [ C] Tdaily storage T ice storage Time [Days] Fig. 4. Temperature of the daily storage and of the ice storage over a year (daily average values) 1.1 Different systems to compare A comparison was made between a number of different heat sources including the system with ice storage. Also some solar systems without heat pump were added. The systems are described below. The comparison is based on investment, exploitation costs, primary energy use and costs per ton CO 2 saved per year. 1 Reference system (natural gas burner) The reference system is a high efficiency natural gas burner for combined space heating and domestic hot water. This is also the auxiliary burner in case of the systems without heat pump. The yearly efficiency is 85 % (higher calorific value) on space heating and 7 % on domestic hot water. 2 Heat pump, ice storage and covered collectors The system with heat pump, ice storage and covered collectors has 1 m 2 single glazed covered collectors, a daily storage of 3 liters, an ice storage of 3 m 3 and a

5 regeneration tank of waste water (3 liter). The heat pump has a nominal thermal capacity of 3.5 kw. 3 Heat pump, ice storage and uncovered collectors This system is equal to system 2, but in stead of single glazed covered collectors, 1 m 2 of uncovered collectors are used (swimming pool collectors) 4 Heat pump, and uncovered collectors This system has only uncovered collectors as a heat source for the heat pump (1 m 2 ). This means that for extreme cold weather an electric resistance heater has to be added. 5 Heat pump, ice storage and ambient air heat exchanger As system 2, only in stead of the collectors an air to water heat exchanger is being used. The heat exchanger extracts heat from the ambient air. 6 Heat pump and vertical ground heat exchanger A vertical ground heat exchanger is being used as a heat source for the heat pump (one single loop to a depth of 4 m). 7 Heat pump, vertical ground heat exchanger and covered collectors As system 6, but 1 m 2 of single glazed solar collectors and a daily storage are added. The solar collectors can lift the source temperature in winter, can regenerate the ground and can supply domestic hot water directly outside the heating season. 8 Heat pump, vertical ground heat exchanger and uncovered collectors As system 7, only with uncovered collectors, in stead of covered collectors (1 m 2 ). 9 Heat pump and horizontal ground heat exchanger System with a horizontal ground heat exchanger as a heat source for the heat pump (tubes inserted over an area of 5 m 2 at a depth of 1 m). 1 Heat pump and aquifer system System with an aquifer as the source of ground water from which the heat is extracted. The aquifer has to be regenerated in summer (with ambient air). The aquifer serves about 2 houses. The heat pumps are placed in the houses, to avoid distribution losses (so the distribution network can be uninsulated; Klaver 1997) 11 Heat pump, aquifer and covered collectors As system 1, only with covered collectors to regenerate the aquifer. In this way the aquifer can be brought on a slightly higher temperature level, to increase the COP of the heat pump. The collectors can also deliver DHW directly to the houses. The supply line of the distribution network has to be insulated. 12 Reference system with solar DHW system Reference system with a standard solar DHW system (2.8 m 2 of solar collectors and a storage of 1 liter). The energy production of such a solar system is about 3.6 GJ/year. 13 Reference system with solar heating and DHW system Reference system with an enlarged solar system for space heating and DHW. The system has 1 m 2 of collectors and 3 liter of storage. 14 Solar system with seasonal storage For this system the energy demand for space heating is reduced from 12 to 8 GJ/year, by installing triple glass with krypton filling and by enlarging the insulation thickness of walls, floor and roof from 2 to 3 mm PS foam. The solar system consists of 17 m 2 double covered high temperature collectors (one layer of glass and one layer of teflon foil) and a seasonal storage for a single family house. The solar heat is stored at temperatures up to 9 o C and delivered directly to the house (no heat pump). The seasonal storage has a content of 3 m 3 of water and has an insulation thickness of 3 mm (Schaap, 1995). The reference system (natural gas burner) serves as auxiliary heater. Internationally a seasonal storage is mostly designed to serve a number of houses (Fisch, 1998). The heat is distributed by a district heating network. The construction mostly consists of a concrete (Germany) or steel (Sweden) insulated tank of about 1 to 1. m 3. In the Netherlands however there are two problems with these constructions (Schaap, 1995): A huge concrete or steel tank will not be accepted in a neighborhood. The storage has to be placed underground. The water table in the ground is mostly very high (about.5 to 2. m under ground level) and the ground is very unstable. The storage has to be watertight not only at the inside but also at the outside, or the insulation material must be waterresistant and watertight (for example foam glass). These factors make the construction of such a tank expensive and complicated. When the seasonal storage can be integrated in the construction of the house, part of the costs can be shared (for instance the support pillars) Costs and CO 2 comparison The calculations are based on the Dutch electricity and natural gas costs for small consumers; respectively

6 Euro.12 per kwh and Euro.29 per m 3 of natural gas. For space heating the heat demand of the very energy efficient house amounts to 12 GJ/year (= 33 kwh/m 2 ) and for domestic hot water to 8 GJ/year (floor area typically about 1 m 2 ). As we can see in fig. 5 the reference system (system 1; natural gas burner) is the cheapest system. Somewhat more expensive is the reference system with a standard solar DHW system (system 12). The cheapest heat pump systems (system 4, 6 and 9) are about 6 euro (about 25 euro more expensive than the reference system). The system with ice storage and covered collectors is about 85 euro (system 2). So this is one of the more expensive heat pump systems. The most expensive is the system with a seasonal storage and without heat pump (system 14 = about 16 euro). Investment [euro] System number Fig. 5. Investment for the different systems. The primary energy consumption is calculated with the simulation program and given in fig. 6. As we can see the reference system (system 1) has the highest primary energy consumption. The system with seasonal storage (system 14) has the lowest primary energy consumption. System 2 (the system with ice storage) comes out third best together with the system with an aquifer as a heat source and solar collectors (system 11). The system with a vertical ground heat exchanger and solar collectors (system 7) is somewhat less good. This is because there is more solar energy needed to regenerate the ground in comparison with system 2, while there is no waste water heat recovery. Primary Energy [GJ/year] System number Fig. 6. Primary energy consumption of the different systems Fig. 7 gives the exploitation costs, the CO 2 emission and the costs per ton CO 2 saved per year. The reference system has the lowest exploitation costs, so there is no alternative system that is cost effective. From this figure we can see that the system with ice storage is attractive on the basis of the costs per ton CO 2 saved. The investment is rather high, but the CO 2 emission is low, so the costs per ton CO 2 saved are relatively low System Number Exploitation [euro/year] CO2 Emission [kg/year] Costs per ton CO2 saved [euro/year] Fig. 7. Comparison of the systems on the basis of the exploitation costs, The CO 2 emission and the costs per ton CO 2 saved per year. In most cases uncovered collectors are being used as a heat source for heat pumps. From the simulations it was concluded that in combination with an ice storage with waste water heat recovery, spectrally selective covered collectors gave a higher SPF. The costs per avoided ton of emission of CO 2 are also lower. It appeared that covered collectors have two advantages in this combination: In summer covered collectors can deliver domestic hot water directly to the house and in spring and autumn part of the heating demand,

7 In winter the ice storage with waste water heat recovery restrains the heat source temperature to just below o C. With outside temperatures below o C the contribution of uncovered collectors is lower than that of covered collectors. 8. DEMONSTRATION AT THE HOUSE OF GRAMSBERGEN IN VELDHOVEN The house is built as a row of two houses. The house consists of a living part and an office. The total floor area is 163 m 2. The total heat loss area is 334 m 2 (see fig. 8). The house is heated with floor heating (84 m 2 ) and wall heating (49 m 2 ) don stairs and in the bathroom and enlarged radiators at the rest of the second floor. Because of the high heat transfer the supply temperature of the heating circuit could be kept under 3 o C. With financial support from NOVEM the system is built by Gramsbergen in a new housing scheme in Veldhoven in the Netherlands. This location was chosen because of the experience of Gramsbergen with the implementation of renewable energy systems and the availability of his house under construction. However the energy efficiency of the house couldn t be influenced very much Description of the monitoring system The system was monitored extensively by Ecofys during the last heating season 98/99. The heat flows in the different circuits were measured as well as the heat demand of the domestic hot water system. The temperature was measured on 16 locations, under which the room temperature, the ambient temperature, the collector temperature and the temperature in the daily storage. The temperature in the ice storage and in the waste water tank was measured at three different heights (bottom, middle and top). This enabled us to study the thermal stratification in these tanks. In the ice storage also the water level was measured, to determine the amount of ice in the storage. During the monitoring the ice storage was not used as a rain water storage. The electrical power consumption from the different appliances was measured. The power consumption of the heat pump was logged on a separate channel. The system was controlled by a personal computer on which control and measuring software was running. This enabled us to chance the control settings very easily. Also all the control settings were logged. All measurements were logged to disk every minute during the heating season 98/99. However we had to use almost all winter to eliminate the faults in the system and to optimize the system. Only from 17 of February the system was running without interruption. Therefore it is not possible to present overall data from the whole heating season. The data that are presented have been extracted form a number of days on which the system was running well. The results presented are preliminary and not yet fully complete, because the analysis of all the data will take some more time Description and heat demand of the house Fig. 8. The house of Gramsbergen at Veldhoven the Netherlands. On the roof the solar collectors and in front of the office the underground ice storage after installation. Double glazing is applied with a heat loss factor of 1.8 W/m 2 K. The heat loss factor for the walls is.4 and for the roof.3 W/m 2 K. The house has a calculated space heating demand of 32 GJ/year (54 kwh/m 2 year) for a reference winter, so it isn t a very energy efficient house. From the measurements it appeared however that the energy demand was far higher than calculated (see fig. 9). P [kw] Calculated Measured Tambient [oc] Fig. 9. Heat demand of the house (measured and calculated) as a function of the ambient temperature. The points depict average daily measured values. The measured values are almost twice as high as the calculated values. The reason for this could be:

8 The ventilation heat recovery (efficiency 9 %) was not yet installed. According to the calculations this heightens the heat demand with 4 %. A newly built house contains a lot of moisture in the walls and floors. The evaporation of this moisture extracts heat from the house. At certain points the insulation from the house is insufficient. For instance there is wall heating in the wall between the two houses. This wall however consists of two separate blades with an air gap in between. The air gap is not insulated where it meets the tiles on the roof of the house. Before the next winter we plan to improve the energy efficiency of the house by installing ventilation heat recovery and by improving the insulation of the air gap between the two houses. When the measured heat demand for space heating is calculated over a whole heating season we get around 6 GJ (= 1 kwh/m 2 ) in stead of the calculated 32 GJ/year Dimensioning and performance of the system For a very energy efficient single family house (typically a heat demand of around 12 GJ/year = 33 kwh/m 2 year at 1 m 2 floor area) the idea is to choose the dimensions of the system in such a way that the ice storage gets completely filled with ice only during an extreme winter. During normal winters there is hardly any ice formation in the ice storage (see fig. 2). The SPF calculated with the simulation program is around 5 (Schaap, 1997). However for the house of Gramsbergen we have chosen smaller dimensions for the system (relatively smaller collector (16 m 2 ) and ice storage (6 m 3 ), for three reasons (Schaap, 1998): By the building commission on aesthetics we were not allowed to place a larger collector area. There was not more space in front of the house to install the ice storage. It is important to the development of the system with ice storage to study the ice formation process. The yearly simulation showed that with a space heating demand of 32 GJ/year (and 8 GJ for domestic hot water), 89 kg of ice would be formed during a normal winter. The SPF reached would be 4.2 over a whole year (including direct delivery of solar heat in summer). When the amount of ice is limited to 4 kg (the capacity of the ice storage) then the SPF drops to 3.6. The lower SPF is caused by the fact that part of the winter the electrical resistance auxiliary heater has to be used to limit the ice formation. However with a heat demand for space heating of 6 GJ the SPF sinks further to 2.3. To improve the system on this specific location an ambient air heat exchanger will be placed to enlarge the amount of source heat that can be drawn into the system. Ice storage Figure 1 gives the relationship between the length of the heat exchanger tube and the resulting temperature difference when extracting 35 W through an ice layer. The calculation was made for the situation with a heat exchanger tube with an outside diameter of 2 mm and a cylindrical ice cover with a diameter of 15 mm. The heat conduction of ice is rather high (2 W/m K) in comparison with water (.6 W/m K). Temperature Difference [oc] Length [m] Fig. 1. Temperature difference when extracting 35 W through an ice layer for the situation with a diameter of 15 mm ice cover around the tube (outside diameter 2 mm) We can see that the temperature difference is about 5 o C at a length of 2 m. A diameter of 15 mm of ice implies that there is about 3.5 m 3 of ice in the storage at a tube length of 2 m. Because of the logarithmic relationship between the heat conduction through the ice mantle and the thickness of the ice mantle, the temperature difference doesn t rise very strongly with rising ice mantle diameter (until the ice mantles of the different tubes grows together). From the measurement data it could be extracted that at a temperature difference of 5 o C between ice storage and water glycol mixture (average between supply and return) a heat transfer of 25 W was reached, without ice around the tubes. When the storage was filled with ice (4 m 3 ), the heat transfer is lowered to around 15 W. It seems that not only the thickness of the ice mantle forms an important resistance (conduction) but also the heat transfer by convection from the water to the ice mantle, because the expansion coefficient of water just above o C is very low. Because of the lower heat transfer in the ice storage, the working temperatures at night at the evaporator side of the heat pump were between - 5 and - 1 o C. Figure 11 shows the ice forming process during the winter 98/99. Part of the data is missing. The ice formation was monitored by measuring the water level in the ice storage and calculating the amount of ice from

9 the density difference between ice and water. As we can see around mid February the ice formation is about 4 kg. This appeared to be the maximum value because the ice formation reached the waste water tank, and we can t allow the waste water to freeze. The content of the tank is about 6 m 3, so 2 m 3 cannot be frozen. In the design of the ice storage we had left a space free of heat exchanger tubes so that every part of the ice storage was accessible for maintenance. Mass of Ice [kg] dec 21-dec 31-dec 1-jan 2-jan 3-jan 9-feb 19-feb Date fig. 11. Ice formation in the ice storage during winter 98/99. When the ice storage is full with ice, the source heat for the heat pump has to be delivered by the electrical auxiliary heating in the daily storage. Collector With the simulation program the measured heat delivery by the collectors was compared to the simulated yield. The measured yield varies from 8% at low temperatures up to 95% at higher collector tempeatures. It seems that the viscosity of the water glycol mixture is of influence on the performance of the collectors. The viscosity of the mixture was not a parameter in the simulation program. Heat pump The measured COP of the heat pump was about 1 % lower than specified by the supplier. Because of the high heat demand of the house, the ice storage was during part of the winter filled with ice. The source temperature of the heat pump was under that circumstances around -1 o C. This was also the lowest working temperature of the heat pump. Several times the heat pump was switched off by a safety switch because of a to low pressure on the evaporator side of the heat pump. Auxiliary Energy Using a mixture of water and 3 % propylene glycol as the heat transfer medium brings greater consequences than anticipated. For the good functioning of the heat pump a high mass flow is needed (or a small temperature difference) over evaporator and condenser heat exchanger. The water-glycol mixture has especially at below zero temperatures a high viscosity. Very width pipes are needed to allow for high mass flows at low pumping power. We had all pipes (except for one connection on the daily storage) laid out somewhat bigger than standard, but this appeared not enough. The collectors are of the serpentine flat plate type. There are three collectors in parallel. The inner diameter of the serpentine is only 8 mm (so called low flow collector). The consequence of this is that we had to install pumps with an electric power of 18 W each (in stead of the around 5 W standard pumps estimated). Waste water heat recovery The waste water heat recovery is performing well (see fig. 12). The figure shows what happens on a typical morning when the hot water enters the waste water tank in the ice storage. A strong stratification is created because the hot water is entering the cylindrical tank horizontally. The ice storage is at a temperature of oc at all heights and filled with about 4 m 3 of ice. We can see that the heat from the waste water is transferred to the ice storage within about 8 hours. The average time over which the waste water stays in the waste water tank is more than 24 hours, so almost all heat above o C is recovered from the hot waste water as well as from the cold waste water. Temperature [oc] Time [hours] Fig. 12. Temperature in the waste water tank (top, middle and bottom). Date; and starting time 6. hour. We designed the waste water tank with the idea that dirt might stick to the wall of the tank and might obstruct the heat transfer. However this doesn t happen. The dirt is deposited at the bottom of the tank. After about half a year the waste water tank was cleaned and about 2 liters of dirt were collected from the bottom. 9. EFFICIENCY OF A SYSTEM FOR AN EN- ERGY EFFICIENT HOUSE With the simulation program we can calculate what the SPF would be of the system as it is performing in

10 Veldhoven, but installed at a very energy efficient house (a heat demand of 12 GJ/year = 33 kwh/m 2 year at 1 m 2 floor area and 8 GJ/year for hot water). Dimensions of the system; 1 m 2 of covered solar collectors and an ice storage of 3 m 3, with 2 m of heat transfer tube and a heat pump with a thermal capacity of 3.5 kw. The following corrections have to be made on the simulation as a result of the monitoring: Heat pump performs 1 % less. Collectors perform around 2 % less. Auxiliary electricity will be around 1 W for each pump in stead of 5 W. With these settings the simulated SPF decreases from 5.1 to 3.8 (including direct delivery of solar heat to the house). This drop cannot be compensated by enlarging the collector area nor the ice storage, because it consists mainly of direct electrical consumption (heat pump and especially the auxiliary electricity). Necessary improvements of the system: Collector with lower pressure drop and higher heat transfer to water-glycol. Lay-out with lower pressure drop in the different circuits (collector, ice storage and evaporator circuit) Consult the manufacturer of the heat pump in order to clarify the difference between the measured and specified COP. 1. CONCLUSIONS In the Netherlands the SPF of an electrical heat pump system should be higher than 2.5 in order to reduce the CO 2 emission in comparison with a natural gas heating system. The system with electrical heat pump, covered solar collectors, ice storage and waste water heat recovery is interesting because it promises low costs per ton CO 2 saved per year, at high CO 2 savings. The system, as it was installed in Veldhoven, works, but the performance is not yet good enough: The ice storage performs less than calculated. The waste water heat recovery performs well. The collectors perform at 8 % of the calculated value at temperatures around o C. Auxiliary pumping power is to high. Necessary improvements to be made: Collector with lower pressure drop and higher heat transfer to water-glycol at low temperatures. Lay out of the system with lower pressure drop Ice storage with relatively longer heat transfer tube. Extra heat source (ambient air) to fulfil the energy demand of the house and to make the REFERENCES system less independent from behaviour of occupants. Weik H., Plagge J. (1984),Voll-Wärmeversorgung von Wohngebäuden durch exergetische und Anergetische Nutzung der Sonnenenergie, 5. ISF, Berlin. Schaap A.B., Veltkamp W.B. (1995), Design of an Energy Matched Single Family House, ISES Solar World Congress Harare Zimbabwe. Schaap A.B. (1997), Haalbaarheid van een zonneverwarmingssysteem met warmtepomp en maandopslag, Ecofys, Utrecht, The Netherlands, E184. Klaver P.J., Zegers F.T.S., Schaap A.B. (1997) Toepassing van warmtepompen en lage-temperatuur warmtedistributie voor energiezuinige woningen in de Broekpolder, Ecofys, Utrecht, The Netherlands, E514. Schaap A.B. (1998), Dimensionering Zonnewarmtepomp voor de woning van Gramsbergen, Ecofys, Utrecht, The Netherlands, E113. M.N. Fisch, M. Guigas, J.O. Dalenbäck (1998), A review of Large-Scale Solar Heating Systems in Europe, Solar Energy vol.63, No. 6. Warmerdam J.M, Schaap A.B. (1999), Praktijkmetingen zonnewarmtepomp, seizoen 98/99, Ecofys, Utrecht, The Netherlands, E1166.

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