Psychology of Language

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1 PSYCH 150 / LIN 155 UCI COGNITIVE SCIENCES syn lab Psychology of Language Prof. Jon Sprouse : Animal Communication 1

2 What is Language, and do animals have it? 2

3 What counts as Language There is broad consensus among all biology-based scientists that animals have communication: animals use various types of symbolic representations to convey a message to conspecifics (and in rare cases, other species). Today we are going to look at some of the more interesting communication systems employed by various animals. But the question of whether animals have language or not is tricky because it depends on how you define language. In conversations, most people use language to mean communication, in which case the answer is undoubtedly yes. Cognitive scientists on the other hand, use language to mean precisely the system of representations and processes that humans have, in which case the answer is undoubtedly no. What we will see is that the communication systems of animals range from relatively simple to relatively complex, but none reach the complexity of the human communication system that we call language. 3

4 The bee waggle dance Female scout bees go out and search for pollen and nectar. After they find this food source, they come back to the hive to tell the other bees where they found the food. They communicate this location with a dance: 4

5 Information contained in the dance 1. The direction of the food source Bees dance on a vertical wall. Straight up represents the direction of the sun. The angle of the waggle run represents the direction of the food source in relation to the sun! 2. Distance of the food source The length (in time) of the waggle run represents the distance to the food source. Different bee species have different ratios, but a common figure is that 75ms of waggling means 100 meters of flight. 3. Quantity of the food source When a food source is better, a bee will shorten the time spent on the round bits, thus spending relatively more time on the waggle run, and also waggle more vigorously. 5

6 An interesting question: external or internal reference? Communication involves the use of symbolic relationships: a word stands for its meaning, or a series of beeps in morse code stands for a letter. An interesting question about symbolic relationships is whether the thing being specified is internal to the communicator, or external (out in the world): hunger = internal to the communicator the dog = external to the communicator Symbolic relationships that involve internal objects or states are in some sense simpler than relationships involving external objects: think about how shivering can signify that you are cold or afraid -- it doesn t take any complex thought to communicate this, it is simply a reflex of the body in response to an internal state. So it is an interesting question whether bees use symbolic relationships involving external objects or not... 6

7 An interesting question: external or internal reference? In the case of the bee dance, various parts of the dance stand for pieces of information necessary for finding the food: 1. The angle from vertical represents direction. 2. The length in time of the waggle run represents distance. 3. The energy expended dancing represents quality of the food source. These feel external to us, because that is how we would describe a food source (using external referents). But are they really? When investigating the cognitive systems of another species (including communication), it is crucial that you do not assume that behavior that are similar to humans involve the same cognitive systems. 7

8 An interesting question: external or internal reference? In the case of the bee dance, various parts of the dance stand for pieces of information necessary for finding the food and feel external -- Can we find a way to interpret these as internal referents? 1. The angle from vertical represents direction. Angle could represent the angle the bee turned, which is an internal state. 2. The length in time of the waggle run represents distance. Distance could represent the amount of energy the bee expended, which is an internal state Bees with weights on their legs overestimate distance in their dances, suggesting that it really is about energy not distance. 3. The energy expended dancing represents quality of the food source. The quality of the food could represent an internal state of excitement about the food source (not the food itself). 8

9 Bird Calls Bird calls are a basic example of symbolic representations of internal states. Birds use calls to signify lots of different internal states: 1. I am taking off/landing 2. I exist 3. I have food 5. I am dominant/submissive etc.. This is not to say that bird calls are not complex. They can be very complex. For example the Black-capped Chickadee has a set of calls for inter-bird conflict that is composed of 4 notes: A, B, C, D The actual call takes the form A* B* C* D*, which means that any number of A notes is followed by any number of B notes, which is followed by any number of C notes, which is followed by any number of D notes. What is interesting is that the number of each note conveys a message: the number of A s indicates the likelihood of attack, the number of D s indicates the likelihood of retreat. 9

10 Bird Songs Bird songs are different from calls -- they tend to be much longer, involve more notes, and exhibit more complex patterns The function of bird song is related to territory-marking and mate-attraction -- therefore males tend to be the singers and both females and males tend to be the listeners. song sparrow swamp sparrow 10

11 Bird Songs have complex representations The representation of sparrow songs has two parts: (i) the specific notes being used, and (ii) the pattern of the notes. song sparrow swamp sparrow We can see this by creating artificial songs that cross the two properties: 1. Song sparrow notes and Swamp sparrow patterns 2. Swamp sparrow notes and Song sparrow patterns Female Song and Swamp sparrows do not respond to these aberrant songs. 11

12 Variability in Bird songs Some species of birds have several songs in their repertoire: Common yellow-throat: 1 song Carolina wren: 2-10 songs The marsh wren: > 100 songs The northern mockingbird: unlimited! 12

13 Interesting question: How much of the complex representation is learned? For most birds, the songs that they sing are genetically specified. This isn t to say that they can t learn variability. In fact, many birds demonstrate regional dialects: small variations in the song that they learn from their local neighbors. However, in 3 (out of 27) orders of birds, the songs must be learned from other birds, or they won t be able to sing them properly! (songbirds, parrots, and hummingbirds) For example, white crowned sparrows go through the following learning stages: 0-35 days: no singing (but probably lots of learning) days: subsong (like babies babbling) days: plastic singing -- closer and closer approximations of the full song > 90 days: crystallization of the song 13

14 Alex the Parrot Though parrots can be taught to mimic strings of human speech sounds, they don t really use those sounds as complex communication. However, there is one example of a parrot being taught to use human-sounds in a relatively complex way: Alex was an African Grey Parrot that was taught an extensive vocabulary of color terms, number terms, shape terms, etc. He demonstrated the ability to use those terms to answer complex questions about the world. 14

15 Vervet Monkeys 3 types of calls: eagles, leopards, snakes http-// http-// Are they three distinct calls, or just three versions of danger? Record a specific monkey s leopard call, and play it back to a group of other monkeys over and over again, even when no leopard is present. Over time, the group will ignore that monkey s leopard call, but will still respond to the eagle and snake calls. This suggests that they are 3 distinct calls. Is the reference external or internal? -- Probably external! Vervets don t make alarm calls when they are alone. Submissive vervets make fewer alarm calls than dominant vervets. 15

16 Lying Monkeys? Here is a video of a capuchin monkey making a false snake call in order to eat an egg in peace. feature=player_embedded&v=3agj-y0shis The question is what is driving this call. Is it really lying, which would mean that the monkey has a theory of mind (i.e., knows that other monkeys have different beliefs than him)? Or is it just a second association between the call and behavior? Something like snake call = everyone in the trees. 16

17 Nim Chimpsky the Chimpanzee Born in 1973 and raised by a family in NYC as part of a research project to teach chimpanzees sign language. Learned about 125 signs over three years! Major conclusions: 1. All (or nearly all) signs were performed when the referenced object was visually or auditorily present in the environment. No discussion of non-present objects except for requests for rewards (food, tickling, etc). 2. Though Nim could create several signs in a row, they tended to be repetitive and without ordering constraints (no syntax): GIVE ORANGE ME GIVE EAT ORANGE ME EAT ORANGE GIVE ME ORANGE 17

18 Chantek and Koko Chantek the orangutan was taught signs just like Nim, though actually in a more relaxed environment. It has been claimed that she knows about 150 signs, and will spontaneously start signing without any prompting from humans. But like Nim, she does not have any syntax associated with strings of signs. Penny Patterson has claimed that Koko the gorilla knows over 250 signs. She also claims that Koko uses language just like humans: swearing, making jokes, etc. The problem is that the researchers have never allowed anyone to see the data. Similarly, they have tried to use Koko to inspire donations to build a research facility in Maui... 18

19 (Matata and) Kanzi the bonobo Matata was a bonobo (related to chimpanzees) that Sue Savage-Rumbaugh tried to teach to use a special keyboard. This keyboard used colored keys with shapes to symbolize words (instead of signs). The idea was to teach them both the spoken English words AND the keys for the words. That way they could both hear and speak. Matata was really bad at this. But she had a son named Kanzi who was too young to be left alone. So Kanzi was present during Matata s training. Though Kanzi was never explicitly trained, when he became an adult (~2.5 years old), he demonstrated impressive abilities to use the special keyboard in response to spoken English. Kanzi can now use a keyboard with 256 words on it, and he can recognize many more than 256 spoken English words! 19

20 There is even some evidence that Kanzi knows some word-order constraints. Kanzi and syntax For example, the order of actors in an English sentence matters for the interpretation of who is doing what to whom : Make the doggie bite the snake. Make the snake bite the doggie. Kanzi can distinguish these two sentences of spoken English. However, his syntax abilities seems to be restricted to these types of ordering relationships. For example, he has never learned that words like and mean that both actors worked together: The doggie and the snake bit the cat 20

21 Do animals have Language? What we ve learned is that the answer depends on the definition of language No animals have the system of representations and processes that humans have. And so far, we haven t been able to teach that system to any other animals. But many species do have relatively complex communication systems that involve complex representations: Bees represent direction, distance/energy, and quality of food sources Birds and monkeys have various types of calls that represent danger or other maintenance functions, though they may all be internal states Bird songs have complex representations and may require complex learning, though songs don t have complex meanings Primates can be taught large inventories of signs ( ), and can combine them in meaningful ways, though not as complex as language 21

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