Atoms, Elements and the Periodic Table 28 September 2006

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1 Atoms, Elements and the Periodic Table 28 September 2006 Physics Chemistry Astronomy Geology Biology

2 Topics Discovery of atomic structure and function Models of atoms Bohr atom (1913) Quantum mechanics (1930 s) Elements and atoms Electrons and orbits/shells Valence electrons

3 Scientific Method Observations Reject/Accept Hypothesis Test of Hypothesis

4 Models in the Sciences Example: Dynamics of family interactions Example for atoms: 1. Atom as a marble 2. Atom as the solar system 3. Atom with protons, neutrons and electrons Models: abstraction and meant to be challenged Protons and Neutron Electrons in orbits

5 Crystal Morphology and Color: Atomic Structure

6 Leaf Color and Atomic Structure

7 Compounds to Subatomic Particles: A Hierarchy Compound Emergent Properties? Element Atom Subatomic Particles

8 Thompson s Investigation of the Electron Idea that smaller components comprise atoms Hypothesis: : Atoms consist of subcomponents, one of which is negatively charged with a very small mass Testing the hypothesis

9 Thompson s Experiment Methodology Observations: 1. Deflection of negativelycharged beam 2. Very small mass relative to charge 3. Mass same for all elements tested Hypothesis: Accept Particle name: Electron

10 Rutherford s Investigation of the Nucleus Idea that other smaller components are part of atoms, including ones that are positively charged Hypothesis: : Atoms consist of multiple subcomponents, some of which are positive Testing the hypothesis Alpha particles (+), gold foil, bullets, and tracks

11 Rutherford s Experiment: Methodology

12 Observations, Hypothesis and Observations Conclusion Almost all alpha s (+) passed through foil unaffected Very small number of alpha s (+) deflected at a small angle 1/1000 bounced back Hypothesis: : Atom consists of a positive subcomponent that is small in volume in comparison to atom itself Accept/reject? Conclusions: radius of nucleus is 10-4 x radius of atom Name of particle is the proton

13 Atomic Structure: Bohr Atom Observations (1913) Heat hydrogen gas and light emitted as a discrete wavelengths (not continuous spectrum) Other gases behave the same in producing discrete wavelength, but each gas is unique in wavelengths emitted (e.g., violet versus yellow versus red)

14 Hypothesis and Model Quantum Concepts: 1. Only allowed orbits for electrons 2. Discrete frequency of photon (emitted light)

15 Model: Quantum Mechanics

16 Theory of Quantum Mechanics Observations Behavior of electrons in heated hydrogen gas consistent with Bohr Model (orbits, etc.) Behavior of other heavier gases not explained by Bohr Model Investigators (Heisenberg, Shrodinger): wave-particle duality of light (remember Dr. Geller s lecture) Key: integrated mechanisms of waves and particles, focusing on fuzzy electron clouds /waves Hypothesis: : new model of atomic structure and function: quantum mechanics theory of the atom Incorporation of known facts (Bohr model as particles) Wave properties of electrons in orbits Prediction of new properties yet to be discovered

17 Questions Is a model in the sciences a form of an hypothesis? All of these models (when accepted or rejected) resulted in scientific revolutions in physics. Revolutions in the sciences are somewhat analogous to revolutions in society?

18 Question According to the Rutherford model of the atom, the volume of any atom is largely. A. protons and neutrons B. electrons C. empty space D. noxiously sequenced nuons surrounded by pompous protons E. none of the above

19 Question The existence of a tiny, massive, and positively charged atomic nucleus was deduced from the observation that. A. fast, massive, and positively charged alpha particles move in straight lines through gold foil B. alpha particles were deflected by a magnetic field C. some alpha particles were deflected by metal foil D. all of the above

20 Question According to the Bohr model of the atom, an electron gains or looses energy only by. A. jumping from one atom to another B. speeding up or slowing down in its orbit C. jumping from one orbit to another D. being removed from the atom

21 Topics Discovery of atom structure and function Models of atoms Bohr atom (1913) Quantum mechanics (1930 s) Elements and atoms Electrons and orbits nested within shells Valence electrons

22 Elements Patterns 92 naturally occurring elements (e.g., hydrogen, gold, helium) Total of of 92 are essential to life (e.g., what are they?) Key points any element is the same in its chemical structure and physical properties (stable over time, with one exception - radioactive elements) All elements have origin in either the big bang (hydrogen and helium) or the subsequent evolution of the universe (Dr. Geller will speak to this a bit later)

23 At No Symbol Name 1 H Hydrogen 2 He Helium 6 C Carbon 7 N Nitrogen 8 O Oxygen 17 Cl Chlorine 18 Ar Argon 26 Fe Iron 27 Co Cobalt 53 I Iodine 73 Ta Tantalum 74 W Tungsten 79 Au Gold 80 Hg Mercury 94 Pu Plutonium 104 Rf Rutherfordium

24 Compound Elements and Compounds Elements combine in very precise ways that are recurrent and predictable Sodium + Chlorine = Sodium Chloride Na + Cl = NaCl metal + gas = solid Key points Atoms of sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) remain atoms of each Product (NaCl) is recurrent and predictable Emergent property: : emergence of new properties in a compound not be explained by the summation of the two elements (hierarchy( theory) Other example: Hydrogen + oxygen =

25 Compounds to Subatomic Particles: A Hierarchy Compound Emergent Properties Element Atom Subatomic Particle

26 Subatomic Particles Atoms are composed of subatomic particles Most stable particles Neutrons Protons Electrons Other less stable particles (quarks, neutrinos, etc.) Relationship among the more stable particles Charge Mass Neutron Proton Electron neutral positive negative 2x10-24 g 2x10-24 g 5x10-28 g

27 Model of Atomic Structure: Particles Protons and Neutron Electrons in orbits

28 Atomic Structure Atoms of the same element have the same number of subatomic particles, abbreviated as follows: Helium 2 # of protons He Abbreviation of element 4 Atomic mass (g/mole) Hydrogen 1 1 H Mass = Protons + Neutrons

29 Electrons Background of quantum mechanics Energy barons barons of the atom (motion) Energy = ability to do work Potential energy = energy stored due to position or location (analogy to water in a tower) Charge is negative (-)( ) and particle is always in motion Capturing an atom and its orbiting electron may be difficult (why?)

30 Key to Electron Structure Count the number of protons as the number of electrons = number of protons Electrons are negative in charge and in constant motion (as a wave) Electrons are in orbits around the nucleus and orbits are nested within shells

31 Electrons Example of Sulfur ( 16 32S) (16 electrons in 3 shells) What are shells and what are orbits?

32 Quantum Mechanics and Orbits

33 Example of Electrons in Shells As electrons move among shells, they change potential energy Hot summer day, bright sun and car top Light absorption by pigments and electrons jump to higher shell (potential energy); give off energy when they drop back (kinetic energy) Banana, orange juice or bagel this AM? Excited electron captured by chlorophyll in leaf and shuttled to a sugar molecule in its excited state (potential energy) until you release the energy via digestion, allowing the electron to drop back to a lower orbit (kinetic energy)

34 Some Keys to Electron Structure Electrons reside in shells as a function of quantum mechanics (1-4 4 orbits per shell) Never more than two electrons per orbit (Pauli s Exclusion Principle) Distribution of electrons is key to understanding why elements and atoms behave the way they do Outermost electrons are called valence electrons; they have special significance in chemistry

35 Periodic Table of Elements Concept: most stable state for an atom is one in which the outermost shell is filled with the maximum number of electrons 1 st Shell (1 orbit; 2 electrons) Hydrogen ( 1 1H; 1 electron; stable?) Helium ( 2 4He; 2 electrons; stable?) Periodic Table s 1 st Row Hydrogen and Helium

36

37 Periodic Table of Elements 2 nd shell has 4 orbits with 2 electrons (maximum) per orbit (total of 8 electrons/shell) Most stable configuration is: 2 nd 1 st shell filled with 2 electrons 2 nd shell filled with 8 electrons Total of 10 electrons ( 10 20Ne) nd row of Periodic Table 8 elements

38 Periodic Table of Elements 3 nd shell has 4 orbits with 2 electrons maximum per orbit (total of 8 electrons/shell) Most stable configuration is the following: 3 nd 1 st shell filled with 2 electrons 2 nd shell filled with 8 electrons 3 rd shell filled with 8 electrons Total of electrons ( 18 40Ar) nd row of Periodic Table 8 elements (list and relate to the above)

39

40 Periodic Table of Elements Number of elements in a row is not chance but reflects the maximum number of electrons in the outermost shell Row 1 = 2 Row 2 = 8 Row 3 = 8 Row 4 = 18 etc

41 Predictive Value of Periodic Table

42 Discussion Question As you scan the night sky, you see multiple objects and question whether these objects are similar to or different from the Earth in chemical composition (i.e., elements). Suppose the person next to you says that she has an instrument that can identify the occurrence of specific atoms (e.g., sodium, hydrogen, sulfur) based on the energy patterns/signatures of electrons in atoms on that planet. Could she be right?

43 Question In the list below, an atom of has the greatest ability to attract electrons. A. silicon B. sulfur C. krypton D. chlorine E. sodium

44

45 Question In the list below, an atom of has the least ability to attract electrons. A. silicon B. sulfur C. krypton D. chlorine E. sodium

46 Discussion Question Models are one of the key investigative tools in the scientific arsenal. Models of our understanding of the atom are a classic example of the role that models play in the sciences. List four features of models not the specifics of any given model, but rather how models are constructed, how they promote our understanding of natural systems, and how their fallibility is an asset.

47 Discussion Question In many ways, the Periodic Table is a model to help scientists understand patterns in the natural world. List ways in which this model helps scientists to understand the natural world? How does this model compare with that of Rutherford s model or the quantum mechanics model of the atom?

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