Foundations of Comparative Politics

Transcription

1 ---.".. 1, ,111 mum A Foundations of Comparative Politics Democracies of the Modern World KEN NEWTON and JAN W. VAN DETH CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

2 Acknowledgements List of briefings List of fact files List of controversies List of tables List of figures List of abbreviations and acronyms Key terms and concepts page xix XX xxii xxiii xxiv XXV xxvi xxviii PART I The state: origins and development 1 The development of the modern state What is a state? Territory, people and sovereignty The rise of the modern state Historical origins and development State formation and nation building State formation: penetration Nation building: standardisation Mass democracies: equalisation Welfare states: redistribution Catalysts: warfare and capitalism Growth after 1945 State theories Constitutional approaches Ethical and moral approaches Conflict approaches Pluralist approaches 2 The democratic state The modern state and democracy IX

3 PART II Citizens' rights Elections and parliamentary accountability Democracy and the rise of democratic states Redistribution and the welfare state Why study states? Theories of state and society State supremacy State dependency Interdependency Separation and autonomy The polity: structures and institutions Constitutions What a constitution is, and why we have them The division of powers Executives Legislatures Strong and weak bicameralism Membership of the second house Tenure and size Judiciaries Judicial activism Unitary and federal states The limits of constitutionalism Constitutional and institutional theories The 'old constitutionalism' The 'new constitutionalism' The 'new institutionalism' The mobilisation of bias Institutional influence, rules and inertia Marxist structural theory Governance Presidential and parliamentary government Presidential systems Parliamentary systems Semi-presidential systems Presidential, parliamentary and semi-presidential systems compared

4 Theories of parliamentary, presidential and semi-presidential government Multi-level government: international, national and sub-national Supra-national and international government Confederations The European Union: federation or confederation? The national level: federal and unitary states Geographically large states States with markedly different geographical regions Unitary and federal systems in practice Quasi-federal features Unitary, federal and confederal government compared Local government Fused systems Dual systems Local self-government Central-local political conflict Democracy, size and efficiency General-purpose authorities Joint bodies Special-purpose authorities Changing local government The interplay of multi-level government: the case of the European Union The arguments for and against centralisation and decentralisation Theories of multi-level government Philosophical and political theories: Mill and Tocqueville Pluralist theory Economic theories Rational choice Rational<hoice theory of local government Centre-periphery relations

5 6 Policy making and legislating: executives and legislatures 100 Making laws: executives and legislatures 101 The rise of executives 103 Government complexity 103 Delegated legislation 103 The organisational advantages of executives 103 The mass media 104 Party organisation 104 Increasing power of executives? 105 The functions of legislatures 106 Representation of public opinion 107 Legitimation 107 Law making 108 Scrutiny of the executive and the administration 108 Legislative committees 110 Theories of democratic institutions: consensus and majoritarian systems 111 Majoritarian democracy, or the 'Westminster model' 112 Consensus democracy Implementation: the public bureaucracy 117 The organisation of the state bureaucracy 118 Policy making and administration 122 The dictatorship of the official? 123 The power of the official 123 Mechanisms of control 124 The New Public Management: reinventing government 125 Privatisation and market efficiency 125 Empowerment 125 Theories of public bureaucracy 126 The rational-legal ideal-type 126 Clientelism 127 The new right, rational choice and the New Public Management 128 Rational choice and bureaucracy 128 The New Public Management Xll

6 PART III Citizens, elites and interest mediation Political attitudes and behaviour 135 Political attitudes 136 Political interests and identity 136 Political culture 137 Pattern 138 Persistence 139 The civic culture 139 Cognitive 139 Affective 139 Evaluative 139 Materialism and post-materialism 141 Sub-cultures and elite cultures 143 Political cleavages 144 Political behaviour 146 Modes of political behaviour 147 Conventional and unconventional political behaviour 149 Patterns of political behaviour 149 Most people are not political 149 Sporadic political involvement 150 Participation rates are rising 151 Substantial variations in participation 151 Voters are not fools 151 The 'standard model' of political participation 152 Gender, age and length of residence 153 Political elites 153 Theories of political attitudes and behaviour 154 Marxist and class theory 154 Elite theory 154 Rational-choice theory 155 Social capital theory and civic participation Pressure groups and social movements 159 Political connections 160 Voluntary organisations and pressure groups 160 Pressure groups and political parties 162 Social movements 162 Pressure groups and social movements in action 164 Groups and issues 165 The nature of government 166 xiu

7 Direct routes 166 Indirect routes 168 Determinants of power 169 Group features 170 The political environment 171 Corporatism, para-government and tri-partism/pluralism 172 Corporatism 172 Para-government 173 Tri-partism/pluralism 173 International NGOs 173 Groups, pressure groups and democracy 174 Theories of voluntary organisations 176 Pluralism 176 Marxist/elitist theory 176 Social capital and civil society theory The mass media 181 The mass media and democracy 182 Regulating the media 184 The public service model 184 The market model 186 Ownership and control 189 The impact of the new media technology: globalisation and E-politics 192 Theories of the mass media Voters and elections 200 Elections 202 Democratic elections 202 Voting systems 205 Voting turnout 206 Declining turnout? 206 Determinants of election turnout 207 System variables 207 Individual characteristics 209 Party voting 209 Stratification and class voting 209 Religious voting 211 xiv

8 Other voting patterns 212 New party voting patterns 213 Tradition and change in Mexico 214 Theories of voting 215 Sociological approaches: the Columbia school 215 Psychological approaches: the Michigan school 217 Rational choice Party government 221 Party organisation 222 New parties and movements 223 Party systems and party families 224 Party families 224 Party systems 225 One-party and coalition government 227 Coalition government 229 Coalitions and government effectiveness 231 Theories of parties 232 The 'iron law of oligarchy' 232 Duverger's law 233 Coalition theory 234 Majoritarian and consensus government revisited PART IV Policies and performance Political ideologies: conservatism, liberalism, Christian democracy and socialism 241 The nature of ideology 242 Six democratic ideologies 244 Conservatism 244 Social and political affairs 244 Economics 245 Liberalism 245 Limited state power 247 Parliamentary government and the division of powers 247 Optimistic view of human nature 248 Slow reform by individual action 248 Free trade 248 Christian democracy 249 Natural law 249 xv

9 Family, church, community 249 Subsidiarity 249 Protection of the weak and poor 251 Harmony, integration, consultation 251 Socialism and social democracy 251 Optimistic view of human nature 251 Equality of opportunity 251 Participatory democracy 253 Mixed economy 253 Peaceful reform 253 Nationalism 253 Ethno-nationalism and territory 254 National independence 254 Green political thought 255 Sustainable development 255 Decentralisation 255 Direct participation and democracy 256 Theories of ideology 256 Marxist and neo-marxist theories 256 Marxist theory 256 Neo-Marxist theory 257 Material and non-material interests 258 The end of ideology and the end of history Decision making 263 Public policies: their nature and importance 264 Goals and results 264 The nature of policy making processes 265 Constraints 265 Policy processes 265 Unending policy cycles 266 The public policy cycle 266 Agenda setting 267 Decision making 270 Choice of means 271 Implementation 271 Outputs and outcomes 272 Evaluation and feedback 272 Public policy structures 273 Corporatism 274 Pluralism 277 Tri-partite arrangements 278 xvi

10 Policy communities 278 Policy networks 279 Theories of decision making 279 The rational-comprehensive model 279 The incremental model 281 'Muddling through' 281 Bounded rationality and advocacy coalitions Defence and security 284 The state and security 285 Defence and national security 286 Conflict resolution 286 Just wars 288 Military expenditure 289 Internal law and order 291 Law enforcement 292 Crime, punishment and prevention 293 Other forms of protection 295 Information 296 Certification 296 Permission 296 Product safety 296 The limitations of state security 297 Terrorism 297 International crime 298 Corruption 298 The limits of state power 299 Theories of security and conflict 299 The origins of conflict 300 Realism and idealism 301 Policy communities 301 The military-industrial complex Welfare 306 Welfare states and redistribution 307 Social security 309 Social security and social expenditure 309 Comparing social security systems 311 The level of social expenditure 312 xvu

11 The composition of social expenditure Trends in social expenditure Pensions and health programmes Pensions Health Social security and taxation Theories of the welfare state Conflict-oriented approaches Functionalist explanations Institutional approaches International and transnational dependencies The future of the democratic state States and sovereignty Conventional states, proto-states and supra-national states Conventional states Proto-states Supra-national states Challenges to the state Concentration of commercial power Rise of international NGOs Globalisation Changing nature of conflicts Importance of international organisations The retreat of the state? Democracy without borders The quality of democracy Reform of state and government The future Glossary of key terms Index of names Index of subiects xviii